2014 5th International Renewable Energy Congress (IREC), 2014
The Photovoltaic (PV) industry is seeking to increase efficiency and functional lifetime of PV mo... more The Photovoltaic (PV) industry is seeking to increase efficiency and functional lifetime of PV modules manufactured on polymer substrates. High resolution and high speed surface inspection for the quality control of the manufacture of large area flexible PV modules are necessary to guarantee maximum quality, longer lifetime and enhanced product yield. Flexible PV films are the newest development in the renewable energy field and the latest films have efficiencies at or beyond the level of Si-based rigid PV modules. These modules are fabricated on polymer film by the repeated deposition, and patterning, of thin layer materials using roll-to-roll technology. However, they are at present highly susceptible to long term environmental degradation as a result of water vapor transmission through the protective encapsulation to the active layer. To reduce the WVTR the PV encapsulation includes a barrier layer of amorphous Al 2 O 3 on a planarised polymer substrate. This highly conformal barrier layer is produced by atomic layer deposition (ALD). Nevertheless water vapour transmission is still facilitated by the presence of micro and nanoscale defects in these barriers which results in decreased cell efficiency and reduced longevity. Analytical techniques including: White Light Scanning Interferometry (WLSI), Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) were used to characterise the water vapor barrier defects. Areal surface texture parameter analysis allows the efficient separation of small insignificant features from significant defects. This parametric analysis is then correlated with the water vapour transmission rate as measured on typical sets of films using standard MOCON test. The paper finishes by drawing conclusions based on analysis of WVTR and defect size, density and distribution, where it is postulated that small numbers of large features have more influence on the deterioration of water vapor transmission rates than large numbers of small features. This result provides the basis for developing roll-to-roll in process metrology devices for quality control.
Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part B: Journal of Engineering Manufacture, 2012
A novel approach is proposed for the characterization of critical dimensions and geometric errors... more A novel approach is proposed for the characterization of critical dimensions and geometric errors, suitable for application to micro-fabricated parts and devices characterized as step-like structured surfaces. The approach is based on acquiring areal maps with a high-precision optical three-dimensional profilometer and on processing topography data with novel techniques obtained by merging knowledge and algorithms from surface metrology, dimensional metrology and computer vision/image processing. Thin-foil laser targets for ion acceleration experiments are selected as the test subject. The main issues related to general applicability and metrological performance of the methodology are identified and discussed.
International Journal of Automation Technology, 2015
Thin functional barrier layers of aluminum oxide (Al2O3) that are used particularly in photovolta... more Thin functional barrier layers of aluminum oxide (Al2O3) that are used particularly in photovoltaic (PV) modules to prevent the possibility of water vapor ingress should be applied over the entire PV surface without any defects. However, for barrier layer thicknesses within the sub-micrometer range (up to 50 nm) produced through the atomic layer deposition (ALD) method, it is common for defects to occur during the production process. To avoid defective barriers from being incorporated in the final PV unit, defects need to be detected during the barrier production process.In this paper, the implementation of in process inspection system capable of detecting surface defects such as pinholes, scratches, or particles down to a lateral size of 3 µm and a vertical resolution of 10 nm over a 500 mm barrier width is presented. The system has a built-in environmental vibration compensation capability, and can monitor ALD-coated films manufactured using roll-to-roll (R2R) techniques. Ultimate...
This paper applied the Taguchi approach to investigate the effects of polishing parameters to obt... more This paper applied the Taguchi approach to investigate the effects of polishing parameters to obtain the optimal processing conditions for CoCr alloy polishing using a multiaxis CNC controlled corrective polishing machine. The polishing medium used was 1m diamond paste with a Microcloth(polishing cloth). Surface finish parameter Sa was chosen as the criterion for process optimization. The experimental results indicate that the optimal polishing conditions for CoCr alloy polishing is 50 precess angle, 800 rpm head speed, 0.2mm tool offset and 1.5 bar tool pressure. With this optimal condition, a confirmatory experiment was conducted. The surface roughness Sa reduced from an initial 24nm to 7nm and reduction ratio was 70.8% which was very close to the estimated ratio of 64%.
