The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and World Health Organisation (WHO) Joint Monitoring ... more The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and World Health Organisation (WHO) Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) reports that only three African countries are on track to achieve universal access to at least basic water services by 2030 and only one country, Botswana, within the East and Southern Africa region (ESAR). Monitoring is crucial to advancing progress on SGD 6 in the region through providing reliable data to decision makers for policy, planning and much needed investment in the sector. This paper presents findings of the rapid assessment termed SDG 6 + 5 which relates to monitoring systems for Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) in 21 countries of ESAR, five years into the SDGs. The paper presents the results of a fuzzy logic analysis applied to aspects and findings from the rapid assessment. Fuzzy logic benefits the study by managing unconscious bias from qualitative assessment and evaluating the strengths of countries’ WASH monitoring systems. The paper demonstra...
Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development
The UN High Level Panel on Water notes that a total annual capital expenditure (CAPEX) of $114 bi... more The UN High Level Panel on Water notes that a total annual capital expenditure (CAPEX) of $114 billion of $129 billion is required globally to meet the safe drinking water and sanitation targets 1 and 2 of Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG 6). Annual operation and maintenance expenditure (OPEX) will increase, averaging $129 billion by 2030. In Sub-Saharan Africa, $36 billion is required and UNICEF estimates $15 billion is required to meet these targets in 21 countries in East and Southern Africa. Currently, only 15% of the financial investments in the sector are accounted for, which falls significantly short of delivering SDG 6. Consequently, innovative finance tools that maximise taxes, tariffs and transfers (3ts) are required to mobilise finances for the region's sector. This paper presents a diagnostic methodology for identifying bankable and blended finance projects in East and Southern Africa's water and sanitation sector. Potential projects were identified in Malawi,...
Historically, global control of drinking water has relied upon infrequent testing of selected wat... more Historically, global control of drinking water has relied upon infrequent testing of selected water quality parameters at specified points within a water supply. Weaknesses identified by the World Health Organization (WHO) in this approach have resulted in a fundamental change noted in the revised, third edition of the WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, 2004. The change involves the development of quality assurance processes known as Water Safety Plans (WSPs) founded upon the HACCP principles used in the food industry. Water Safety Plans - Books 1 and 2, document state of the art research designed to complement the advances being made in the global water quality sector. Book 1 presents guidelines for implementing WSPs in developing countries. Book 2 gives further detail on supporting programmes. Together they provide essential reading for water utility managers, helping them to assess, identify and manage water quality risk in their piped water supplies, as well as individua...
Over the past decade, porphyrin derivatives have emerged as invaluable synthetic building blocks ... more Over the past decade, porphyrin derivatives have emerged as invaluable synthetic building blocks and theranostic kits for the delivery of cellular fluorescence imaging and photodynamic therapy. Tetraphenylporphyrin (TPP), its metal complexes, and related derivatives have been investigated for their use as dyes in histology and as components of multimodal imaging probes. The photophysical properties of porphyrin−metal complexes featuring radiometals have been a focus of our attention for the realization of fluorescence imaging probes coupled with radioimaging capabilities and therapeutic potential having "true" theranostic promise. We report hereby on the synthesis, radiochemistry, structural investigations, and preliminary in vitro and in vivo uptake studies on a range of functionalized porphyrin-based derivatives. In pursuit of developing new porphyrin-based probes for multimodality imaging applications, we report new functionalized neutral, polycationic, and polyanionic porphyrins incorporating nitroimidazole and sulfonamide moieties, which were used as targeting groups to improve the notoriously poor pharmacokinetics of porphyrin tags. The resulting functional metalloporphyrin species were stable under serum challenges and the nitroimidazole and sulfonamide derivatives remained fluorescent, allowing in vitro confocal studies and visualization of the lysosomal uptake in a gallium(III) sulfonamide derivative. The molecular structures of selected porphyrin derivatives were determined by single crystal Xray diffraction using synchrotron radiation. We also investigated the nature of the emission/excitation behavior of model functional porphyrins using in silico approaches such as TD DFT in simple solvation models. The conjugation of porphyrins with the [7-13] and [7-14] fragments of bombesin was also achieved, to provide targeting of the gastrin releasing peptide receptor (GRPR). Depending on the metal, probe conjugates of relevance for single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) or positron emission tomography (PET) probes have been designed and tested hereby, using TPP and related functional free base porphyrins as the bifunctional chelator synthetic scaffold and 111 In[In] or 68 Ga[Ga], respectively, as the central metal ions. Interestingly, for simple porphyrin conjugates good radiochemical incorporation was obtained for both radiometals, but the presence of peptides significantly diminished the radio-incorporation yields. Although the gallium-68 radiochemistry of the bombesin conjugates did not show radiochemical incorporation suitable for in vivo studies, likely because the presence of the peptide changed the behavior of the TPP-NH 2 synthon taken alone, the optical imaging assays indicated that the conjugated peptide tags do mediate uptake of the porphyrin units into cells.
