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Robert Zubrin

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Dr. Robert Zubrin, an aerospace engineer, is president of Pioneer Astronautics and the founder of the Mars Society.He is the author of 20 US patents, 11 books, and over 200 technical and non technical papers in the fields of space exploration, energy technology, and other areas.

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Papers by Robert Zubrin

Technological requirements for terraforming Mars

29th Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit, Jun 28, 1993

The planet Mars, while cold and arid today, once possessed a warm and wet climate, as evidenced b... more The planet Mars, while cold and arid today, once possessed a warm and wet climate, as evidenced by extensive fluvial features observable on its surface. It is believed that the warm climate of the primitive Mars was created by a strong greenhouse effect caused by a thick CO 2 atmosphere. Mars lost its warm climate when most of the available volatile CO 2 was fixed into the form of carbonate rock due to the action of cycling water. It is believed, however, that sufficient CO 2 to form a 300 to 600 mb atmosphere may still exist in volatile form, either adsorbed into the regolith or frozen out at the south pole. This CO 2 may be released by planetary warming, and as the CO 2 atmosphere thickens, positive feedback is produced which can accelerate the warming trend. Thus it is conceivable, that by taking advantage of the positive feedback inherent in Mars' atmosphere/regolith CO 2 system, that engineering efforts can produce drastic changes in climate and pressure on a planetary scale.

Lunar Sulfur Capture System

Ultra-Thin Solar Sails for Interstellar Travel Phase I Final Report

Analysis of all-aluminum solar sails resulted in predicted characteristic accelerations, a c , of... more Analysis of all-aluminum solar sails resulted in predicted characteristic accelerations, a c , of ~0.3 m/s 2 for aluminum sheets of only ~4 nm thickness, and ~0.5 to ~5 m/s 2 for aluminum grids. These accelerations are much higher than the 0.001 m/s 2 for the conventional solar sail with a plastic backing. The resolution of the large discrepancy of ~0.5 m/s 2 predicted using the theory developed by Christensen (1999), compared to the ~5 m/s 2 predicted using microwave/infrared (IR) theory, extended to visible wavelengths, is crucial at determining if a perforated sail offers vastly superior performance at solar wavelengths as suggested by physical intuition.

Mars Sample Return mission utilizing in-situ propellant production

Lockheed Missiles and Space Co. Report, Mar 31, 1995

This report presents the results of a study examining the potential of in-situ propellant product... more This report presents the results of a study examining the potential of in-situ propellant production (ISPP) on Mars to aid in achieving a low cost Mars Sample Return (MSR) mission. Two versions of such a mission were examined; a baseline version employing a dual string spacecraft and a light weight version employing single string architecture with selective redundancy. Both systems employed light weight avionics currently being developed by Lockheed Martin, Jet Propulsion Lab and elsewhere in the aerospace community, both used a new concept for a simple, light weight parachuteless sample return capsule, both used a slightly modified version of the Mars Surveyor lander currently under development at Lockheed Martin for flight in 1998, and both used a combination of the Sabatier-electrolysis and reverse water gas shift ISPP systems to produce methane/oxygen propellant on Mars by combining a small quantity of imported hydrogen with the Martian CO, atmosphere. It was found that the baseline mission could be launched on a Delta 7925 and return a 0.5 kg sample with 85% mission launch margin, over and beyond subsystem allocated contingency masses. The lightweight version could be launched on a Mid-Lite vehicle and return a 0.25 kg sample with 13% launch margin, over and above subsystem contingency mass allocations. A preliminary cost estimate was generated and it was found that the baseline mission could be flown for a total cost of $302 million, while the lightweight version could be flown for a cost of $244 million if launched on US launch vehicles. If a Russian Molniya is used to launch the mission instead, total cost of the baseline mission is estimated at $259 million while the lightweight version can be flown for $225 million.

Catalytic Generation of Lift Gases for Balloons

Investigation of the Reverse Water Gas Shift Reaction for Production of Oxygen From Mars Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide

Lunar Soil Particle Separator

49th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting including the New Horizons Forum and Aerospace Exposition, Jan 4, 2011

Humans to Mars in 1999

Can the United States send humans to Mars during the pmscnt dcc.ade? Absolutely. Wc have develope... more Can the United States send humans to Mars during the pmscnt dcc.ade? Absolutely. Wc have developed a set of vehicle designs and a mission architez:mre that can make this possible. Moreover the plan we propose is not merely a "flags amt footprints" one shot expedition, but puts into place immediamly an economical method of Earth-Mars transportation, real surface exploratory mobility, and significant base capabilities that can rapidly evolve into a mostly self-sufficient Mars colony.

