IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science
Gamete collection is feasible in Banteng (Bos javanicus) and is essential for conserving this spe... more Gamete collection is feasible in Banteng (Bos javanicus) and is essential for conserving this species. The common practice of semen collection in wild animals is using the electroejaculation technique which is considered invasive with lower-quality results. This study aims to develop sperm collection further using an artificial vagina and to investigate the sperm motility of Banteng after being frozen-thawed. A Banteng bull kept in Taman Safari Indonesia was used for this study. Before semen collection, the bull is acclimatized to collection conditions. Semen collection is done once a month for six months. The semen was evaluated according to a method for bovine semen. Cryopreservation of semen was performed using an Andromed® extender, in 0.25 mL Ministraw®, and equilibrated at 4°C for 3 hours, followed by freezing in liquid nitrogen vapor. Quality testing was performed using the CASA IVOS II™. The result showed variations between batches, with the number of mountings 9.83±2.86(7-1...
The population of anoa, which is an endemic fauna to Indonesia, was getting decrease caused by th... more The population of anoa, which is an endemic fauna to Indonesia, was getting decrease caused by the illegal hunting and deforestation. Anoa is included in endangered species by IUCN, and Appendix I by CITES. The experiment aimed to characterize the seminal plasma contents and to cryopreserve the anoa semen for artificial insemination application in captivity. The experiment was carried out in Taman Safari Indonesia (Bogor). Semen was collected from 2 anesthetized males (4-10 years) by electroejaculation. Seminal plasma gained by centrifugation of ejaculate (3000 rpm, 20 minutes), and then was evaluated the biochemical contents. Other ejaculates were evaluated macroscopically and microscopically, and then extended in Tris and Na-citrate media to a total concentration of 100 billion cells mL -1 . Extended semen was stored at 4 o C, and evaluated the motility and viability every 12 h. Frozen semen was made in Tris medium added with 5% of glycerol. The seminal plasma of anoa contained to...
H-labelled oestradiol-17b and C-progesterone were injected i.v. into an adult female Ž . Sumatran... more H-labelled oestradiol-17b and C-progesterone were injected i.v. into an adult female Ž . Sumatran rhinoceros Dicerorhinus sumatrensis and all urine and faeces collected over 4 days. Of the injected steroid, 68% of H-oestradiol and 89% of C-progesterone were recovered. Peak excretion in urine occurred on day 1 for both steroids, and for faeces on day 2 for C-progesterone, and between days 2 and 3 for H-oestradiol. Oestradiol metabolites were predominantly Ž . nearly 70% excreted into the urine, while progesterone metabolites were almost exclusively Ž . Ž . )99% excreted into the faeces. The majority )70% of urinary excreted oestrogens consisted Ž . of water-soluble i.e., conjugated forms, with )90% of these being glucuronides. In contrast, Ž )75% of faecal oestrogen and progesterone metabolites were excreted as ether-soluble i.e., . unconjugated forms. HPLC co-chromatography of oestrogens in hydrolysed urine indicated only one peak of radioactivity, co-eluting with authentic oestradi...
Objectives: While it has been demonstrated that even subtle variation in human facial expressions... more Objectives: While it has been demonstrated that even subtle variation in human facial expressions can lead to significant changes in the meaning and function of expressions, relatively few studies have examined primate facial expressions using similarly objective and rigorous analysis. Construction of primate facial expression repertoires may, therefore, be oversimplified, with expressions often arbitrarily pooled and/or split into subjective pigeonholes. Our objective is to assess whether subtle variation in primate facial expressions is linked to variation in function, and hence to inform future attempts to quantify complexity of facial communication. Materials and Methods: We used Macaque Facial Action Coding System, an anatomically based and hence more objective tool, to quantify "silent bared-teeth" (SBT) expressions produced by wild crested macaques engaging in spontaneous behavior, and utilized discriminant analysis and bootstrapping analysis to look for morphological differences between SBT produced in four different contexts, defined by the outcome of interactions: Affiliation, Copulation, Play, and Submission. Results: We found that SBT produced in these contexts could be distinguished at significantly above-chance rates, indicating that the expressions produced in these four contexts differ morphologically. We identified the specific facial movements that were typically used in each context, and found that the variability and intensity of facial movements also varied between contexts. Discussion: These results indicate that nonhuman primate facial expressions share the human characteristic of exhibiting meaningful subtle differences. Complexity of facial communication may not be accurately represented simply by building repertoires of distinct expressions, so further work should attempt to take this subtle variability into account.
IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 2018
Neem has antispermatogenic effect in animals and male men. The objectives of this research to eva... more Neem has antispermatogenic effect in animals and male men. The objectives of this research to evaluate the effect of aqueous seed extract of neem on the structure of testis. Male mice of DDY strain were divided into five groups. Group I as a control group (C1-1) with the absence of treatment. Group II and III (s1-1 and s2-1) were orally treated by administered aqueous seeds extract of neem at doses 0.25 and 0.50 mg/kg body weight (bw) for 36 days. Group IV and V (S1-2 and S2-2) was treated by administering aqueous seeds extract of neem at doses 0.25 and 0.50 mg/kg bw for 36 days followed with another 36 days with no treatment. The results showed that neem seed extracts cause a decrease of spermatogenic cell (p<0.05). It can be concluded that exposure to the aqueous seed extracts of neem can decrease spermatogenic cell, and its effect more than 36 days.
Since the non-invasive field endocrinology techniques were developed, several fecal preservation ... more Since the non-invasive field endocrinology techniques were developed, several fecal preservation and extraction methods have been established for a variety of species. However, direct adaptation of methods from previous studies for use in crested macaques should be taken with caution. We conducted an experiment to assess the accuracy and stability of fecal estrogen metabolite (E1C) and glucocorticoid metabolite (GCM) concentrations in response to several preservation parameters: (1) time lag between sample collection and fecal preservation; (2) long-term storage of fecal samples in 80% methanol (MeOH) at ambient temperature; (3) different degrees of feces drying temperature using a conventional oven; and (4) different fecal preservation techniques (i.e., freeze-drying, oven-drying, and field-friendly extraction method) and extraction solvents (methanol, ethanol, and commercial alcohol). The study used fecal samples collected from crested macaques (Macaca nigra) living in the Tangkok...
Social bonds between group members affect individual fitness and well-being. While the impact of ... more Social bonds between group members affect individual fitness and well-being. While the impact of bond strength is well studied, the consequences of bond predictability and equitability are often overlooked. Similarly, whether bonds reflect short-term contingencies and/or long-term social strategies remains understudied. We investigated these questions in female crested macaques (Macaca nigra), which display a tolerant social style within a nepotistic hierarchical social structure. We analysed the structure of social bonds by testing whether similarity within dyads-in kinship, dominance and age-predicted the strength, predictability and equitability of bonds. We then tested the value of social bonds by analysing the effect of their characteristics on three fitness-related behaviours: coalitionary support, feeding-in-proximity and aggression. We found that the bond characteristics of females differed substantially from those of other species with comparable data: bonds were of average strength, of moderate endurance and relatively balanced. Stronger bonds were more equitable but less predictable than weaker bonds. Closely-ranked females, but not kin or age peers, had stronger, more predictable and more equitable bonds than others. Coalitionary support was not related to any of the bond characteristics, feeding-in-proximity was positively associated with strength and predictability and aggression was positively linked to strength and negatively to equitability. These results highlight the complex picture of the benefits of social bonds in this species. They reflect the degrees of freedom tolerant macaque females can express in their social relationships within their stable social structure, a pattern that may not be given enough consideration in stable nepotistic hierarchical societies. Comparative research is necessary to establish whether these patterns are more general than previously thought or a specific feature of tolerant macaques. Investigating various characteristics of bonds together is paramount in order to appreciate the dynamics of social relationships and to better understand the social components of fitness.