The investigation of material removal in bonnet polishing of CoCr alloy artificial joints Origina... more The investigation of material removal in bonnet polishing of CoCr alloy artificial joints Original Citation Zeng, Shengye, Blunt, Liam and Jiang, Xiang (2012) The investigation of material removal in bonnet polishing of CoCr alloy artificial joints. In: Proceedings of the 12th international conference of the european society for precision engineering and nanotechnology EUSPEN 2012. EUSPEN,
The manufacture of orthopaedic joint bearings surfaces requires exceptionally high levels of cont... more The manufacture of orthopaedic joint bearings surfaces requires exceptionally high levels of control of not only the surface finish but also the surface form. In the case of hip joints, the form of femoral head should be controlled to within ± 50μm from a given diameter. It has been shown that a better form control of bearing component could enhance clearances creating the correct volume of lubrication to fill the bearing surface gap and reduce wear particle generation. This element is especially critical for the new generation non-spherical head designs. Bonnet polishing which is used successfully in the area of optics is potentially an excellent finishing process to control the form and finish of artificial joints. In the process of form control polishing an "influence function" which defines the material removal rate is of vital importance in developing a corrective polishing procedure. However, the effects of polishing parameters (such as precess angle, head speed, tool pressure and tool offset) on influence function are not very clear for CoCr alloys. These elements must be assessed if a deterministic polishing process is to be developed. Therefore, it is of paramount importance to understand the contribution of each polishing factors to influence function and consequent part polishing. This study has investigated the effects of polishing parameters on influence function, including geometric size and volumetric material removal rate (MRR). The experimental results indicate that the polishing parameter of precess angle and tool offset affect the geometric size of influence function significantly; the polishing parameter of head speed and tool pressure affect the geometric size of influence function to a lesser degree; the polishing parameter of precess angle, head speed and tool offset affect MRR greatly.
Oesteo-arthritis is the progressive degeneration of the natural cartilage tissue which plays a cr... more Oesteo-arthritis is the progressive degeneration of the natural cartilage tissue which plays a critical part in the load bearing function of hip and knee joints. Solutions to the problems caused by this tissue breakdown are administration of anti-inflammatory drugs or more normally and especially in advanced cases is the replacement of all or part of the joint with artificial joints. Worldwide, the total number of implant procedures is around 800,000. Today the life expectancy of such systems is 5-15 years. The manufacturing route utilises a 7 axis CNC Zeeko polishing machine to polish freeform knee joint surfaces to the required form and finish. The paper discusses the process constraints and optimal settings and the surface generation process.
The rationale behind failure of cemented total hip replacement is still far from being well under... more The rationale behind failure of cemented total hip replacement is still far from being well understood in a mechanical and molecular perspective. In the present study, the integrity of the stem–cement interface was investigated through an in vitro experiment monitoring fluid flow along this interface. The results indicated that a good mechanical bonding formed at the stem–cement interface before debonding of this interface was induced by physiological loadings during the in vivo service of the hip prosthesis.
This paper reports on the recent work carried out to develop and implement a high precision on-li... more This paper reports on the recent work carried out to develop and implement a high precision on-line optical measurement system with the aim of providing defect detection and characterisation for ALD coated vapour barrier films produced by a roll-to-roll process. This proof-of-concept system is designed to detect and measure pre-existing defects on the film and define their size, location, form and density. The aim is to be able to detect defects in a thin film Al2O3 layer that are critical to vapour barrier performance, and eventually provide valuable process control information. Such an inspection system must be fast in order to evaluate large areas involved (500 mm width foil) at high magnifications. In addition the flexibility of the foil introduces challenges in terms of dealing with surface deviation away from an ideal plane and vibrations. Our solution is a wavelength scanning interferometer (WSI) combined with two kinematic stages, vertical (for auto-focus) and a traverse sta...
Surface Topography: Metrology and Properties, 2015
Measuring the amount of material loss in the case of revised hip replacements is considered to be... more Measuring the amount of material loss in the case of revised hip replacements is considered to be a prerequisite of understanding and assessing the true in vivo performance of the implant. This paper outlines a method developed by the authors for quantifying taper material loss as well as more general taper interface parameters. Previous studies have mostly relied on visual inspection to assess the material loss at the taper interface, whereas this method aims to characterize any surface and form changes through the use of an out-of-roundness measurement machine. Along with assessing the volumetric wear, maximum linear penetration and taper contact length can also be determined. The method was applied to retrieved large head metal-on-metal femoral heads in order to quantify the material loss at this junction. Material loss from the female femoral head taper can be characterized as a localized area that is in contact with the stem taper surface. The study showed that this method has good repeatability and a low level of interoperability variation between operators.