Local Resource Creation on Mars

Springer eBooks, 2023

Mars Rocket Propulsion System

Aviation's next great leap: the technology is at hand to build rocket-powered aircraft that could travel at hypersonic speeds, whisking you from New York to Paris in an hour

Technology Review, 1998

New vision solar system mission study: Use of space reactor bimodal system with microspacecraft to determine origin and evolution of the outer plants in the solar system

The vision for the future of the planetary exploration program includes the capability to deliver... more The vision for the future of the planetary exploration program includes the capability to deliver 'constellations' or 'fleets' of microspacecraft to a planetary destination. These fleets will act in a coordinated manner to gather science data from a variety of locations on or around the target body, thus providing detailed, global coverage without requiring development of a single large, complex and costly spacecraft. Such constellations of spacecraft, coupled with advanced information processing and visualization techniques and high-rate communications, could provide the basis for development of a 'virtual presence' in the solar system. A goal could be the near real-time delivery of planetary images and video to a wide variety of users in the general public and the science community. This will be a major step in making the solar system accessible to the public and will help make solar system exploration a part of the human experience on Earth.

Nitrous Oxide/Paraffin Hybrid Rocket Engines

The case for space is liberty

Oxford University Press eBooks, Dec 15, 2022

Athena - A possible first step in a program of human Mars exploration

This paper discusses the "Athena" mission, a concept for an initial piloted mission to Mars that ... more This paper discusses the "Athena" mission, a concept for an initial piloted mission to Mars that could be launched at low cost in the very near future. Athena is a double flyby, which uses two Mars gravity assist maneuvers to allow a round trip Mars mission to be performed with a single minimum energy trans-Mars injection burn. Science exploration is accomplished by taking advantage of human intelligence in the vicinity of Mars for extended periods to remotely operate rovers, balloons, or aircraft on the Martian surface with short signal time delays. This paper discusses the trajectory and vehicle designs required to accomplish the Athena mission, modes of science exploration that it enables, and provides an estimate for total mission cost. In addition, the programmatic value of using such a minimal piloted mission to initiate human Mars exploration is also discussed.

An examination of bimodal nuclear power and propulsion benefits for outer solar system missions

Nucleation and Atmospheric Aerosols, 1996

This paper presents the results of an analysis of the capability of nuclear bimodal systems to pe... more This paper presents the results of an analysis of the capability of nuclear bimodal systems to perform outer solar system exploration missions. Missions of interest include orbiter missions to Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto. An initial technology baseline consisting of the NEBA 10 kWe, 1000 N thrust, 850 s, 1500 kg bimodal system was selected, and its performance examined against a data base for trajectories to outer solar system planetary destinations to select optimal direct and gravity assisted trajectories for study. A conceptual design for a common bimodal spacecraft capable of performing missions to all the planetary destinations was developed and made the basis of end to end mission designs for orbiter missions to Jupiter, Saturn, and Neptune. All mission designs considered use the Atlas 2AS for launch. The radiological hazard associated with using Earth gravity assists on such missions was examined and shown to be small compared to that currently accepted on Earth fly‐by missions invo...

How to Live on Mars: A Trusty Guidebook to Surviving and Thriving on the Red Planet

The use of magnetic sails to escape from low earth orbit

Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, 1993

Abstract A magnetic sail, or magsail, approach is discussed which uses the magnetic field generat... more

New vision solar system mission study. Final report

This study examines the ways in which space reactor power and propulsion might be used to enable ... more This study examines the ways in which space reactor power and propulsion might be used to enable key elements of this vision, The capability of a space reactor bimodal (power and propulsion) system, defined for potential Air force Earth orbital missions, will be investigated as a power system and propulsion system for planetary missions using many small sciencecraft or it own science payload. Scientific targets of interest include Main Belt asteroid, comets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto, and their satellites. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) will lead the study and define the overall mission goals at each of the scientific targets of interest. Lockheed Martin Corporation will support JPL in determining ways to accomplish the mission goals using a space reactor bimodal system and advance microspacecraft. JPL and Lmkheed Martin Corporation will do the following: Determine representative scientific targets and define the mission goals at each target. Conceptual end-to-end missions will be examined and defined. Key microspacecraft and instrument characteristics will be identified and related technology needs will be assessed. Extensive use will be made of ongoing microspacecraft development activities. Develop sample mission profiles for each selected scientific target and define ways in which the microspacecraft and the space reactor bimodal carrier spacecraft must interact.