In gregarious species, dispersal events represent one of the most dramatic changes in social life... more In gregarious species, dispersal events represent one of the most dramatic changes in social life and 29 environment an animal will experience during life due to increased predation risk, aggression from 30 unfamiliar conspecifics and the lack of social support. However, little is known about how individuals 31 respond physiologically to dispersal and whether this process is stressful for the individuals involved. We 32 therefore studied the physiological stress response during dispersal in the crested macaque, a primate 33 species in which males often change groups. Over a period of 14 months and 14 dispersal events in 4 34 groups, we determined faecal glucocorticoid metabolite (FGCM) levels during the process of immigration 35 into a new group and examined a variety of factors (e.g. male age, rank achieved, number of males in the 36 group) potentially affecting FGCM levels during this process. We found that FGCM levels were 37 significantly elevated in the first few days upon immigration, after which levels returned quickly to 38 baseline. FGCM response levels upon immigration were significantly and positively influenced by the 39 number of males in the group. The rank a male achieved upon immigration, aggression received, as well 40 as the proximity to other males did not significantly influence FGCM levels. Our data confirm previous 41 findings on other species demonstrating that in crested macaques immigration into a new social group is 42 associated with an acute endocrine stress response. However, given that stress hormone levels remained 43 elevated only for a short period of time, we do not expect males to experience high physiological costs 44 during immigration. Given our limited knowledge on the physiological responses to dispersal in animals, 45 this study contributes to our understanding of dispersal more generally, and particularly inter-individual 46 differences in the stress response and the potential physiological costs associated with these.
In promiscuous primates, interactions between adult males and infants have rarely been investigat... more In promiscuous primates, interactions between adult males and infants have rarely been investigated. However, recent evidence suggests that male affiliation towards infants has an influence on several aspects of the infants' life. Furthermore, affiliations may be associated with male reproductive strategy. In this study, we examined which social factors influenced male-infant affiliation initiated by either male or infant, in wild crested macaques (Macaca nigra). We combined behavioral data and genetic paternity analysis from 30 infants living in three wild groups in Tangkoko Reserve, Indonesia. Our results indicate that adult males and infants do not interact at random, but rather form preferential associations. The social factors with the highest influence on infantinitiated interactions were male rank and male association with the infant's mother. While infants initiated affiliations with males more often in the absence of their mothers, adult males initiated more affiliations with infants when their mothers were present. Furthermore, males initiated affiliations more often when they were in the same group at the time the infant was conceived, when they held a high dominance rank, or when they had a close relationship with the mother. Interestingly, paternity did not affect male-infant affiliation despite being highly skewed in this species. Overall, our results suggest that adult males potentially associate with an infant to secure future mating with the mother. Infants are Communicated by E. Huchard Antje Engelhardt and Anja Widdig equally contributed as senior author Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article
Recent advances in non-invasively collected samples have opened up new and exciting opportunities... more Recent advances in non-invasively collected samples have opened up new and exciting opportunities for wildlife research. Different types of samples, however, involve different limitations and certain physiological markers (e.g., C-peptide, oxytocin) can only be reliably measured from urine. Common collection methods for urine to date work best for arboreal animals and large volumes of urine. Sufficient recovery of urine is thus still difficult for wildlife biologists, particularly for terrestrial and small bodied animals. We tested three collection devices (two commercially available saliva swabs, Salivette synthetic and cotton, and cotton First aid swabs) against a control to permit the collection of small volumes of urine from the ground. We collected urine samples from captive and wild macaques, and humans, measured volume recovery, and analyzed concentrates of selected physiological markers (creatinine, C-peptide, and neopterin). The Salivette synthetic device was superior to th...
