The effects of participation in the "Book it!" reading program and parental pay for reading on re... more The effects of participation in the "Book it!" reading program and parental pay for reading on reported reading habits of college students was investigated. College students were surveyed about the amount they read per week, their intrinsic interest in reading , if they participated in the Book It! program and if their parents paid them money to read during childhood. If they participated in Book It! and/or were paid to read , they were also asked what effects these factors had on their learning to read , their enjoyment of reading, and on the amount they read. Neither being reinforced with money or pizzas increased or decreased the amount college students read nor influenced their intrinsic motivation for reading. Answers to direct questions about Book It! and parental pay for reading suggest that when a child is extrinsically reinforced for reading the child will increase the amount read , enjoyment of reading may increase, and if they do not yet know how to read fluently, the programs may help the child to learn to read. These results provide no support for the myth that extrinsic rewards for reading undermine intrinsic interest in reading. Rather, extrinsic rewards for reading set the conditions where intrinsic motivation for reading may develop. Any concerns that reinforcement programs for reading will decrease later reading behaviors are unfounded.
Although the operant approach to psychology is based on objective empirical observations and is d... more Although the operant approach to psychology is based on objective empirical observations and is descriptive in nature, much of psychology is filled with subjective, interpretive terminology. Such terminology produces confusion over the definitions of basic operant concepts. We suggest a solution that defines the concepts of positive and negative reinforcements and punishments in an objective fashion. Our 2 × 2 matrix avoids the subjective terminology often used in such matrices.
Summay.-The effectiveness of using a commercially available computerized study guide to improve p... more Summay.-The effectiveness of using a commercially available computerized study guide to improve performance on examinations in two general psychology courses was investigated. The experimental design required 37 students to use a computerized study guide on nvo elaminations and not on rwo others, counterbalanced across two classes. Analysis suggcsred that use of the srudy guides was associated with an increase in examinat~on scores. These commercially available computerized study guides may be effective because they use many empirically established general principles of learning 'Requests for reprints should be sent to
In a sample of 87 college students from four junior level courses, being paid for earning good gr... more In a sample of 87 college students from four junior level courses, being paid for earning good grades in childhood was related to higher college GPAs relative to students who were not paid for good grades in childhood.
Two groups of rats were tested for self-control. In Exp. 1 all rats were impulsive. In Exp. 2, wh... more Two groups of rats were tested for self-control. In Exp. 1 all rats were impulsive. In Exp. 2, when subjects entered one goal box, the rats would receive 3 pellets immediately, the impulsive choice. When Standard Group rats entered the other goal box, they received 7 pellets after a delay of 10 sec., the self-control choice. When Distributed Group rats made a selF-control choice in Phase 1 they received 1 pellet immediately, 3 after 3 sec., and 3 pellets 7 sec. later (10 sec. total); in Phase 2 they received 1 pellet immediately and 6 after 10 sec.; and in Phase 3 they received 7 p d e t s after a delay of 10 sec. Rats in the Distributed Group, but not rats in the Standard Group, tended to be self-controlled throughout the experiment.
The study investigated influence of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation on pupils' academic perfor... more The study investigated influence of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation on pupils' academic performance in mathematics. Based on the purpose of the study two hypotheses guided the study. Descriptive research design was adopted for the study. The population of the study consisted of all 3056 primary six pupils in Owerri Education zone of Imo State. A Sample size of 200 primary six pupils was selected for the study. Simple random sampling technique was used in selecting four schools out of the nine schools. The instruments used for data collection was Academic Motivation Scale and Mathematics achievement Test. The validity was determined by two experts in measurement and evaluation and one expert in mathematics education. The instruments have reliability coefficient of 0.89 and 0.92 determined using tests-retest method. Data generated was analyzed with the aid SPSS version. Inferential statistics of T-test and Pearson product momement correlation were used to test the hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. The study concludes that motivation improves academic performance of the pupils and there is gender difference in motivation type and academic performance.