Technological requirements for terraforming Mars

29th Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit, Jun 28, 1993

The planet Mars, while cold and arid today, once possessed a warm and wet climate, as evidenced b... more The planet Mars, while cold and arid today, once possessed a warm and wet climate, as evidenced by extensive fluvial features observable on its surface. It is believed that the warm climate of the primitive Mars was created by a strong greenhouse effect caused by a thick CO 2 atmosphere. Mars lost its warm climate when most of the available volatile CO 2 was fixed into the form of carbonate rock due to the action of cycling water. It is believed, however, that sufficient CO 2 to form a 300 to 600 mb atmosphere may still exist in volatile form, either adsorbed into the regolith or frozen out at the south pole. This CO 2 may be released by planetary warming, and as the CO 2 atmosphere thickens, positive feedback is produced which can accelerate the warming trend. Thus it is conceivable, that by taking advantage of the positive feedback inherent in Mars' atmosphere/regolith CO 2 system, that engineering efforts can produce drastic changes in climate and pressure on a planetary scale.

Lunar Sulfur Capture System

Ultra-Thin Solar Sails for Interstellar Travel Phase I Final Report

Analysis of all-aluminum solar sails resulted in predicted characteristic accelerations, a c , of... more Analysis of all-aluminum solar sails resulted in predicted characteristic accelerations, a c , of ~0.3 m/s 2 for aluminum sheets of only ~4 nm thickness, and ~0.5 to ~5 m/s 2 for aluminum grids. These accelerations are much higher than the 0.001 m/s 2 for the conventional solar sail with a plastic backing. The resolution of the large discrepancy of ~0.5 m/s 2 predicted using the theory developed by Christensen (1999), compared to the ~5 m/s 2 predicted using microwave/infrared (IR) theory, extended to visible wavelengths, is crucial at determining if a perforated sail offers vastly superior performance at solar wavelengths as suggested by physical intuition.

Mars Sample Return mission utilizing in-situ propellant production

Lockheed Missiles and Space Co. Report, Mar 31, 1995

This report presents the results of a study examining the potential of in-situ propellant product... more This report presents the results of a study examining the potential of in-situ propellant production (ISPP) on Mars to aid in achieving a low cost Mars Sample Return (MSR) mission. Two versions of such a mission were examined; a baseline version employing a dual string spacecraft and a light weight version employing single string architecture with selective redundancy. Both systems employed light weight avionics currently being developed by Lockheed Martin, Jet Propulsion Lab and elsewhere in the aerospace community, both used a new concept for a simple, light weight parachuteless sample return capsule, both used a slightly modified version of the Mars Surveyor lander currently under development at Lockheed Martin for flight in 1998, and both used a combination of the Sabatier-electrolysis and reverse water gas shift ISPP systems to produce methane/oxygen propellant on Mars by combining a small quantity of imported hydrogen with the Martian CO, atmosphere. It was found that the baseline mission could be launched on a Delta 7925 and return a 0.5 kg sample with 85% mission launch margin, over and beyond subsystem allocated contingency masses. The lightweight version could be launched on a Mid-Lite vehicle and return a 0.25 kg sample with 13% launch margin, over and above subsystem contingency mass allocations. A preliminary cost estimate was generated and it was found that the baseline mission could be flown for a total cost of $302 million, while the lightweight version could be flown for a cost of $244 million if launched on US launch vehicles. If a Russian Molniya is used to launch the mission instead, total cost of the baseline mission is estimated at $259 million while the lightweight version can be flown for $225 million.

Catalytic Generation of Lift Gases for Balloons

Investigation of the Reverse Water Gas Shift Reaction for Production of Oxygen From Mars Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide

Lunar Soil Particle Separator

49th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting including the New Horizons Forum and Aerospace Exposition, Jan 4, 2011

Humans to Mars in 1999

Can the United States send humans to Mars during the pmscnt dcc.ade? Absolutely. Wc have develope... more Can the United States send humans to Mars during the pmscnt dcc.ade? Absolutely. Wc have developed a set of vehicle designs and a mission architez:mre that can make this possible. Moreover the plan we propose is not merely a "flags amt footprints" one shot expedition, but puts into place immediamly an economical method of Earth-Mars transportation, real surface exploratory mobility, and significant base capabilities that can rapidly evolve into a mostly self-sufficient Mars colony.

