... Toy Story 2 212 12. Spartacus 241 13. Gladiator 243 14. Natural Bor n Killers 252 Page 9. Ack... more ... Toy Story 2 212 12. Spartacus 241 13. Gladiator 243 14. Natural Bor n Killers 252 Page 9. Acknowledgements Thanks to Thomas Austin and Alan Miller for reading the manuscript, making a number of useful suggestions and sparing me from some errors and omissions. ...
The deployment of communication-intensive, real-time multimedia applications on the Internet pres... more The deployment of communication-intensive, real-time multimedia applications on the Internet presents challenges to network routing, as these applications often demand more bandwidth and are less tolerant to delay, delay jitter and loss than traditional data applications. The ...
The lack of probes defining leukocyte subpopulations has restricted ontogenetic studies of the op... more The lack of probes defining leukocyte subpopulations has restricted ontogenetic studies of the opossum gut. We report for the first time the organization of the.
The local distortion indicated by the split of the Cu/Sn-Mn bonds for the negative thermal expans... more The local distortion indicated by the split of the Cu/Sn-Mn bonds for the negative thermal expansion (NTE) materials Cu1−xSnxNMn3 (x = 0.1 and 0.5) was observed using neutron pair distribution function. The distribution of Cu/Sn-Mn bonds upon Sn doping is suggested to be attributable to the fluctuation in the hybridization of Mn d with Sn p orbitals. Accordingly, the antiferromagnetic (AFM) coupling mediated by the p-d hybridization fluctuates in strength. Consequently, the AFM transition closely coupled with the volume change is broadened, leading to the NTE.
Linkages across the sediment-water interface (SWI) between biodiversity and community stability a... more Linkages across the sediment-water interface (SWI) between biodiversity and community stability appear to exist but are very poorly studied. Processes by which changes in biodiversity could affect stability on the other side of the SWI include carbon transfer during feeding, decomposition of organic matter, nutrient recycling, organism recruitment and structural stabilisation of sediments. The importance of these processes will clearly vary among habitats. Direct disturbance to communities on one side of the SWI, such as created by overfishing, habitat destruction, and species invasions, has the potential to impact communities on the other side of the SWI through the many functional links. Hypotheses are proposed to suggest further areas of research to fill the large gaps in our knowledge concerning the nature and intensity of such linkages. The linkage between benthic and pelagic diversity is likely to be tighter where there is a close energetic connection between the domains, such as polar and shallow coastal waters, and where communities are dominated by selective detritivores. The quantity of carbon reserves in the sediment and the predominant mode of larval development of sediment communities probably influence the stability of below SWI communities in the face of changes in above SWI diversity. The organisms, including hyperbenthos, that are found at the SWI may be of crucial importance to the linkage and stability of above and below SWI communities.
2006 Plos Genetics 2(12): e210.). By varying the concentrations of multiple nutrients in the soil... more 2006 Plos Genetics 2(12): e210.). By varying the concentrations of multiple nutrients in the soil, we have observed several unexpected alterations in the ionome, including significant differences in the accumulation of macro-and micronutrients in response to changing soil iron levels. In a complementary reverse genetic approach we have also characterized over 1000 unique sequenced T-DNA insertional alleles for genes that affect the shoot ionome. To maximize the value of this ionomics approach, we have developed a publicly searchable online database containing ionomic information on over 60,000 plants (www. purdue.edu/dp/ionomics; Baxter et al., 2007 Plant Physiol 143(2) in press), and the database is being updated regularly.
Cross-linking in combination with mass spectrometry can be used as a tool for structural modeling... more Cross-linking in combination with mass spectrometry can be used as a tool for structural modeling of protein complexes and multi-domain proteins. While cross-links represent only weak structural constraints, the combination of a limited set of experimental crosslinks with molecular docking/modelling is often sufficient to determine the structure of a protein complex or multi domain protein at low resolution.