Orangutans are on the brink of extinction with serious declines in population sizes. Many attempt... more Orangutans are on the brink of extinction with serious declines in population sizes. Many attempts have been made to protect this species including a reintroduction program as a new approach mandated by the Indonesian government. In the present study we are reporting the assessments of Sumatran orangutan well-being during the rehabilitation and reintroduction process by measuring fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (FGCM). The samples were collected from the rehabilitation facility Batu Mblin, Sibolangit Medan, and from the reintroduction station Jantho, Aceh Province, both operated by the Sumatran Orangutan Conservation Project (SOCP). Fecal samples were collected from 6 individuals between 2011 and 2013. The lowest FGCM levels were found at the rehabilitation station. After transport to the release station, but before the animals were released, we already found an elevation of FGCM, presumably reflecting a response to the new environment and transportation stress. The highest levels ...
Premature loss of offspring decreases direct fitness of parents. In gregarious mammals, both ecol... more Premature loss of offspring decreases direct fitness of parents. In gregarious mammals, both ecological and social variables impact offspring survival and may interact with each other in this regard. Although a number of studies have investigated factors influencing offspring loss in mammals, we still know very little on how different factors interact with one another. We therefore investigated fetal and infant mortality in 3 large groups of wild crested macaques (Macaca nigra) over a period of up to 5 years by including potential social causes such as maternal dominance rank, male immigration, between group encounters, and ecological conditions such as rainfall in a multivariate survival analysis using Cox proportional hazards model. Infant but not fetal survival was most impaired after a recent takeover of the alpha-male position by an immigrant male. Furthermore, infant survival probability increased when there was an increase in number of group adult females and rainfall. Fetal survival probability also increased with an increase of these 2 factors, but more in high-ranking than low-ranking females. Fetal survival, unlike that of infants, was also improved by an increase of intergroup encounter rates. Our study thus stresses the importance of survival analyses using a multivariate approach and encompassing more than a single offspring stage to investigate the determinants of female direct fitness. We further provide evidence for fitness costs and benefits of group living, possibly deriving from high pressures of both within-and between-group competition, in a wild primate population.
IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science
Gamete collection is feasible in Banteng (Bos javanicus) and is essential for conserving this spe... more Gamete collection is feasible in Banteng (Bos javanicus) and is essential for conserving this species. The common practice of semen collection in wild animals is using the electroejaculation technique which is considered invasive with lower-quality results. This study aims to develop sperm collection further using an artificial vagina and to investigate the sperm motility of Banteng after being frozen-thawed. A Banteng bull kept in Taman Safari Indonesia was used for this study. Before semen collection, the bull is acclimatized to collection conditions. Semen collection is done once a month for six months. The semen was evaluated according to a method for bovine semen. Cryopreservation of semen was performed using an Andromed® extender, in 0.25 mL Ministraw®, and equilibrated at 4°C for 3 hours, followed by freezing in liquid nitrogen vapor. Quality testing was performed using the CASA IVOS II™. The result showed variations between batches, with the number of mountings 9.83±2.86(7-1...
The population of anoa, which is an endemic fauna to Indonesia, was getting decrease caused by th... more The population of anoa, which is an endemic fauna to Indonesia, was getting decrease caused by the illegal hunting and deforestation. Anoa is included in endangered species by IUCN, and Appendix I by CITES. The experiment aimed to characterize the seminal plasma contents and to cryopreserve the anoa semen for artificial insemination application in captivity. The experiment was carried out in Taman Safari Indonesia (Bogor). Semen was collected from 2 anesthetized males (4-10 years) by electroejaculation. Seminal plasma gained by centrifugation of ejaculate (3000 rpm, 20 minutes), and then was evaluated the biochemical contents. Other ejaculates were evaluated macroscopically and microscopically, and then extended in Tris and Na-citrate media to a total concentration of 100 billion cells mL -1 . Extended semen was stored at 4 o C, and evaluated the motility and viability every 12 h. Frozen semen was made in Tris medium added with 5% of glycerol. The seminal plasma of anoa contained to...