Local Resource Creation on Mars

Springer eBooks, 2023

Mars Rocket Propulsion System

Aviation's next great leap: the technology is at hand to build rocket-powered aircraft that could travel at hypersonic speeds, whisking you from New York to Paris in an hour

Technology Review, 1998

New vision solar system mission study: Use of space reactor bimodal system with microspacecraft to determine origin and evolution of the outer plants in the solar system

The vision for the future of the planetary exploration program includes the capability to deliver... more The vision for the future of the planetary exploration program includes the capability to deliver 'constellations' or 'fleets' of microspacecraft to a planetary destination. These fleets will act in a coordinated manner to gather science data from a variety of locations on or around the target body, thus providing detailed, global coverage without requiring development of a single large, complex and costly spacecraft. Such constellations of spacecraft, coupled with advanced information processing and visualization techniques and high-rate communications, could provide the basis for development of a 'virtual presence' in the solar system. A goal could be the near real-time delivery of planetary images and video to a wide variety of users in the general public and the science community. This will be a major step in making the solar system accessible to the public and will help make solar system exploration a part of the human experience on Earth.

Nitrous Oxide/Paraffin Hybrid Rocket Engines

The case for space is liberty

Oxford University Press eBooks, Dec 15, 2022

Athena - A possible first step in a program of human Mars exploration

This paper discusses the "Athena" mission, a concept for an initial piloted mission to Mars that ... more This paper discusses the "Athena" mission, a concept for an initial piloted mission to Mars that could be launched at low cost in the very near future. Athena is a double flyby, which uses two Mars gravity assist maneuvers to allow a round trip Mars mission to be performed with a single minimum energy trans-Mars injection burn. Science exploration is accomplished by taking advantage of human intelligence in the vicinity of Mars for extended periods to remotely operate rovers, balloons, or aircraft on the Martian surface with short signal time delays. This paper discusses the trajectory and vehicle designs required to accomplish the Athena mission, modes of science exploration that it enables, and provides an estimate for total mission cost. In addition, the programmatic value of using such a minimal piloted mission to initiate human Mars exploration is also discussed.

An examination of bimodal nuclear power and propulsion benefits for outer solar system missions

Nucleation and Atmospheric Aerosols, 1996

This paper presents the results of an analysis of the capability of nuclear bimodal systems to pe... more This paper presents the results of an analysis of the capability of nuclear bimodal systems to perform outer solar system exploration missions. Missions of interest include orbiter missions to Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto. An initial technology baseline consisting of the NEBA 10 kWe, 1000 N thrust, 850 s, 1500 kg bimodal system was selected, and its performance examined against a data base for trajectories to outer solar system planetary destinations to select optimal direct and gravity assisted trajectories for study. A conceptual design for a common bimodal spacecraft capable of performing missions to all the planetary destinations was developed and made the basis of end to end mission designs for orbiter missions to Jupiter, Saturn, and Neptune. All mission designs considered use the Atlas 2AS for launch. The radiological hazard associated with using Earth gravity assists on such missions was examined and shown to be small compared to that currently accepted on Earth fly‐by missions invo...

How to Live on Mars: A Trusty Guidebook to Surviving and Thriving on the Red Planet

The use of magnetic sails to escape from low earth orbit

Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, 1993

Abstract A magnetic sail, or magsail, approach is discussed which uses the magnetic field generat... more

New vision solar system mission study. Final report

This study examines the ways in which space reactor power and propulsion might be used to enable ... more This study examines the ways in which space reactor power and propulsion might be used to enable key elements of this vision, The capability of a space reactor bimodal (power and propulsion) system, defined for potential Air force Earth orbital missions, will be investigated as a power system and propulsion system for planetary missions using many small sciencecraft or it own science payload. Scientific targets of interest include Main Belt asteroid, comets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto, and their satellites. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) will lead the study and define the overall mission goals at each of the scientific targets of interest. Lockheed Martin Corporation will support JPL in determining ways to accomplish the mission goals using a space reactor bimodal system and advance microspacecraft. JPL and Lmkheed Martin Corporation will do the following: Determine representative scientific targets and define the mission goals at each target. Conceptual end-to-end missions will be examined and defined. Key microspacecraft and instrument characteristics will be identified and related technology needs will be assessed. Extensive use will be made of ongoing microspacecraft development activities. Develop sample mission profiles for each selected scientific target and define ways in which the microspacecraft and the space reactor bimodal carrier spacecraft must interact.