According to ISO standards, the specification and verification of surface texture includes an ord... more According to ISO standards, the specification and verification of surface texture includes an ordered set of operations. In order to reduce the specification uncertainty, it is of importance to model the significant information related to surface measurement. This paper documents the development of a XML-based information model for surface metrology. Traditional paper-based documents with unstructured data are intergraded into one structured data for surface metrology. Therefore, it limits the specification uncertainty and enhances the reproducibility of surface measurement.
Every firearm has individual characteristics that are as unique to it as fingerprints are to huma... more Every firearm has individual characteristics that are as unique to it as fingerprints are to human beings. When a firearm is fired, it transfers these characteristicsin the form of microscopic scratches and dentsto the fired bullets and cartridge casings. The rifling of the barrel of the firearm marks the bullets travelling through it, and the firearm's breech mechanism marks the ammunition's cartridge casing. Characterising these marks is the critical element in identifying firearms. Traditionally the comparison of ballistic evidence has been a tedious and timeconsuming process requiring highly skilled examiners. In the past decade, engineers have created automated ballistics identification systems that meld traditional comparison microscopes with digital cameras, computers, huge databases, and image analysis techniques. This kind of system can help investigators to link crimes by automatically finding similarities among images of bullet but suffering significant drawbacks and minimal matching. More recently, approaches based on 3D digital representations of evidence surface topography have started to appear, both in research and industrial products. Potentially the introduction of 3D surface topography measurement can overcome the limitations of digital imaging systems by making the bullet surface measurement reproducible and reliable. A 3D quantitative approach for bullet identification is proposed in this paper. In this system the surface topography of the whole bullet can be acquired for analysis and identification. Primary researches have been done by applying advanced surface topography techniques for bullet marks' characteristics extraction. A variety of 2D and 3D visualization graphics have also been provided to help firearm examiners to make final decisions.
The development of user-friendly reference data sets (softgauges) and reference software algorith... more The development of user-friendly reference data sets (softgauges) and reference software algorithms for validating the software aspects of surface profile measuring instruments is described. A framework for the software measurement standards, and the form of the reference data (Type F1 softgauges) and reference software (Type F2) that were developed is discussed.
Advanced Techniques for Assessment Surface Topography, 2003
This chapter deals with the next generation GPS system. The current GPS system is developed from ... more This chapter deals with the next generation GPS system. The current GPS system is developed from three distinct sources: (1) geometrical tolerancing, (2) co-ordinate metrology, and (3) surface texture and form measurement. One particular challenge with the current GPS system that affects surface texture is the fact that there are two workpiece co-ordinate systems. The workpiece co-ordinate system for surface texture is based on the direction of the surface lay. A surface texture profile is measured perpendicular to the surface lay. The rest of the current GPS system uses a workpiece co-ordinate system that is based on the geometry of the workpiece. The fundamental GPS principle, which can address this particular challenge, is the recognition that it is surfaces that interact with each other functionally, not profiles. Hence, the principal GPS definitions should be based on surfaces, with profile definitions as secondary simplified operators. Thus, the next generation GPS will be one system based on surfaces. The full specification of surface texture has many stages: from the size, shape and location of the measuring window (partition), the sampling procedure (extraction), the scale of the features of interest (filtration) to the definition of the surface texture characteristic (measurand). At each stage there are many choices to be made, depending on the design requirements of the surface to be specified. The challenge for the future is to standardize a set of tools for each stage that will enable optimization of the design requirements and especially the functional requirements of a surface.
The manufacture of products and components possessing functional nano scale geometries has provid... more The manufacture of products and components possessing functional nano scale geometries has provided a great hurdle for scientists and engineers to overcome. At the micro nano scale the classical balance between bulk and surface properties breaks down and it is the surface properties which have the dominant effect on the function of the component/system. With the deepening understanding of the importance of the surface on the function of engineering components there has been a focus on 'designing' the surface topography to optimise functionality, this has taken the form of producing surfaces with controlled surface geometry consisting of patterned geometrical features at the micro/nano scale. The optimised functions are diverse and cover properties optical, tribological and biological function. Wide scale manufacture of these surfaces is limited by the lack of metrological quantification of the structures. The concepts behind the latest metrology techniques for quantifying nano micro scale surfaces are reviewed in this review paper along with examples of their application.