Between 1939-1999 the North Anatolian fault (NAF) has experienced a westward progression of eight... more Between 1939-1999 the North Anatolian fault (NAF) has experienced a westward progression of eight large earthquakes over 800 km along its morphological trace. The 2000-km-long North Anatolian transform fault has also grown by westward propagation through continental lithosphere over a much longer time scale ( ~10 m.y.). The Sea of Marmara is a large pull-apart which appears to have been a geometrical/mechanical obstacle encountered by the NAF during its propagation. We have acquired new high-resolution bathymetry, seismic and sonar soundings on the submarine fault system that forms a smaller pull-apart beneath the Northern Sea of Marmara, between two well-known strike-slip faults on land which have ruptured in 1999 and 1912 (Izmit and Ganos faults). The outstandingly clear submarine morphology shows a segmented fault system including pull-apart features at a range of scales.. Fault scarps probably resulting from many seismic events can be followed over tens of kilometres and described in detail. Individual breaks that may correspond to known historical earthquakes, such as those of 1509, 1754 and 1766, are also distinguishable. The next large earthquake ruptures are likely to occur along the submarine faults in the next decades. We find morphological and geological evidence for a stable kinematics involving slip partitioning that appears to have extended throughout the evolution of the Marmara pull-apart. Asymmetric loading associated with the propagation process may have provided a favourable initial geometry for such a slip separation.
ABSTRACT Recent activity of normal faults in Greece has produced steep limestone fault scarps at ... more ABSTRACT Recent activity of normal faults in Greece has produced steep limestone fault scarps at the base of the mountain fronts. For example, on the Sparta fault located in the Peloponnese, and responsible for the 464 B.C. M˜7 earthquake, a continuous fresh scarp cuts limestone bedrock and indurated conglomerates. The scarp is nearly continuous dipping at 65-68o with well-preserved slickensides. The maximum height of the scarp is 10-12 metres, progressively decreasing towards the ends. The few local variations are associated with active streams where hangingwall erosion causes the scarp to be locally higher. The regularity of the scarp is powerful evidence that the footwall and hangingwall surfaces were originally continuous and the scarp surface represents fault slip alone. It also suggests that there was no significant erosion or deposition on the hanging-wall (except near active gullies) since the scarp began to form. Such observations have led to the suggestion that numerous well-preserved limestone escarpments around the eastern Mediterranean, similar to those in Sparta, are post-glacial in age. Using 36Cl cosmogenic dating we tested the foregoing ideas. Limestones (largely calcite) contain an abundance of calcium, which is a major target element for cosmogenic 36Cl production. Samples were collected from the limestone scarp surface to recover the continuous exposure history of the scarp and also from the footwall and hanging wall surfaces as well as a depth profile in the hanging wall wedge. The concentration of 36Cl and of stable chlorine has been measured by accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) at the LLNL-CAMS for each of the samples (about 150). The result confirm: 1- that the fault scarp was formed between about 2000 B.P. and 13 ka B.P. as the result of 5 earthquakes (including the known event in 464 B.C.) with similar slip amplitudes of about 2m and with time intervals ranging from 500yr to 4500yr (Benedetti et al., GRL, 2002), 2- that both hanging wall and footwall surfaces have exposure ages of 40-50 ka, and 3- that the colluvial wedge was formed during three episodes of deposition that occurred between 50 to 70 ka B.P. It is not clear whether those episodes, that are also stratigraphically recognizable, are seismically or climatically related. The climatic hypothesis is that during the cold and dry climate of the last glaciation the slopes were unstable so that the free-faces formed during repeated earthquakes were immediately buried. At the end of the glaciation, as a consequence of the wet and warm climate, slopes stabilized and earthquake slip began to accumulate and to form the present day cumulative escarpements.