H-labelled oestradiol-17b and C-progesterone were injected i.v. into an adult female Ž . Sumatran... more H-labelled oestradiol-17b and C-progesterone were injected i.v. into an adult female Ž . Sumatran rhinoceros Dicerorhinus sumatrensis and all urine and faeces collected over 4 days. Of the injected steroid, 68% of H-oestradiol and 89% of C-progesterone were recovered. Peak excretion in urine occurred on day 1 for both steroids, and for faeces on day 2 for C-progesterone, and between days 2 and 3 for H-oestradiol. Oestradiol metabolites were predominantly Ž . nearly 70% excreted into the urine, while progesterone metabolites were almost exclusively Ž . Ž . )99% excreted into the faeces. The majority )70% of urinary excreted oestrogens consisted Ž . of water-soluble i.e., conjugated forms, with )90% of these being glucuronides. In contrast, Ž )75% of faecal oestrogen and progesterone metabolites were excreted as ether-soluble i.e., . unconjugated forms. HPLC co-chromatography of oestrogens in hydrolysed urine indicated only one peak of radioactivity, co-eluting with authentic oestradi...
Objectives: While it has been demonstrated that even subtle variation in human facial expressions... more Objectives: While it has been demonstrated that even subtle variation in human facial expressions can lead to significant changes in the meaning and function of expressions, relatively few studies have examined primate facial expressions using similarly objective and rigorous analysis. Construction of primate facial expression repertoires may, therefore, be oversimplified, with expressions often arbitrarily pooled and/or split into subjective pigeonholes. Our objective is to assess whether subtle variation in primate facial expressions is linked to variation in function, and hence to inform future attempts to quantify complexity of facial communication. Materials and Methods: We used Macaque Facial Action Coding System, an anatomically based and hence more objective tool, to quantify "silent bared-teeth" (SBT) expressions produced by wild crested macaques engaging in spontaneous behavior, and utilized discriminant analysis and bootstrapping analysis to look for morphological differences between SBT produced in four different contexts, defined by the outcome of interactions: Affiliation, Copulation, Play, and Submission. Results: We found that SBT produced in these contexts could be distinguished at significantly above-chance rates, indicating that the expressions produced in these four contexts differ morphologically. We identified the specific facial movements that were typically used in each context, and found that the variability and intensity of facial movements also varied between contexts. Discussion: These results indicate that nonhuman primate facial expressions share the human characteristic of exhibiting meaningful subtle differences. Complexity of facial communication may not be accurately represented simply by building repertoires of distinct expressions, so further work should attempt to take this subtle variability into account.
IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 2018
Neem has antispermatogenic effect in animals and male men. The objectives of this research to eva... more Neem has antispermatogenic effect in animals and male men. The objectives of this research to evaluate the effect of aqueous seed extract of neem on the structure of testis. Male mice of DDY strain were divided into five groups. Group I as a control group (C1-1) with the absence of treatment. Group II and III (s1-1 and s2-1) were orally treated by administered aqueous seeds extract of neem at doses 0.25 and 0.50 mg/kg body weight (bw) for 36 days. Group IV and V (S1-2 and S2-2) was treated by administering aqueous seeds extract of neem at doses 0.25 and 0.50 mg/kg bw for 36 days followed with another 36 days with no treatment. The results showed that neem seed extracts cause a decrease of spermatogenic cell (p<0.05). It can be concluded that exposure to the aqueous seed extracts of neem can decrease spermatogenic cell, and its effect more than 36 days.
Since the non-invasive field endocrinology techniques were developed, several fecal preservation ... more Since the non-invasive field endocrinology techniques were developed, several fecal preservation and extraction methods have been established for a variety of species. However, direct adaptation of methods from previous studies for use in crested macaques should be taken with caution. We conducted an experiment to assess the accuracy and stability of fecal estrogen metabolite (E1C) and glucocorticoid metabolite (GCM) concentrations in response to several preservation parameters: (1) time lag between sample collection and fecal preservation; (2) long-term storage of fecal samples in 80% methanol (MeOH) at ambient temperature; (3) different degrees of feces drying temperature using a conventional oven; and (4) different fecal preservation techniques (i.e., freeze-drying, oven-drying, and field-friendly extraction method) and extraction solvents (methanol, ethanol, and commercial alcohol). The study used fecal samples collected from crested macaques (Macaca nigra) living in the Tangkok...