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 2019
Stunting is a global burden affecting nearly 160 million children younger than five years of age.... more Stunting is a global burden affecting nearly 160 million children younger than five years of age. Whilst the linkages between nutrition and stunting are well recognized, there is a need to explore environmental factors such as water and sanitation, which may influence feeding practices and result in potential infection pathways. This paper explores the linkages between stunting and water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) factors in Ethiopia, which is a relatively understudied context. The research draws upon baseline data for children under the age of five from 3200 households across four regions in Ethiopia as part of a wider study and integrated program led by the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). Using World Health Organization (WHO) z-scoring, the average stunting rate in the sample is 47.5%. This paper also takes into account demographic and social behavioural factors such as the age, gender of children, and gender of the primary caregiver, in addition to handwashing behavi...
Between 2015 and 2018, the Horn of Africa was affected by a series of climatic-induced events, na... more Between 2015 and 2018, the Horn of Africa was affected by a series of climatic-induced events, namely El Nino, La Nina, and the Indian Ocean Dipole. These events modified the variability of rainfall patterns and resulted in extended periods of low rainfall, low recharge, and high evapotranspiration. That situation prompted humanitarian water professionals to finance the transportation of water from selected locations with high groundwater potential through water trucks to areas facing groundwater depletion and drought. To mitigate this, UNICEF identified alternative water supplies by exploring sustainable deeper groundwater sources. This paper describes a three-phase methodology of deep groundwater development of wells in the Ogaden Jesoma sandstone aquifers of the Somali region of the Horn of Africa, to a depth of 600 m below ground level. The methodology included the development of groundwater suitability maps using geological and remote sensing data, hydrogeological ground truthi...
Groundwater is the most extracted raw material in the world with global annual withdrawal rates o... more Groundwater is the most extracted raw material in the world with global annual withdrawal rates of 800–1500 km3/year. In East and Southern Africa, 70 % of the population are reliant on shallow groundwater as their primary drinking water source. With increased population growth, intensification of agriculture and industrialization, conflicting demands on groundwater present a challenge to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (6,3,11,12,15). Between 2015 and 2018, the Horn of Africa was affected by a series of climatic induced events, namely El Nino, La Nina and the Indian Ocean Diopole. These events modified the variability of rainfall patterns and resulted in long periods of low rainfall, low recharge and high evapotranspiration. As a result, shallow aquifers in alluvial deposits of Somali region have low yields and produce brackish and saline water. That situation prompted humanitarian water professionals to finance the transportation of water from selected locations wit...
Rapid urbanization in Ethiopia is resulting in the need for alternative sustainable service model... more Rapid urbanization in Ethiopia is resulting in the need for alternative sustainable service models for urban water supply. Contractual arrangements to improve the functionality of urban water services in Ethiopia have included build, operate and transfer (BOT), design, build and operate (DBO), performance-based contracts (PBC) and utility development. UNICEF undertook a review of these modalities and concluded that a modified version of the BOT modality was required to both incentivize private sector engagement in urban water supply and to enhance public sector utilities. This paper describes the contractual modality developed to achieve this aim, namely an Ethiopian build, capacity build and transfer (B-CB-T) modality. This paper tests the applicability of the B-CB-T model using fuzzy logic statistical analysis and concludes that of the four tested variables (internal accountability, external accountability, operation and maintenance and financial management), the most statisticall...
Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, 2018
This paper introduces the concept of emotional distress as a means of measuring the direct experi... more This paper introduces the concept of emotional distress as a means of measuring the direct experience of inadequate access to drinking water in a small town in Ethiopia under the UNICEF-Government of Ethiopia urban ONEWASH plus programme. The paper explores a new perspective on the relationship between water technologies, water services, household socio-economic characteristics (as predictors) and mental health in its broad definition. Results indicate that water-related emotional distress is predominantly associated with the ‘cost of water’ and the ‘size of household’. Quantity of water, reliability of the preferred source and accessibility were not significant predictors to emotional distress. Whether the household accessed a pipe into a compound or another improved source was not a significant predictor either. The safely managed target in the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6.1 focuses on the affordability, accessibility and safety of water but does not explore the relation b...
This study examines the patterns, trends, and factors associated with functional community water ... more This study examines the patterns, trends, and factors associated with functional community water points in rural Ethiopia and identifies potential areas of improvement in terms of practitioner response to functionality and functionality monitoring. It was part of an integrated WaSH and nutrition program implemented by UNICEF Ethiopia and the Government of Ethiopia. Cross-sectional surveys were conducted to collect WaSH-related data in communities and WaSH committees from four community-based nutrition (CBN) program groupings in Ethiopia. In all areas, CBN was implemented, but only in less than half of the areas, a WaSH intervention was implemented. Seventy-three representative kebeles, comprising 30 intervention and 43 control communities, were surveyed. Two structured surveys were conducted. The ‘community survey’ addressed community water points and their functionality and the main areas for improvement needed. The ‘WaSH committee survey’ investigated technical and management aspe...
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 2018
We examine factors associated with the use of basic water supply and sanitation services as part ... more We examine factors associated with the use of basic water supply and sanitation services as part of an integrated community-based nutrition programme which included a drinking water, sanitation and hygiene (WaSH) intervention and emphasise findings related to health risk perceptions. Data were collected from 2658 households in four regions in Ethiopia with a cross-sectional survey in WaSH intervention areas, as well as in control areas, where the intervention was not implemented. The data were analysed using bivariate and multivariable regression analysis. Awareness of health risk factors related to inadequate WaSH was high in the programme area. The use of basic water and sanitation services was associated with several health risk perceptions: Perceiving water quality as good increased the odds of using basic water services as opposed to believing the water quality was poor (OR 3.94; CI 3.06–5.08; p ≤ 0.001). Believing that drinking unsafe water was the main cause for diarrhoea inc...
This study assesses the performance and robustness of the groundwater potential (GWP) maps produc... more This study assesses the performance and robustness of the groundwater potential (GWP) maps produced by the UNICEF model for deep groundwater exploration in Ethiopia. The UNICEF model is a weighted linear combination of hydrogeological parameters including permeability, slope, recharge, and lineament density, which has been calibrated using the expert judgements of local hydrogeologists. In order to assess the performance and robustness of the model, three techniques were employed: the analytic hierarchy process (AHP), logistic regression (LR), and artificial neural networks (ANNs). Three study areas (Dallol, Halaba and Shinelle) were selected on the basis of climatic and geological variation, in addition to the availability of well data pertaining to depth and yield. The performance of the UNICEF model in predicting outcomes of the well data included in the study was assessed by computing the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve. The solutions produced by the AHP and ANN we...
Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, 2016
This study provides new evidence on the effectiveness of a combined remote sensing and hydrogeolo... more This study provides new evidence on the effectiveness of a combined remote sensing and hydrogeological investigation method for deep groundwater development in complex geologic and geomorphologic situations in Ethiopia. The study was undertaken in the Elidar district of the Afar region of Northern Ethiopia. Due to the water availability and vegetation in this district, the majority of the population (total population of 79,000 people and 647,000 head of cattle) are dependent on pastoralist livelihoods. The current ratio of available water supply facilities to number of beneficiaries is 1:2,323 people and 1:19,029 head of cattle. A joint UNICEF-UNESCO groundwater investigation pilot project with the objective of improving drilling success rates in the Elidar district considered a three-phase approach. In phase 1 and 2, an overlay method was developed that combined data from radar, optical remote sensing and ground measurement (geology, hydrogeology, hydrology, hydro-meteorology, and ...
Dambisa Moyo's 2010 publication Dead Aid notes that, in the past 50 years, more than $1 trillion ... more Dambisa Moyo's 2010 publication Dead Aid notes that, in the past 50 years, more than $1 trillion in official development assistance (ODA) has been transferred to Africa. Moyo argues that the African countries that are dependent on ODA have made less economic progress when compared with African nations that have supported a model of trade-based financing. One of these forms of trade-based financing is 'other official flows' (OOF). China provides overseas assistance to the water sector in Africa both as ODA and as OOF. China's involvement in the African water sector is clearly visible, with projects ranging from the construction of city water supply systems to its involvement in rural water well drilling. International literature recognizes the importance of China's investments and private sector presence as one of the main catalysts behind rapid water infrastructure growth in Africa. China's history of lifting 500 million Chinese out of poverty over the last 30 years by providing essential water and sanitation infrastructure in urban areas is a strong lesson for Africa, which is predicted to be 64 per cent urbanized by 2050. Concerns over the substitution of local skilled professionals with Chinese experts combined with quality assurance and procurement transparency issues have resulted in the development of a number of innovative models of Chinese engagement in the water sector.
The population affected by dental fluorosis in India due to fluoride in drinking water has been e... more The population affected by dental fluorosis in India due to fluoride in drinking water has been estimated by Fewtrell et al. (2006) as 18 197 000. Of these 18.1 million people, further studies highlight that children are the most affected demographic group. One of the worst affected geographical areas is Madhya Pradesh, in which more than 11% of the population is consuming water with elevated levels of fluoride. In order to mitigate the negative affects of excess fluoride, an Integrated Fluorosis Management (IFM) program has been implemented in the state of Madhya Pradesh. The approach involves dilution of fluoride-affected water sources with non fluoride contaminated rainwater and promotion of the calcium-rich crop Cassia Tora. This paper outlines findings from an impact evaluation study where, using the Student T-test, a cohort of 2 000 children from 19 residential boarding schools were selected. A baseline survey was undertaken in 2005 and then an impact survey of the IFM activities was repeated on the same cohort in 2007. In both surveys the 2 000 children were examined by pedodontists in the field using the Deans classification test for dental fluorosis. The survey indicates a reduction in the prevalence of grade 1 fluorosis of 86%, of grade 2 of 77%, and of grade 4 of 60%.
T he WHO and UNICEF estimate that more than 1 billion people lack access to safe water. 1 ('Safe'... more T he WHO and UNICEF estimate that more than 1 billion people lack access to safe water. 1 ('Safe' water is defined by the WHO's Guidelines, described later.) In the year 2000 it was estimated that the global burden of disease associated with poor water supply equalled more than 2 billion cases of diarrhoea, with an annual death toll of 2.2 million. 2 With this increasing number of people around the world falling ill due to water-related illnesses, the water and sanitation sector are looking at improved ways to control water quality. The key question is how to address the emerging number of microbial and chemical contaminants that are entering our drinking water supplies through man-made and natural pollution.
A large number of groundwater projects use geophysics to help avoid costly events such as a faile... more A large number of groundwater projects use geophysics to help avoid costly events such as a failed borehole. Yet what are the methods used and how much guarantee of water can geophysics offer to a water project?