is a short, simple, and passionate book. In 184 pages, its author, Steven Ray Flora, works hard t... more is a short, simple, and passionate book. In 184 pages, its author, Steven Ray Flora, works hard to convince readers that behavior therapy is far superior to psychotropic drugs, which he says are overused, ineffective, and dangerous. Flora is an established behavioral psychologist (i.e., behavior analyst) and a professor of psychology at Youngstown State University. Prominent among his publications is an earlier book, The Power of Reinforcement (2004), which is a strong defense of the behavior analytic approach to understanding and improving human behavior. Flora's expertise in behavior analysis is readily apparent in his credentials, in The Power of Reinforcement, and in Taking America Off Drugs. Taking America Off Drugs comprises 10 chapters. In chapter 1 Flora assaults the pharmaceutical industry and those who advocate pharmacotherapy for the treatment of behavioral problems. He emphasizes that many people have unshakable but unfounded faith in the value of drugs for treating a wide variety of problems and that the pharmaceutical industry has intentionally fostered this faith, as well as led people to believe that many normal conditions constitute problems in need of treatment. Similar claims are made in a number of other recent books (e.g., Angell, 2004; Healy, 2004; Weber, 2006) and in our view are justified. Drug companies exist to sell drugs and are good at it. According to Frank, Conti, and Goldman (2005), expenditures on psychotropic drugs
AB 24 university students participated in Exp 1 and 14 in Exp 2. In Exp 1, 12 Ss made 30 choices ... more AB 24 university students participated in Exp 1 and 14 in Exp 2. In Exp 1, 12 Ss made 30 choices while the computer produced aversive noise and 12 Ss made 30 choices in the absence of noise. Ss who were exposed to the noise made fewer self-control choices than those who were not exposed. In Exp 2, Ss who first made choices in the absence of noise developed strong self-control preference and maintained that preference in the presence of noise. Self-control was attenuated for Ss who first made choices during noise and showed little, if any, increase in self-control preference when choices were made in the absence of noise.
Humans pressed 2 buttons for points that were exchangeable for money. Pressing 1 of the buttons, ... more Humans pressed 2 buttons for points that were exchangeable for money. Pressing 1 of the buttons, the impulsive choice, produced 2 points over 4 s. Pressing the other button, the self-controlled choice, produced 10 points over 4 s after a 16-s delay. Each point was exchangeable for 1 cent ($0.01). All subjects earned 1 cent ($0.01) for every 3 s they kept their right hand immersed in water. All subjects made 30 choices. In the experimental, pain, condition the water contained ice and was maintained at approximately 5 "C. In the control condition the water temperature averaged 33 "C. Subjects in the pain condition made fewer self-controlled responses, rated the water as more painful and more distracting, and kept their hands in the water for shorter durations than subjects in the control condition. The results have evolutionary and societal implications and suggest that variables affecting subjects' physiological state, or least their subjective physiological state, need to be taken into account for a complete understanding of human "self-controL" Impulsiveness may be an evolutionary adaptation to aversive stimulation.
International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, Jul 8, 2020
The current study describes the use of a procedure called the "potty party", an all-day toilet tr... more The current study describes the use of a procedure called the "potty party", an all-day toilet training method using basic learning principles of "errorless" discrimination with 3 children with incontinence diagnosed with autism. At the start of treatment days, each participant was greeted and prompted to request the bathroom. After the child requested the bathroom, they were taken to the restroom, pants and underpants were removed, the child was seated on the toilet. While on-seat, participants were given liquids, less-preferred reinforcers and engaged in typical daily activities such as discrete trial training. When the child voided in the toilet, specific verbal praise and highly preferred edible reinforcers were delivered. The child was also given time off the toilet with their most preferred toys or items/activities. Time off-toilet subsequently increased with each in-toilet urination until the participants were spending the same amount of time off-toilet, out-of-bathroom, and in the classroom as their peers. Results for all three participants using 3 non-concurrent A-B phase designs indicated that the potty party procedure was effective in decreasing accidents to zero levels for all three participants and increased in-toilet urination for two. Future directions for research in toileting are discussed.
Fourteen experimental psychology textbooks from eight publishers were reviewed to determine the c... more Fourteen experimental psychology textbooks from eight publishers were reviewed to determine the coverage of behavioral research methods. The texts varied greatly in their presentation of behavioral research methods. All devoted a relatively small number of pages to behavioral methods, and only three texts presented examples of nonhuman animal research in addition to applied research.