Social bonds between group members affect individual fitness and well-being. While the impact of ... more Social bonds between group members affect individual fitness and well-being. While the impact of bond strength is well studied, the consequences of bond predictability and equitability are often overlooked. Similarly, whether bonds reflect short-term contingencies and/or long-term social strategies remains understudied. We investigated these questions in female crested macaques (Macaca nigra), which display a tolerant social style within a nepotistic hierarchical social structure. We analysed the structure of social bonds by testing whether similarity within dyads-in kinship, dominance and age-predicted the strength, predictability and equitability of bonds. We then tested the value of social bonds by analysing the effect of their characteristics on three fitness-related behaviours: coalitionary support, feeding-in-proximity and aggression. We found that the bond characteristics of females differed substantially from those of other species with comparable data: bonds were of average strength, of moderate endurance and relatively balanced. Stronger bonds were more equitable but less predictable than weaker bonds. Closely-ranked females, but not kin or age peers, had stronger, more predictable and more equitable bonds than others. Coalitionary support was not related to any of the bond characteristics, feeding-in-proximity was positively associated with strength and predictability and aggression was positively linked to strength and negatively to equitability. These results highlight the complex picture of the benefits of social bonds in this species. They reflect the degrees of freedom tolerant macaque females can express in their social relationships within their stable social structure, a pattern that may not be given enough consideration in stable nepotistic hierarchical societies. Comparative research is necessary to establish whether these patterns are more general than previously thought or a specific feature of tolerant macaques. Investigating various characteristics of bonds together is paramount in order to appreciate the dynamics of social relationships and to better understand the social components of fitness.
In gregarious species, dispersal events represent one of the most dramatic changes in social life... more In gregarious species, dispersal events represent one of the most dramatic changes in social life and 29 environment an animal will experience during life due to increased predation risk, aggression from 30 unfamiliar conspecifics and the lack of social support. However, little is known about how individuals 31 respond physiologically to dispersal and whether this process is stressful for the individuals involved. We 32 therefore studied the physiological stress response during dispersal in the crested macaque, a primate 33 species in which males often change groups. Over a period of 14 months and 14 dispersal events in 4 34 groups, we determined faecal glucocorticoid metabolite (FGCM) levels during the process of immigration 35 into a new group and examined a variety of factors (e.g. male age, rank achieved, number of males in the 36 group) potentially affecting FGCM levels during this process. We found that FGCM levels were 37 significantly elevated in the first few days upon immigration, after which levels returned quickly to 38 baseline. FGCM response levels upon immigration were significantly and positively influenced by the 39 number of males in the group. The rank a male achieved upon immigration, aggression received, as well 40 as the proximity to other males did not significantly influence FGCM levels. Our data confirm previous 41 findings on other species demonstrating that in crested macaques immigration into a new social group is 42 associated with an acute endocrine stress response. However, given that stress hormone levels remained 43 elevated only for a short period of time, we do not expect males to experience high physiological costs 44 during immigration. Given our limited knowledge on the physiological responses to dispersal in animals, 45 this study contributes to our understanding of dispersal more generally, and particularly inter-individual 46 differences in the stress response and the potential physiological costs associated with these.