One of the goals of the Plate Boundary Observatory is to determine how continental lithosphere re... more One of the goals of the Plate Boundary Observatory is to determine how continental lithosphere responds to changes in driving forces. Because many geodynamic processes occur on timescales much longer than geodetic recording time intervals, longer term deformation measurements are required. On what timescale, however, should these longer term (geological) measurements be made to allow a meaningful integration with geodetic
The objectives of the SHALIMAR cruise were to study recent deformation of the Mediterranean seafl... more The objectives of the SHALIMAR cruise were to study recent deformation of the Mediterranean seafloor west of Mt Lebanon. We collected multibeam bathymetry and back-scatter images, reflection seismic profiles - surface and deep-towed, 3.5 kHz echo-sounder data, gravity and magnetic data over an 80 km-wide zone offshore the entire Lebanese coast. The bathymetry reveals a very steep slope between Beyrouth and Batroun, with a water depth of 1500 m only 5 km offshore. Between Saida and Tripoli (33.5N to 34.5N), both the bathymetry and seismic lines show a series of ramp anticlines affecting Plio-Quaternary deposits and a seismically transparent layer with variable thickness corresponding to the Messinian evaporites (5.6 Ma). This fold-and-thrust belt is the offshore expression of shortening related to the formation of Mt Lebanon. It is limited westwards by a prominent fold front 30 km from shore. Some ramps appear to be submarine continuations of faults documented ashore (e.g., Aabde and Tripoli thrusts). The strikes of fold axes are consistent with WNW-ESE shortening and slip-partitioning along the 30° Lebanese bend of the Levant fault. North of Tripoli and south of Saida, the continental margin displays a wider shelf (20 km) and gentler slope. In the south, at 1200-1500 m depth small, closely spaced, NE-trending scarps attest to young, distributed dip-slip faulting, although deformation is much less than north of Beyrouth. At the southern extremity of our survey, NW-trending normal fault scarps roughly aligned with the Mt Carmel-Haifa fault vanish 50 km offshore in the Levant basin. Bouguer gravity anomalies, estimated by removing from free-air gravity data the effect of bathymetry, display a very steep gradient between Beyrouth and Tripoli, marking the passage from thickened Mt Lebanon crust to thin crust in the Levant basin. Gravity anomalies also outline large, NE-SW trending steps between the basin crust and thinned continental crust near and south of Beyrouth. The particularly large negative anomalies in the north likely reflect flexure of the lithosphere due to subduction under Cyprus and underthrusting beneath Lebanon. The SHALIMAR data suggest that local compression induced by the bend in the Dead Sea Transform reactivated faults of the Mesozoic Levant margin into lateral ramps and thrusts whose evolution may lead to subduction. It is possible that the shorter distance between the transform and margin in central Lebanon (35 km) than in Syria (65 km) is one measure of continental shortening. That the oceanic lithosphere is strong may explain why the Carmel and Roum faults did not extend into the Levant basin.
A promising approach to assessing seismic hazards has been to combine the concept of seismic gaps... more A promising approach to assessing seismic hazards has been to combine the concept of seismic gaps with Coulomb-stress change modeling to refine short-term earthquake probability estimates. However, in practice the large uncertainties in the seismic histories of most ...
The GRACE satellite mission has been measuring the Earth's gravity field and its temporal variati... more The GRACE satellite mission has been measuring the Earth's gravity field and its temporal variations since 2002 April. Although these variations are mainly due to mass transfer within the geofluid envelops, they also result from mass displacements associated with phenomena including glacial isostatic adjustment and earthquakes. However, these last contributions are difficult to isolate because of the presence of noise and of geofluid signals, and because of GRACE's coarse spatial resolution (>400 km half-wavelength). In this paper, we show that a wavelet analysis on the sphere helps to retrieve earthquake signatures from GRACE geoid products. Using a wavelet analysis of GRACE geoids products, we show that the geoid variations caused by the 2004 December (M w = 9.2) and 2005 March (M w = 8.7) Sumatra earthquakes can be detected. At GRACE resolution, the 2004 December earthquake produced a strong coseismic decrease of the gravity field in the Andaman Sea, followed by relaxation in the area affected by both the Andaman 2004 and the Nias 2005 earthquakes. We find two characteristic timescales for the relaxation, with a fast variation occurring in the vicinity of the Central Andaman ridge. We discuss our coseismic observations in terms of density changes of crustal and upper-mantle rocks, and of the vertical displacements in the Andaman Sea. We interpret the post-seismic signal in terms of the viscoelastic response of the Earth's mantle. The transient component of the relaxation may indicate the presence of hot, viscous material beneath the active Central Andaman Basin.
The evolution of the Gulf of Aden and the Anatolian fault systems is modelled using the principle... more The evolution of the Gulf of Aden and the Anatolian fault systems is modelled using the principles of elastic fracture mechanics usually applied to smaller scale cracks or faults. The lithosphere is treated as a plate and simple boundary conditions are applied that correspond to the known plate boundary geometry and slip vectors. The models provide a simple explanation for many observed geological features. This suggests that long-term elasticity must be retained within the continental lithosphere and that viscous stress relaxation is negligible. Observed differences in behaviour between ocean and continental lithosphere are attributed to buoyant continental crust, which by thickening or thinning suppresses large displacements on extensional or contractional features in the upper mantle. Strike-slip boundaries and extrusion processes are favoured
... Toy Story 2 212 12. Spartacus 241 13. Gladiator 243 14. Natural Bor n Killers 252 Page 9. Ack... more ... Toy Story 2 212 12. Spartacus 241 13. Gladiator 243 14. Natural Bor n Killers 252 Page 9. Acknowledgements Thanks to Thomas Austin and Alan Miller for reading the manuscript, making a number of useful suggestions and sparing me from some errors and omissions. ...