The effects of participation in the "Book it!" reading program and parental pay for reading on re... more The effects of participation in the "Book it!" reading program and parental pay for reading on reported reading habits of college students was investigated. College students were surveyed about the amount they read per week, their intrinsic interest in reading , if they participated in the Book It! program and if their parents paid them money to read during childhood. If they participated in Book It! and/or were paid to read , they were also asked what effects these factors had on their learning to read , their enjoyment of reading, and on the amount they read. Neither being reinforced with money or pizzas increased or decreased the amount college students read nor influenced their intrinsic motivation for reading. Answers to direct questions about Book It! and parental pay for reading suggest that when a child is extrinsically reinforced for reading the child will increase the amount read , enjoyment of reading may increase, and if they do not yet know how to read fluently, the programs may help the child to learn to read. These results provide no support for the myth that extrinsic rewards for reading undermine intrinsic interest in reading. Rather, extrinsic rewards for reading set the conditions where intrinsic motivation for reading may develop. Any concerns that reinforcement programs for reading will decrease later reading behaviors are unfounded.
Although the operant approach to psychology is based on objective empirical observations and is d... more Although the operant approach to psychology is based on objective empirical observations and is descriptive in nature, much of psychology is filled with subjective, interpretive terminology. Such terminology produces confusion over the definitions of basic operant concepts. We suggest a solution that defines the concepts of positive and negative reinforcements and punishments in an objective fashion. Our 2 × 2 matrix avoids the subjective terminology often used in such matrices.
Summay.-The effectiveness of using a commercially available computerized study guide to improve p... more Summay.-The effectiveness of using a commercially available computerized study guide to improve performance on examinations in two general psychology courses was investigated. The experimental design required 37 students to use a computerized study guide on nvo elaminations and not on rwo others, counterbalanced across two classes. Analysis suggcsred that use of the srudy guides was associated with an increase in examinat~on scores. These commercially available computerized study guides may be effective because they use many empirically established general principles of learning 'Requests for reprints should be sent to
In a sample of 87 college students from four junior level courses, being paid for earning good gr... more In a sample of 87 college students from four junior level courses, being paid for earning good grades in childhood was related to higher college GPAs relative to students who were not paid for good grades in childhood.
Two groups of rats were tested for self-control. In Exp. 1 all rats were impulsive. In Exp. 2, wh... more Two groups of rats were tested for self-control. In Exp. 1 all rats were impulsive. In Exp. 2, when subjects entered one goal box, the rats would receive 3 pellets immediately, the impulsive choice. When Standard Group rats entered the other goal box, they received 7 pellets after a delay of 10 sec., the self-control choice. When Distributed Group rats made a selF-control choice in Phase 1 they received 1 pellet immediately, 3 after 3 sec., and 3 pellets 7 sec. later (10 sec. total); in Phase 2 they received 1 pellet immediately and 6 after 10 sec.; and in Phase 3 they received 7 p d e t s after a delay of 10 sec. Rats in the Distributed Group, but not rats in the Standard Group, tended to be self-controlled throughout the experiment.
The study investigated influence of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation on pupils' academic perfor... more The study investigated influence of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation on pupils' academic performance in mathematics. Based on the purpose of the study two hypotheses guided the study. Descriptive research design was adopted for the study. The population of the study consisted of all 3056 primary six pupils in Owerri Education zone of Imo State. A Sample size of 200 primary six pupils was selected for the study. Simple random sampling technique was used in selecting four schools out of the nine schools. The instruments used for data collection was Academic Motivation Scale and Mathematics achievement Test. The validity was determined by two experts in measurement and evaluation and one expert in mathematics education. The instruments have reliability coefficient of 0.89 and 0.92 determined using tests-retest method. Data generated was analyzed with the aid SPSS version. Inferential statistics of T-test and Pearson product momement correlation were used to test the hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. The study concludes that motivation improves academic performance of the pupils and there is gender difference in motivation type and academic performance.