The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and World Health Organisation (WHO) Joint Monitoring ... more The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and World Health Organisation (WHO) Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) reports that only three African countries are on track to achieve universal access to at least basic water services by 2030 and only one country, Botswana, within the East and Southern Africa region (ESAR). Monitoring is crucial to advancing progress on SGD 6 in the region through providing reliable data to decision makers for policy, planning and much needed investment in the sector. This paper presents findings of the rapid assessment termed SDG 6 + 5 which relates to monitoring systems for Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) in 21 countries of ESAR, five years into the SDGs. The paper presents the results of a fuzzy logic analysis applied to aspects and findings from the rapid assessment. Fuzzy logic benefits the study by managing unconscious bias from qualitative assessment and evaluating the strengths of countries’ WASH monitoring systems. The paper demonstra...
Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development
The UN High Level Panel on Water notes that a total annual capital expenditure (CAPEX) of $114 bi... more The UN High Level Panel on Water notes that a total annual capital expenditure (CAPEX) of $114 billion of $129 billion is required globally to meet the safe drinking water and sanitation targets 1 and 2 of Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG 6). Annual operation and maintenance expenditure (OPEX) will increase, averaging $129 billion by 2030. In Sub-Saharan Africa, $36 billion is required and UNICEF estimates $15 billion is required to meet these targets in 21 countries in East and Southern Africa. Currently, only 15% of the financial investments in the sector are accounted for, which falls significantly short of delivering SDG 6. Consequently, innovative finance tools that maximise taxes, tariffs and transfers (3ts) are required to mobilise finances for the region's sector. This paper presents a diagnostic methodology for identifying bankable and blended finance projects in East and Southern Africa's water and sanitation sector. Potential projects were identified in Malawi,...
Historically, global control of drinking water has relied upon infrequent testing of selected wat... more Historically, global control of drinking water has relied upon infrequent testing of selected water quality parameters at specified points within a water supply. Weaknesses identified by the World Health Organization (WHO) in this approach have resulted in a fundamental change noted in the revised, third edition of the WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, 2004. The change involves the development of quality assurance processes known as Water Safety Plans (WSPs) founded upon the HACCP principles used in the food industry. Water Safety Plans - Books 1 and 2, document state of the art research designed to complement the advances being made in the global water quality sector. Book 1 presents guidelines for implementing WSPs in developing countries. Book 2 gives further detail on supporting programmes. Together they provide essential reading for water utility managers, helping them to assess, identify and manage water quality risk in their piped water supplies, as well as individua...
Over the past decade, porphyrin derivatives have emerged as invaluable synthetic building blocks ... more Over the past decade, porphyrin derivatives have emerged as invaluable synthetic building blocks and theranostic kits for the delivery of cellular fluorescence imaging and photodynamic therapy. Tetraphenylporphyrin (TPP), its metal complexes, and related derivatives have been investigated for their use as dyes in histology and as components of multimodal imaging probes. The photophysical properties of porphyrin−metal complexes featuring radiometals have been a focus of our attention for the realization of fluorescence imaging probes coupled with radioimaging capabilities and therapeutic potential having "true" theranostic promise. We report hereby on the synthesis, radiochemistry, structural investigations, and preliminary in vitro and in vivo uptake studies on a range of functionalized porphyrin-based derivatives. In pursuit of developing new porphyrin-based probes for multimodality imaging applications, we report new functionalized neutral, polycationic, and polyanionic porphyrins incorporating nitroimidazole and sulfonamide moieties, which were used as targeting groups to improve the notoriously poor pharmacokinetics of porphyrin tags. The resulting functional metalloporphyrin species were stable under serum challenges and the nitroimidazole and sulfonamide derivatives remained fluorescent, allowing in vitro confocal studies and visualization of the lysosomal uptake in a gallium(III) sulfonamide derivative. The molecular structures of selected porphyrin derivatives were determined by single crystal Xray diffraction using synchrotron radiation. We also investigated the nature of the emission/excitation behavior of model functional porphyrins using in silico approaches such as TD DFT in simple solvation models. The conjugation of porphyrins with the [7-13] and [7-14] fragments of bombesin was also achieved, to provide targeting of the gastrin releasing peptide receptor (GRPR). Depending on the metal, probe conjugates of relevance for single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) or positron emission tomography (PET) probes have been designed and tested hereby, using TPP and related functional free base porphyrins as the bifunctional chelator synthetic scaffold and 111 In[In] or 68 Ga[Ga], respectively, as the central metal ions. Interestingly, for simple porphyrin conjugates good radiochemical incorporation was obtained for both radiometals, but the presence of peptides significantly diminished the radio-incorporation yields. Although the gallium-68 radiochemistry of the bombesin conjugates did not show radiochemical incorporation suitable for in vivo studies, likely because the presence of the peptide changed the behavior of the TPP-NH 2 synthon taken alone, the optical imaging assays indicated that the conjugated peptide tags do mediate uptake of the porphyrin units into cells.