2014 5th International Renewable Energy Congress (IREC), 2014
The Photovoltaic (PV) industry is seeking to increase efficiency and functional lifetime of PV mo... more The Photovoltaic (PV) industry is seeking to increase efficiency and functional lifetime of PV modules manufactured on polymer substrates. High resolution and high speed surface inspection for the quality control of the manufacture of large area flexible PV modules are necessary to guarantee maximum quality, longer lifetime and enhanced product yield. Flexible PV films are the newest development in the renewable energy field and the latest films have efficiencies at or beyond the level of Si-based rigid PV modules. These modules are fabricated on polymer film by the repeated deposition, and patterning, of thin layer materials using roll-to-roll technology. However, they are at present highly susceptible to long term environmental degradation as a result of water vapor transmission through the protective encapsulation to the active layer. To reduce the WVTR the PV encapsulation includes a barrier layer of amorphous Al 2 O 3 on a planarised polymer substrate. This highly conformal barrier layer is produced by atomic layer deposition (ALD). Nevertheless water vapour transmission is still facilitated by the presence of micro and nanoscale defects in these barriers which results in decreased cell efficiency and reduced longevity. Analytical techniques including: White Light Scanning Interferometry (WLSI), Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) were used to characterise the water vapor barrier defects. Areal surface texture parameter analysis allows the efficient separation of small insignificant features from significant defects. This parametric analysis is then correlated with the water vapour transmission rate as measured on typical sets of films using standard MOCON test. The paper finishes by drawing conclusions based on analysis of WVTR and defect size, density and distribution, where it is postulated that small numbers of large features have more influence on the deterioration of water vapor transmission rates than large numbers of small features. This result provides the basis for developing roll-to-roll in process metrology devices for quality control.
Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part B: Journal of Engineering Manufacture, 2012
A novel approach is proposed for the characterization of critical dimensions and geometric errors... more A novel approach is proposed for the characterization of critical dimensions and geometric errors, suitable for application to micro-fabricated parts and devices characterized as step-like structured surfaces. The approach is based on acquiring areal maps with a high-precision optical three-dimensional profilometer and on processing topography data with novel techniques obtained by merging knowledge and algorithms from surface metrology, dimensional metrology and computer vision/image processing. Thin-foil laser targets for ion acceleration experiments are selected as the test subject. The main issues related to general applicability and metrological performance of the methodology are identified and discussed.
International Journal of Automation Technology, 2015
Thin functional barrier layers of aluminum oxide (Al2O3) that are used particularly in photovolta... more Thin functional barrier layers of aluminum oxide (Al2O3) that are used particularly in photovoltaic (PV) modules to prevent the possibility of water vapor ingress should be applied over the entire PV surface without any defects. However, for barrier layer thicknesses within the sub-micrometer range (up to 50 nm) produced through the atomic layer deposition (ALD) method, it is common for defects to occur during the production process. To avoid defective barriers from being incorporated in the final PV unit, defects need to be detected during the barrier production process.In this paper, the implementation of in process inspection system capable of detecting surface defects such as pinholes, scratches, or particles down to a lateral size of 3 µm and a vertical resolution of 10 nm over a 500 mm barrier width is presented. The system has a built-in environmental vibration compensation capability, and can monitor ALD-coated films manufactured using roll-to-roll (R2R) techniques. Ultimate...
This paper applied the Taguchi approach to investigate the effects of polishing parameters to obt... more This paper applied the Taguchi approach to investigate the effects of polishing parameters to obtain the optimal processing conditions for CoCr alloy polishing using a multiaxis CNC controlled corrective polishing machine. The polishing medium used was 1m diamond paste with a Microcloth(polishing cloth). Surface finish parameter Sa was chosen as the criterion for process optimization. The experimental results indicate that the optimal polishing conditions for CoCr alloy polishing is 50 precess angle, 800 rpm head speed, 0.2mm tool offset and 1.5 bar tool pressure. With this optimal condition, a confirmatory experiment was conducted. The surface roughness Sa reduced from an initial 24nm to 7nm and reduction ratio was 70.8% which was very close to the estimated ratio of 64%.