is a short, simple, and passionate book. In 184 pages, its author, Steven Ray Flora, works hard t... more is a short, simple, and passionate book. In 184 pages, its author, Steven Ray Flora, works hard to convince readers that behavior therapy is far superior to psychotropic drugs, which he says are overused, ineffective, and dangerous. Flora is an established behavioral psychologist (i.e., behavior analyst) and a professor of psychology at Youngstown State University. Prominent among his publications is an earlier book, The Power of Reinforcement (2004), which is a strong defense of the behavior analytic approach to understanding and improving human behavior. Flora's expertise in behavior analysis is readily apparent in his credentials, in The Power of Reinforcement, and in Taking America Off Drugs. Taking America Off Drugs comprises 10 chapters. In chapter 1 Flora assaults the pharmaceutical industry and those who advocate pharmacotherapy for the treatment of behavioral problems. He emphasizes that many people have unshakable but unfounded faith in the value of drugs for treating a wide variety of problems and that the pharmaceutical industry has intentionally fostered this faith, as well as led people to believe that many normal conditions constitute problems in need of treatment. Similar claims are made in a number of other recent books (e.g., Angell, 2004; Healy, 2004; Weber, 2006) and in our view are justified. Drug companies exist to sell drugs and are good at it. According to Frank, Conti, and Goldman (2005), expenditures on psychotropic drugs
AB 24 university students participated in Exp 1 and 14 in Exp 2. In Exp 1, 12 Ss made 30 choices ... more AB 24 university students participated in Exp 1 and 14 in Exp 2. In Exp 1, 12 Ss made 30 choices while the computer produced aversive noise and 12 Ss made 30 choices in the absence of noise. Ss who were exposed to the noise made fewer self-control choices than those who were not exposed. In Exp 2, Ss who first made choices in the absence of noise developed strong self-control preference and maintained that preference in the presence of noise. Self-control was attenuated for Ss who first made choices during noise and showed little, if any, increase in self-control preference when choices were made in the absence of noise.
Humans pressed 2 buttons for points that were exchangeable for money. Pressing 1 of the buttons, ... more Humans pressed 2 buttons for points that were exchangeable for money. Pressing 1 of the buttons, the impulsive choice, produced 2 points over 4 s. Pressing the other button, the self-controlled choice, produced 10 points over 4 s after a 16-s delay. Each point was exchangeable for 1 cent ($0.01). All subjects earned 1 cent ($0.01) for every 3 s they kept their right hand immersed in water. All subjects made 30 choices. In the experimental, pain, condition the water contained ice and was maintained at approximately 5 "C. In the control condition the water temperature averaged 33 "C. Subjects in the pain condition made fewer self-controlled responses, rated the water as more painful and more distracting, and kept their hands in the water for shorter durations than subjects in the control condition. The results have evolutionary and societal implications and suggest that variables affecting subjects' physiological state, or least their subjective physiological state, need to be taken into account for a complete understanding of human "self-controL" Impulsiveness may be an evolutionary adaptation to aversive stimulation.
International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, Jul 8, 2020
The current study describes the use of a procedure called the "potty party", an all-day toilet tr... more The current study describes the use of a procedure called the "potty party", an all-day toilet training method using basic learning principles of "errorless" discrimination with 3 children with incontinence diagnosed with autism. At the start of treatment days, each participant was greeted and prompted to request the bathroom. After the child requested the bathroom, they were taken to the restroom, pants and underpants were removed, the child was seated on the toilet. While on-seat, participants were given liquids, less-preferred reinforcers and engaged in typical daily activities such as discrete trial training. When the child voided in the toilet, specific verbal praise and highly preferred edible reinforcers were delivered. The child was also given time off the toilet with their most preferred toys or items/activities. Time off-toilet subsequently increased with each in-toilet urination until the participants were spending the same amount of time off-toilet, out-of-bathroom, and in the classroom as their peers. Results for all three participants using 3 non-concurrent A-B phase designs indicated that the potty party procedure was effective in decreasing accidents to zero levels for all three participants and increased in-toilet urination for two. Future directions for research in toileting are discussed.
Fourteen experimental psychology textbooks from eight publishers were reviewed to determine the c... more Fourteen experimental psychology textbooks from eight publishers were reviewed to determine the coverage of behavioral research methods. The texts varied greatly in their presentation of behavioral research methods. All devoted a relatively small number of pages to behavioral methods, and only three texts presented examples of nonhuman animal research in addition to applied research.
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Papers by Stephen Flora