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 2019
Stunting is a global burden affecting nearly 160 million children younger than five years of age.... more Stunting is a global burden affecting nearly 160 million children younger than five years of age. Whilst the linkages between nutrition and stunting are well recognized, there is a need to explore environmental factors such as water and sanitation, which may influence feeding practices and result in potential infection pathways. This paper explores the linkages between stunting and water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) factors in Ethiopia, which is a relatively understudied context. The research draws upon baseline data for children under the age of five from 3200 households across four regions in Ethiopia as part of a wider study and integrated program led by the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). Using World Health Organization (WHO) z-scoring, the average stunting rate in the sample is 47.5%. This paper also takes into account demographic and social behavioural factors such as the age, gender of children, and gender of the primary caregiver, in addition to handwashing behavi...
Between 2015 and 2018, the Horn of Africa was affected by a series of climatic-induced events, na... more Between 2015 and 2018, the Horn of Africa was affected by a series of climatic-induced events, namely El Nino, La Nina, and the Indian Ocean Dipole. These events modified the variability of rainfall patterns and resulted in extended periods of low rainfall, low recharge, and high evapotranspiration. That situation prompted humanitarian water professionals to finance the transportation of water from selected locations with high groundwater potential through water trucks to areas facing groundwater depletion and drought. To mitigate this, UNICEF identified alternative water supplies by exploring sustainable deeper groundwater sources. This paper describes a three-phase methodology of deep groundwater development of wells in the Ogaden Jesoma sandstone aquifers of the Somali region of the Horn of Africa, to a depth of 600 m below ground level. The methodology included the development of groundwater suitability maps using geological and remote sensing data, hydrogeological ground truthi...
Groundwater is the most extracted raw material in the world with global annual withdrawal rates o... more Groundwater is the most extracted raw material in the world with global annual withdrawal rates of 800–1500 km3/year. In East and Southern Africa, 70 % of the population are reliant on shallow groundwater as their primary drinking water source. With increased population growth, intensification of agriculture and industrialization, conflicting demands on groundwater present a challenge to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (6,3,11,12,15). Between 2015 and 2018, the Horn of Africa was affected by a series of climatic induced events, namely El Nino, La Nina and the Indian Ocean Diopole. These events modified the variability of rainfall patterns and resulted in long periods of low rainfall, low recharge and high evapotranspiration. As a result, shallow aquifers in alluvial deposits of Somali region have low yields and produce brackish and saline water. That situation prompted humanitarian water professionals to finance the transportation of water from selected locations wit...
Rapid urbanization in Ethiopia is resulting in the need for alternative sustainable service model... more Rapid urbanization in Ethiopia is resulting in the need for alternative sustainable service models for urban water supply. Contractual arrangements to improve the functionality of urban water services in Ethiopia have included build, operate and transfer (BOT), design, build and operate (DBO), performance-based contracts (PBC) and utility development. UNICEF undertook a review of these modalities and concluded that a modified version of the BOT modality was required to both incentivize private sector engagement in urban water supply and to enhance public sector utilities. This paper describes the contractual modality developed to achieve this aim, namely an Ethiopian build, capacity build and transfer (B-CB-T) modality. This paper tests the applicability of the B-CB-T model using fuzzy logic statistical analysis and concludes that of the four tested variables (internal accountability, external accountability, operation and maintenance and financial management), the most statisticall...
Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, 2018
This paper introduces the concept of emotional distress as a means of measuring the direct experi... more This paper introduces the concept of emotional distress as a means of measuring the direct experience of inadequate access to drinking water in a small town in Ethiopia under the UNICEF-Government of Ethiopia urban ONEWASH plus programme. The paper explores a new perspective on the relationship between water technologies, water services, household socio-economic characteristics (as predictors) and mental health in its broad definition. Results indicate that water-related emotional distress is predominantly associated with the ‘cost of water’ and the ‘size of household’. Quantity of water, reliability of the preferred source and accessibility were not significant predictors to emotional distress. Whether the household accessed a pipe into a compound or another improved source was not a significant predictor either. The safely managed target in the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6.1 focuses on the affordability, accessibility and safety of water but does not explore the relation b...
This study examines the patterns, trends, and factors associated with functional community water ... more This study examines the patterns, trends, and factors associated with functional community water points in rural Ethiopia and identifies potential areas of improvement in terms of practitioner response to functionality and functionality monitoring. It was part of an integrated WaSH and nutrition program implemented by UNICEF Ethiopia and the Government of Ethiopia. Cross-sectional surveys were conducted to collect WaSH-related data in communities and WaSH committees from four community-based nutrition (CBN) program groupings in Ethiopia. In all areas, CBN was implemented, but only in less than half of the areas, a WaSH intervention was implemented. Seventy-three representative kebeles, comprising 30 intervention and 43 control communities, were surveyed. Two structured surveys were conducted. The ‘community survey’ addressed community water points and their functionality and the main areas for improvement needed. The ‘WaSH committee survey’ investigated technical and management aspe...
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 2018
We examine factors associated with the use of basic water supply and sanitation services as part ... more We examine factors associated with the use of basic water supply and sanitation services as part of an integrated community-based nutrition programme which included a drinking water, sanitation and hygiene (WaSH) intervention and emphasise findings related to health risk perceptions. Data were collected from 2658 households in four regions in Ethiopia with a cross-sectional survey in WaSH intervention areas, as well as in control areas, where the intervention was not implemented. The data were analysed using bivariate and multivariable regression analysis. Awareness of health risk factors related to inadequate WaSH was high in the programme area. The use of basic water and sanitation services was associated with several health risk perceptions: Perceiving water quality as good increased the odds of using basic water services as opposed to believing the water quality was poor (OR 3.94; CI 3.06–5.08; p ≤ 0.001). Believing that drinking unsafe water was the main cause for diarrhoea inc...
This study assesses the performance and robustness of the groundwater potential (GWP) maps produc... more This study assesses the performance and robustness of the groundwater potential (GWP) maps produced by the UNICEF model for deep groundwater exploration in Ethiopia. The UNICEF model is a weighted linear combination of hydrogeological parameters including permeability, slope, recharge, and lineament density, which has been calibrated using the expert judgements of local hydrogeologists. In order to assess the performance and robustness of the model, three techniques were employed: the analytic hierarchy process (AHP), logistic regression (LR), and artificial neural networks (ANNs). Three study areas (Dallol, Halaba and Shinelle) were selected on the basis of climatic and geological variation, in addition to the availability of well data pertaining to depth and yield. The performance of the UNICEF model in predicting outcomes of the well data included in the study was assessed by computing the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve. The solutions produced by the AHP and ANN we...
Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, 2016
This study provides new evidence on the effectiveness of a combined remote sensing and hydrogeolo... more This study provides new evidence on the effectiveness of a combined remote sensing and hydrogeological investigation method for deep groundwater development in complex geologic and geomorphologic situations in Ethiopia. The study was undertaken in the Elidar district of the Afar region of Northern Ethiopia. Due to the water availability and vegetation in this district, the majority of the population (total population of 79,000 people and 647,000 head of cattle) are dependent on pastoralist livelihoods. The current ratio of available water supply facilities to number of beneficiaries is 1:2,323 people and 1:19,029 head of cattle. A joint UNICEF-UNESCO groundwater investigation pilot project with the objective of improving drilling success rates in the Elidar district considered a three-phase approach. In phase 1 and 2, an overlay method was developed that combined data from radar, optical remote sensing and ground measurement (geology, hydrogeology, hydrology, hydro-meteorology, and ...
Dambisa Moyo's 2010 publication Dead Aid notes that, in the past 50 years, more than $1 trillion ... more Dambisa Moyo's 2010 publication Dead Aid notes that, in the past 50 years, more than $1 trillion in official development assistance (ODA) has been transferred to Africa. Moyo argues that the African countries that are dependent on ODA have made less economic progress when compared with African nations that have supported a model of trade-based financing. One of these forms of trade-based financing is 'other official flows' (OOF). China provides overseas assistance to the water sector in Africa both as ODA and as OOF. China's involvement in the African water sector is clearly visible, with projects ranging from the construction of city water supply systems to its involvement in rural water well drilling. International literature recognizes the importance of China's investments and private sector presence as one of the main catalysts behind rapid water infrastructure growth in Africa. China's history of lifting 500 million Chinese out of poverty over the last 30 years by providing essential water and sanitation infrastructure in urban areas is a strong lesson for Africa, which is predicted to be 64 per cent urbanized by 2050. Concerns over the substitution of local skilled professionals with Chinese experts combined with quality assurance and procurement transparency issues have resulted in the development of a number of innovative models of Chinese engagement in the water sector.
The population affected by dental fluorosis in India due to fluoride in drinking water has been e... more The population affected by dental fluorosis in India due to fluoride in drinking water has been estimated by Fewtrell et al. (2006) as 18 197 000. Of these 18.1 million people, further studies highlight that children are the most affected demographic group. One of the worst affected geographical areas is Madhya Pradesh, in which more than 11% of the population is consuming water with elevated levels of fluoride. In order to mitigate the negative affects of excess fluoride, an Integrated Fluorosis Management (IFM) program has been implemented in the state of Madhya Pradesh. The approach involves dilution of fluoride-affected water sources with non fluoride contaminated rainwater and promotion of the calcium-rich crop Cassia Tora. This paper outlines findings from an impact evaluation study where, using the Student T-test, a cohort of 2 000 children from 19 residential boarding schools were selected. A baseline survey was undertaken in 2005 and then an impact survey of the IFM activities was repeated on the same cohort in 2007. In both surveys the 2 000 children were examined by pedodontists in the field using the Deans classification test for dental fluorosis. The survey indicates a reduction in the prevalence of grade 1 fluorosis of 86%, of grade 2 of 77%, and of grade 4 of 60%.
T he WHO and UNICEF estimate that more than 1 billion people lack access to safe water. 1 ('Safe'... more T he WHO and UNICEF estimate that more than 1 billion people lack access to safe water. 1 ('Safe' water is defined by the WHO's Guidelines, described later.) In the year 2000 it was estimated that the global burden of disease associated with poor water supply equalled more than 2 billion cases of diarrhoea, with an annual death toll of 2.2 million. 2 With this increasing number of people around the world falling ill due to water-related illnesses, the water and sanitation sector are looking at improved ways to control water quality. The key question is how to address the emerging number of microbial and chemical contaminants that are entering our drinking water supplies through man-made and natural pollution.
A large number of groundwater projects use geophysics to help avoid costly events such as a faile... more A large number of groundwater projects use geophysics to help avoid costly events such as a failed borehole. Yet what are the methods used and how much guarantee of water can geophysics offer to a water project?
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Papers by Samuel Godfrey