The investigation of material removal in bonnet polishing of CoCr alloy artificial joints Origina... more The investigation of material removal in bonnet polishing of CoCr alloy artificial joints Original Citation Zeng, Shengye, Blunt, Liam and Jiang, Xiang (2012) The investigation of material removal in bonnet polishing of CoCr alloy artificial joints. In: Proceedings of the 12th international conference of the european society for precision engineering and nanotechnology EUSPEN 2012. EUSPEN,
The manufacture of orthopaedic joint bearings surfaces requires exceptionally high levels of cont... more The manufacture of orthopaedic joint bearings surfaces requires exceptionally high levels of control of not only the surface finish but also the surface form. In the case of hip joints, the form of femoral head should be controlled to within ± 50μm from a given diameter. It has been shown that a better form control of bearing component could enhance clearances creating the correct volume of lubrication to fill the bearing surface gap and reduce wear particle generation. This element is especially critical for the new generation non-spherical head designs. Bonnet polishing which is used successfully in the area of optics is potentially an excellent finishing process to control the form and finish of artificial joints. In the process of form control polishing an "influence function" which defines the material removal rate is of vital importance in developing a corrective polishing procedure. However, the effects of polishing parameters (such as precess angle, head speed, tool pressure and tool offset) on influence function are not very clear for CoCr alloys. These elements must be assessed if a deterministic polishing process is to be developed. Therefore, it is of paramount importance to understand the contribution of each polishing factors to influence function and consequent part polishing. This study has investigated the effects of polishing parameters on influence function, including geometric size and volumetric material removal rate (MRR). The experimental results indicate that the polishing parameter of precess angle and tool offset affect the geometric size of influence function significantly; the polishing parameter of head speed and tool pressure affect the geometric size of influence function to a lesser degree; the polishing parameter of precess angle, head speed and tool offset affect MRR greatly.
Oesteo-arthritis is the progressive degeneration of the natural cartilage tissue which plays a cr... more Oesteo-arthritis is the progressive degeneration of the natural cartilage tissue which plays a critical part in the load bearing function of hip and knee joints. Solutions to the problems caused by this tissue breakdown are administration of anti-inflammatory drugs or more normally and especially in advanced cases is the replacement of all or part of the joint with artificial joints. Worldwide, the total number of implant procedures is around 800,000. Today the life expectancy of such systems is 5-15 years. The manufacturing route utilises a 7 axis CNC Zeeko polishing machine to polish freeform knee joint surfaces to the required form and finish. The paper discusses the process constraints and optimal settings and the surface generation process.
The rationale behind failure of cemented total hip replacement is still far from being well under... more The rationale behind failure of cemented total hip replacement is still far from being well understood in a mechanical and molecular perspective. In the present study, the integrity of the stem–cement interface was investigated through an in vitro experiment monitoring fluid flow along this interface. The results indicated that a good mechanical bonding formed at the stem–cement interface before debonding of this interface was induced by physiological loadings during the in vivo service of the hip prosthesis.
This paper reports on the recent work carried out to develop and implement a high precision on-li... more This paper reports on the recent work carried out to develop and implement a high precision on-line optical measurement system with the aim of providing defect detection and characterisation for ALD coated vapour barrier films produced by a roll-to-roll process. This proof-of-concept system is designed to detect and measure pre-existing defects on the film and define their size, location, form and density. The aim is to be able to detect defects in a thin film Al2O3 layer that are critical to vapour barrier performance, and eventually provide valuable process control information. Such an inspection system must be fast in order to evaluate large areas involved (500 mm width foil) at high magnifications. In addition the flexibility of the foil introduces challenges in terms of dealing with surface deviation away from an ideal plane and vibrations. Our solution is a wavelength scanning interferometer (WSI) combined with two kinematic stages, vertical (for auto-focus) and a traverse sta...
Surface Topography: Metrology and Properties, 2015
Measuring the amount of material loss in the case of revised hip replacements is considered to be... more Measuring the amount of material loss in the case of revised hip replacements is considered to be a prerequisite of understanding and assessing the true in vivo performance of the implant. This paper outlines a method developed by the authors for quantifying taper material loss as well as more general taper interface parameters. Previous studies have mostly relied on visual inspection to assess the material loss at the taper interface, whereas this method aims to characterize any surface and form changes through the use of an out-of-roundness measurement machine. Along with assessing the volumetric wear, maximum linear penetration and taper contact length can also be determined. The method was applied to retrieved large head metal-on-metal femoral heads in order to quantify the material loss at this junction. Material loss from the female femoral head taper can be characterized as a localized area that is in contact with the stem taper surface. The study showed that this method has good repeatability and a low level of interoperability variation between operators.