The deployment of communication-intensive, real-time multimedia applications on the Internet pres... more The deployment of communication-intensive, real-time multimedia applications on the Internet presents challenges to network routing, as these applications often demand more bandwidth and are less tolerant to delay, delay jitter and loss than traditional data applications. The ...
The lack of probes defining leukocyte subpopulations has restricted ontogenetic studies of the op... more The lack of probes defining leukocyte subpopulations has restricted ontogenetic studies of the opossum gut. We report for the first time the organization of the.
The local distortion indicated by the split of the Cu/Sn-Mn bonds for the negative thermal expans... more The local distortion indicated by the split of the Cu/Sn-Mn bonds for the negative thermal expansion (NTE) materials Cu1−xSnxNMn3 (x = 0.1 and 0.5) was observed using neutron pair distribution function. The distribution of Cu/Sn-Mn bonds upon Sn doping is suggested to be attributable to the fluctuation in the hybridization of Mn d with Sn p orbitals. Accordingly, the antiferromagnetic (AFM) coupling mediated by the p-d hybridization fluctuates in strength. Consequently, the AFM transition closely coupled with the volume change is broadened, leading to the NTE.
Linkages across the sediment-water interface (SWI) between biodiversity and community stability a... more Linkages across the sediment-water interface (SWI) between biodiversity and community stability appear to exist but are very poorly studied. Processes by which changes in biodiversity could affect stability on the other side of the SWI include carbon transfer during feeding, decomposition of organic matter, nutrient recycling, organism recruitment and structural stabilisation of sediments. The importance of these processes will clearly vary among habitats. Direct disturbance to communities on one side of the SWI, such as created by overfishing, habitat destruction, and species invasions, has the potential to impact communities on the other side of the SWI through the many functional links. Hypotheses are proposed to suggest further areas of research to fill the large gaps in our knowledge concerning the nature and intensity of such linkages. The linkage between benthic and pelagic diversity is likely to be tighter where there is a close energetic connection between the domains, such as polar and shallow coastal waters, and where communities are dominated by selective detritivores. The quantity of carbon reserves in the sediment and the predominant mode of larval development of sediment communities probably influence the stability of below SWI communities in the face of changes in above SWI diversity. The organisms, including hyperbenthos, that are found at the SWI may be of crucial importance to the linkage and stability of above and below SWI communities.
2006 Plos Genetics 2(12): e210.). By varying the concentrations of multiple nutrients in the soil... more 2006 Plos Genetics 2(12): e210.). By varying the concentrations of multiple nutrients in the soil, we have observed several unexpected alterations in the ionome, including significant differences in the accumulation of macro-and micronutrients in response to changing soil iron levels. In a complementary reverse genetic approach we have also characterized over 1000 unique sequenced T-DNA insertional alleles for genes that affect the shoot ionome. To maximize the value of this ionomics approach, we have developed a publicly searchable online database containing ionomic information on over 60,000 plants (www. purdue.edu/dp/ionomics; Baxter et al., 2007 Plant Physiol 143(2) in press), and the database is being updated regularly.
Cross-linking in combination with mass spectrometry can be used as a tool for structural modeling... more Cross-linking in combination with mass spectrometry can be used as a tool for structural modeling of protein complexes and multi-domain proteins. While cross-links represent only weak structural constraints, the combination of a limited set of experimental crosslinks with molecular docking/modelling is often sufficient to determine the structure of a protein complex or multi domain protein at low resolution.