In promiscuous primates, interactions between adult males and infants have rarely been investigat... more In promiscuous primates, interactions between adult males and infants have rarely been investigated. However, recent evidence suggests that male affiliation towards infants has an influence on several aspects of the infants' life. Furthermore, affiliations may be associated with male reproductive strategy. In this study, we examined which social factors influenced male-infant affiliation initiated by either male or infant, in wild crested macaques (Macaca nigra). We combined behavioral data and genetic paternity analysis from 30 infants living in three wild groups in Tangkoko Reserve, Indonesia. Our results indicate that adult males and infants do not interact at random, but rather form preferential associations. The social factors with the highest influence on infantinitiated interactions were male rank and male association with the infant's mother. While infants initiated affiliations with males more often in the absence of their mothers, adult males initiated more affiliations with infants when their mothers were present. Furthermore, males initiated affiliations more often when they were in the same group at the time the infant was conceived, when they held a high dominance rank, or when they had a close relationship with the mother. Interestingly, paternity did not affect male-infant affiliation despite being highly skewed in this species. Overall, our results suggest that adult males potentially associate with an infant to secure future mating with the mother. Infants are Communicated by E. Huchard Antje Engelhardt and Anja Widdig equally contributed as senior author Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article
Recent advances in non-invasively collected samples have opened up new and exciting opportunities... more Recent advances in non-invasively collected samples have opened up new and exciting opportunities for wildlife research. Different types of samples, however, involve different limitations and certain physiological markers (e.g., C-peptide, oxytocin) can only be reliably measured from urine. Common collection methods for urine to date work best for arboreal animals and large volumes of urine. Sufficient recovery of urine is thus still difficult for wildlife biologists, particularly for terrestrial and small bodied animals. We tested three collection devices (two commercially available saliva swabs, Salivette synthetic and cotton, and cotton First aid swabs) against a control to permit the collection of small volumes of urine from the ground. We collected urine samples from captive and wild macaques, and humans, measured volume recovery, and analyzed concentrates of selected physiological markers (creatinine, C-peptide, and neopterin). The Salivette synthetic device was superior to th...
Orangutans are on the brink of extinction with serious declines in population sizes. Many attempt... more Orangutans are on the brink of extinction with serious declines in population sizes. Many attempts have been made to protect this species including a reintroduction program as a new approach mandated by the Indonesian government. In the present study we are reporting the assessments of Sumatran orangutan well-being during the rehabilitation and reintroduction process by measuring fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (FGCM). The samples were collected from the rehabilitation facility Batu Mblin, Sibolangit Medan, and from the reintroduction station Jantho, Aceh Province, both operated by the Sumatran Orangutan Conservation Project (SOCP). Fecal samples were collected from 6 individuals between 2011 and 2013. The lowest FGCM levels were found at the rehabilitation station. After transport to the release station, but before the animals were released, we already found an elevation of FGCM, presumably reflecting a response to the new environment and transportation stress. The highest levels ...
Premature loss of offspring decreases direct fitness of parents. In gregarious mammals, both ecol... more Premature loss of offspring decreases direct fitness of parents. In gregarious mammals, both ecological and social variables impact offspring survival and may interact with each other in this regard. Although a number of studies have investigated factors influencing offspring loss in mammals, we still know very little on how different factors interact with one another. We therefore investigated fetal and infant mortality in 3 large groups of wild crested macaques (Macaca nigra) over a period of up to 5 years by including potential social causes such as maternal dominance rank, male immigration, between group encounters, and ecological conditions such as rainfall in a multivariate survival analysis using Cox proportional hazards model. Infant but not fetal survival was most impaired after a recent takeover of the alpha-male position by an immigrant male. Furthermore, infant survival probability increased when there was an increase in number of group adult females and rainfall. Fetal survival probability also increased with an increase of these 2 factors, but more in high-ranking than low-ranking females. Fetal survival, unlike that of infants, was also improved by an increase of intergroup encounter rates. Our study thus stresses the importance of survival analyses using a multivariate approach and encompassing more than a single offspring stage to investigate the determinants of female direct fitness. We further provide evidence for fitness costs and benefits of group living, possibly deriving from high pressures of both within-and between-group competition, in a wild primate population.
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