According to ISO standards, the specification and verification of surface texture includes an ord... more According to ISO standards, the specification and verification of surface texture includes an ordered set of operations. In order to reduce the specification uncertainty, it is of importance to model the significant information related to surface measurement. This paper documents the development of a XML-based information model for surface metrology. Traditional paper-based documents with unstructured data are intergraded into one structured data for surface metrology. Therefore, it limits the specification uncertainty and enhances the reproducibility of surface measurement.
Every firearm has individual characteristics that are as unique to it as fingerprints are to huma... more Every firearm has individual characteristics that are as unique to it as fingerprints are to human beings. When a firearm is fired, it transfers these characteristicsin the form of microscopic scratches and dentsto the fired bullets and cartridge casings. The rifling of the barrel of the firearm marks the bullets travelling through it, and the firearm's breech mechanism marks the ammunition's cartridge casing. Characterising these marks is the critical element in identifying firearms. Traditionally the comparison of ballistic evidence has been a tedious and timeconsuming process requiring highly skilled examiners. In the past decade, engineers have created automated ballistics identification systems that meld traditional comparison microscopes with digital cameras, computers, huge databases, and image analysis techniques. This kind of system can help investigators to link crimes by automatically finding similarities among images of bullet but suffering significant drawbacks and minimal matching. More recently, approaches based on 3D digital representations of evidence surface topography have started to appear, both in research and industrial products. Potentially the introduction of 3D surface topography measurement can overcome the limitations of digital imaging systems by making the bullet surface measurement reproducible and reliable. A 3D quantitative approach for bullet identification is proposed in this paper. In this system the surface topography of the whole bullet can be acquired for analysis and identification. Primary researches have been done by applying advanced surface topography techniques for bullet marks' characteristics extraction. A variety of 2D and 3D visualization graphics have also been provided to help firearm examiners to make final decisions.
The development of user-friendly reference data sets (softgauges) and reference software algorith... more The development of user-friendly reference data sets (softgauges) and reference software algorithms for validating the software aspects of surface profile measuring instruments is described. A framework for the software measurement standards, and the form of the reference data (Type F1 softgauges) and reference software (Type F2) that were developed is discussed.
Advanced Techniques for Assessment Surface Topography, 2003
This chapter deals with the next generation GPS system. The current GPS system is developed from ... more This chapter deals with the next generation GPS system. The current GPS system is developed from three distinct sources: (1) geometrical tolerancing, (2) co-ordinate metrology, and (3) surface texture and form measurement. One particular challenge with the current GPS system that affects surface texture is the fact that there are two workpiece co-ordinate systems. The workpiece co-ordinate system for surface texture is based on the direction of the surface lay. A surface texture profile is measured perpendicular to the surface lay. The rest of the current GPS system uses a workpiece co-ordinate system that is based on the geometry of the workpiece. The fundamental GPS principle, which can address this particular challenge, is the recognition that it is surfaces that interact with each other functionally, not profiles. Hence, the principal GPS definitions should be based on surfaces, with profile definitions as secondary simplified operators. Thus, the next generation GPS will be one system based on surfaces. The full specification of surface texture has many stages: from the size, shape and location of the measuring window (partition), the sampling procedure (extraction), the scale of the features of interest (filtration) to the definition of the surface texture characteristic (measurand). At each stage there are many choices to be made, depending on the design requirements of the surface to be specified. The challenge for the future is to standardize a set of tools for each stage that will enable optimization of the design requirements and especially the functional requirements of a surface.
The manufacture of products and components possessing functional nano scale geometries has provid... more The manufacture of products and components possessing functional nano scale geometries has provided a great hurdle for scientists and engineers to overcome. At the micro nano scale the classical balance between bulk and surface properties breaks down and it is the surface properties which have the dominant effect on the function of the component/system. With the deepening understanding of the importance of the surface on the function of engineering components there has been a focus on 'designing' the surface topography to optimise functionality, this has taken the form of producing surfaces with controlled surface geometry consisting of patterned geometrical features at the micro/nano scale. The optimised functions are diverse and cover properties optical, tribological and biological function. Wide scale manufacture of these surfaces is limited by the lack of metrological quantification of the structures. The concepts behind the latest metrology techniques for quantifying nano micro scale surfaces are reviewed in this review paper along with examples of their application.
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