Between 1939-1999 the North Anatolian fault (NAF) has experienced a westward progression of eight... more Between 1939-1999 the North Anatolian fault (NAF) has experienced a westward progression of eight large earthquakes over 800 km along its morphological trace. The 2000-km-long North Anatolian transform fault has also grown by westward propagation through continental lithosphere over a much longer time scale ( ~10 m.y.). The Sea of Marmara is a large pull-apart which appears to have been a geometrical/mechanical obstacle encountered by the NAF during its propagation. We have acquired new high-resolution bathymetry, seismic and sonar soundings on the submarine fault system that forms a smaller pull-apart beneath the Northern Sea of Marmara, between two well-known strike-slip faults on land which have ruptured in 1999 and 1912 (Izmit and Ganos faults). The outstandingly clear submarine morphology shows a segmented fault system including pull-apart features at a range of scales.. Fault scarps probably resulting from many seismic events can be followed over tens of kilometres and described in detail. Individual breaks that may correspond to known historical earthquakes, such as those of 1509, 1754 and 1766, are also distinguishable. The next large earthquake ruptures are likely to occur along the submarine faults in the next decades. We find morphological and geological evidence for a stable kinematics involving slip partitioning that appears to have extended throughout the evolution of the Marmara pull-apart. Asymmetric loading associated with the propagation process may have provided a favourable initial geometry for such a slip separation.
ABSTRACT Recent activity of normal faults in Greece has produced steep limestone fault scarps at ... more ABSTRACT Recent activity of normal faults in Greece has produced steep limestone fault scarps at the base of the mountain fronts. For example, on the Sparta fault located in the Peloponnese, and responsible for the 464 B.C. M˜7 earthquake, a continuous fresh scarp cuts limestone bedrock and indurated conglomerates. The scarp is nearly continuous dipping at 65-68o with well-preserved slickensides. The maximum height of the scarp is 10-12 metres, progressively decreasing towards the ends. The few local variations are associated with active streams where hangingwall erosion causes the scarp to be locally higher. The regularity of the scarp is powerful evidence that the footwall and hangingwall surfaces were originally continuous and the scarp surface represents fault slip alone. It also suggests that there was no significant erosion or deposition on the hanging-wall (except near active gullies) since the scarp began to form. Such observations have led to the suggestion that numerous well-preserved limestone escarpments around the eastern Mediterranean, similar to those in Sparta, are post-glacial in age. Using 36Cl cosmogenic dating we tested the foregoing ideas. Limestones (largely calcite) contain an abundance of calcium, which is a major target element for cosmogenic 36Cl production. Samples were collected from the limestone scarp surface to recover the continuous exposure history of the scarp and also from the footwall and hanging wall surfaces as well as a depth profile in the hanging wall wedge. The concentration of 36Cl and of stable chlorine has been measured by accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) at the LLNL-CAMS for each of the samples (about 150). The result confirm: 1- that the fault scarp was formed between about 2000 B.P. and 13 ka B.P. as the result of 5 earthquakes (including the known event in 464 B.C.) with similar slip amplitudes of about 2m and with time intervals ranging from 500yr to 4500yr (Benedetti et al., GRL, 2002), 2- that both hanging wall and footwall surfaces have exposure ages of 40-50 ka, and 3- that the colluvial wedge was formed during three episodes of deposition that occurred between 50 to 70 ka B.P. It is not clear whether those episodes, that are also stratigraphically recognizable, are seismically or climatically related. The climatic hypothesis is that during the cold and dry climate of the last glaciation the slopes were unstable so that the free-faces formed during repeated earthquakes were immediately buried. At the end of the glaciation, as a consequence of the wet and warm climate, slopes stabilized and earthquake slip began to accumulate and to form the present day cumulative escarpements.
One of the goals of the Plate Boundary Observatory is to determine how continental lithosphere re... more One of the goals of the Plate Boundary Observatory is to determine how continental lithosphere responds to changes in driving forces. Because many geodynamic processes occur on timescales much longer than geodetic recording time intervals, longer term deformation measurements are required. On what timescale, however, should these longer term (geological) measurements be made to allow a meaningful integration with geodetic
The objectives of the SHALIMAR cruise were to study recent deformation of the Mediterranean seafl... more The objectives of the SHALIMAR cruise were to study recent deformation of the Mediterranean seafloor west of Mt Lebanon. We collected multibeam bathymetry and back-scatter images, reflection seismic profiles - surface and deep-towed, 3.5 kHz echo-sounder data, gravity and magnetic data over an 80 km-wide zone offshore the entire Lebanese coast. The bathymetry reveals a very steep slope between Beyrouth and Batroun, with a water depth of 1500 m only 5 km offshore. Between Saida and Tripoli (33.5N to 34.5N), both the bathymetry and seismic lines show a series of ramp anticlines affecting Plio-Quaternary deposits and a seismically transparent layer with variable thickness corresponding to the Messinian evaporites (5.6 Ma). This fold-and-thrust belt is the offshore expression of shortening related to the formation of Mt Lebanon. It is limited westwards by a prominent fold front 30 km from shore. Some ramps appear to be submarine continuations of faults documented ashore (e.g., Aabde and Tripoli thrusts). The strikes of fold axes are consistent with WNW-ESE shortening and slip-partitioning along the 30° Lebanese bend of the Levant fault. North of Tripoli and south of Saida, the continental margin displays a wider shelf (20 km) and gentler slope. In the south, at 1200-1500 m depth small, closely spaced, NE-trending scarps attest to young, distributed dip-slip faulting, although deformation is much less than north of Beyrouth. At the southern extremity of our survey, NW-trending normal fault scarps roughly aligned with the Mt Carmel-Haifa fault vanish 50 km offshore in the Levant basin. Bouguer gravity anomalies, estimated by removing from free-air gravity data the effect of bathymetry, display a very steep gradient between Beyrouth and Tripoli, marking the passage from thickened Mt Lebanon crust to thin crust in the Levant basin. Gravity anomalies also outline large, NE-SW trending steps between the basin crust and thinned continental crust near and south of Beyrouth. The particularly large negative anomalies in the north likely reflect flexure of the lithosphere due to subduction under Cyprus and underthrusting beneath Lebanon. The SHALIMAR data suggest that local compression induced by the bend in the Dead Sea Transform reactivated faults of the Mesozoic Levant margin into lateral ramps and thrusts whose evolution may lead to subduction. It is possible that the shorter distance between the transform and margin in central Lebanon (35 km) than in Syria (65 km) is one measure of continental shortening. That the oceanic lithosphere is strong may explain why the Carmel and Roum faults did not extend into the Levant basin.
A promising approach to assessing seismic hazards has been to combine the concept of seismic gaps... more A promising approach to assessing seismic hazards has been to combine the concept of seismic gaps with Coulomb-stress change modeling to refine short-term earthquake probability estimates. However, in practice the large uncertainties in the seismic histories of most ...
The GRACE satellite mission has been measuring the Earth's gravity field and its temporal variati... more The GRACE satellite mission has been measuring the Earth's gravity field and its temporal variations since 2002 April. Although these variations are mainly due to mass transfer within the geofluid envelops, they also result from mass displacements associated with phenomena including glacial isostatic adjustment and earthquakes. However, these last contributions are difficult to isolate because of the presence of noise and of geofluid signals, and because of GRACE's coarse spatial resolution (>400 km half-wavelength). In this paper, we show that a wavelet analysis on the sphere helps to retrieve earthquake signatures from GRACE geoid products. Using a wavelet analysis of GRACE geoids products, we show that the geoid variations caused by the 2004 December (M w = 9.2) and 2005 March (M w = 8.7) Sumatra earthquakes can be detected. At GRACE resolution, the 2004 December earthquake produced a strong coseismic decrease of the gravity field in the Andaman Sea, followed by relaxation in the area affected by both the Andaman 2004 and the Nias 2005 earthquakes. We find two characteristic timescales for the relaxation, with a fast variation occurring in the vicinity of the Central Andaman ridge. We discuss our coseismic observations in terms of density changes of crustal and upper-mantle rocks, and of the vertical displacements in the Andaman Sea. We interpret the post-seismic signal in terms of the viscoelastic response of the Earth's mantle. The transient component of the relaxation may indicate the presence of hot, viscous material beneath the active Central Andaman Basin.
The evolution of the Gulf of Aden and the Anatolian fault systems is modelled using the principle... more The evolution of the Gulf of Aden and the Anatolian fault systems is modelled using the principles of elastic fracture mechanics usually applied to smaller scale cracks or faults. The lithosphere is treated as a plate and simple boundary conditions are applied that correspond to the known plate boundary geometry and slip vectors. The models provide a simple explanation for many observed geological features. This suggests that long-term elasticity must be retained within the continental lithosphere and that viscous stress relaxation is negligible. Observed differences in behaviour between ocean and continental lithosphere are attributed to buoyant continental crust, which by thickening or thinning suppresses large displacements on extensional or contractional features in the upper mantle. Strike-slip boundaries and extrusion processes are favoured
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