Hydrogen is set to play a part in delivering a net zero emissions future globally. However, previ... more Hydrogen is set to play a part in delivering a net zero emissions future globally. However, previous research finds that risk perception issues are particularly challenging for emerging and potentially unfamiliar technologies. Hydrogen as a fuel falls into this category. Thus, while the hydrogen value chain could offer a range of potential environmental, economic and social benefits, it is imperative that the roll-out of hydrogen fits with societal expectations of how risk ought to be managed—and by whom. Communication and engagement are critical to ensure 1) communities and stakeholders are able to come to informed decisions on hydrogen and 2) developers, operators and regulators are able to respond to societal concerns and adapt practices appropriately.Within the hydrogen value chain, geological storage may be an important step, but could present challenges in terms of perceived safety. Lessons can be learned from international research and practice of CO2 and natural gas storage ...
Presented on Thursday 19 May: Session 21 Interest in hydrogen (H2) energy has exploded in the las... more Presented on Thursday 19 May: Session 21 Interest in hydrogen (H2) energy has exploded in the last few years. Much of the interest comes from transitioning to a decarbonised energy future, through the use of renewables, to convert hydrogen-rich materials (methane, water) to pure hydrogen gas streams. Each of these methods have their own challenges, such as the need for carbon capture and storage to manage carbon emissions or perspectives on the use of fresh water. At the same time as this engineered approach to generating hydrogen, there has been a quiet but exponential upsurge in research surrounding the origins and fate of naturally occurring hydrogen. Sometimes referred to as ‘gold’ or ‘white’ hydrogen, geological forms of hydrogen have been recognised for thousands of years. While already present as H2, hydrogen may exist with other gases, such as methane, helium, hydrogen sulfide and/or nitrogen. But is it real? Is it volumetrically significant, discoverable, predictable or exp...
Recent research suggests that the effects of climate change are already tangible, making the requ... more Recent research suggests that the effects of climate change are already tangible, making the requirement for net zero more pressing than ever. New emissions targets have been announced in April 2021 by various governments, including by the United Kingdom, United States, and China, prior to the Conference of the Parties (COP26) in Glasgow. Part of the solution for net zero will be geo-energy technologies in the subsurface, these include: mine water geothermal, aquifer thermal energy storage (ATES), enhanced geothermal systems and other thermal storage options, compressed air energy storage (CAES), and carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) including bioenergy CCS (BECCS). Subsurface net zero technologies have been studied by geologists at laboratory scale and with models, but also require testing at greater-than laboratory scale and in representative conditions not reproducible in laboratories and models. Test, pilot and demonstration facilities aid rock characterisation process un...
Carbon capture, utilisation and storage (CCUS) as a set of activities have been undertaken in var... more Carbon capture, utilisation and storage (CCUS) as a set of activities have been undertaken in various forms for many tens of years to separate CO2 from natural gas or for enhanced oil recovery (EOR). The role of CCUS as a tool to mitigate emissions has been increasingly studied and applied, for example at this series of conferences and through coordinated research around the world (e.g. Carbon Capture and Storage Flagship Program in Australia, Regional Carbon Sequestration partnerships in the US, and a whole range of projects in Norway such as Sleipner). The overall value chain and processes typically encompass: • Capture technology (e.g. natural gas clean-up, coal combustion, industrial processes, hydrogen production) • Utilisation (e.g. EOR, production of chemicals, geothermal) • Transportation by pipeline and shipping • Geological storage (aquifer, depleted hydrocarbon fields, EOR, coal, basalts etc.) • Monitoring of storage over the longer term (leakage, environmental impacts) These activities are underpinned by regulatory frameworks, international standards, government policy/legislation and social license to operate. While it is not expected that everyone employed or facing CCUS has expert levels of understanding of all facets of CCUS, few may be familiar or comfortable with the (a) technology (b) footprint (c) scale (d) impacts of the different parts of the CCUS process. How were these observations made? The CSIRO booth at the GHGT-14 Conference in Melbourne (2018) was set up to accommodate two virtual reality (VR) stations with a virtual tour of a carbon capture and storage journey (Figure 1). This was navigated in part by the visitor (i.e. wearing the VR headset) or controlled by the tour guide (operator) or both. The tour provides the visitor with a reasonable proxy for a carbon capture and storage plant. The use of VR can make significant steps in overcoming this lack of built project in the early stages of full-scale development of CCUS (or other large-scale emerging industries) globally. VR could be used in obtaining social license as it could provide much clearer context for community groups where new developments might take place. Some aspects of the tour are highly conceptualized, in particular the space in the base of the well, the diameter of the well bore and the use of bubbles to mimic CO2 movement. Typically, the CO2 would be injected as a supercritical fluid, not bubbles, but that is harder to render for the purposes of the tour. Key observations from running the tours over the course of the conference were that prior to taking part in the VR tour most attendees had not really considered what their levels of understanding of the whole of the CCUS process might be. After the tour they felt much more enlightened and comfortable to discuss those aspects; they understood better the challenges in areas that they were not so familiar with and felt better informed to discuss the different steps in the process with non-specialists. Geological storage has been much more challenging to convey through other imagery, description and information/education [1]. The perception of depth and presence of geological rock overburden as a seal to retard CO2 mobility was therefore much better understood. Areas where the visitor could interact with the location and environment were more engaging and the sense of being transported to another location or environment to interact at a site without induction training, personal protective equipment and no change in climate was not lost on those participating. The tours have now been used in a few Open House activities in relation to the CSIRO In-Situ Laboratory field trial to provide a sense of context for the local community, but a more systematic approach to testing the role of VR tours in social license is required to evaluate this approach as a mechanism to better inform the public of CCUS and its impact locally.
The industry in western Australia has committed to addressing their carbon emissions in response ... more The industry in western Australia has committed to addressing their carbon emissions in response to the governments aspiration of net zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050. Natural gas will play an important role in the transition to a fully renewable energy market but will require the geological storage of carbon dioxide to limit emissions and enable the production of blue hydrogen. Underground storage of energy in general (e.g. natural gas, hydrogen, compressed air) will be needed increasingly for providing options for temporary storage of energy from renewable resources and for energy export. Storage operations would need to provide adequate monitoring systems in compliance with yet to be defined regulations and to assure the public that potential leakage or induced seismicity could be confidently detected, managed and remediated. The In-Situ Laboratory in the southwest of western Australia was established in 2019 as a research field site to support low emissions technologies dev...
The CSIRO In-Situ Laboratory has been a world first injection of CO2 into a large faulted zone at... more The CSIRO In-Situ Laboratory has been a world first injection of CO2 into a large faulted zone at depth. A total of 38 tonnes of CO2 was injected into the F10 fault zone at approximately 330 m depth and the process monitored in detail. The site uses a well, Harvey-2, in SW Western Australia (the South West Hub CCS Project area). The top 400 m section of Harvey-2 was available for injection and instrumentation. An observation well, ISL OB-1 (400 m depth) was drilled 7 m to the north east of Harvey-2. ISL OB-1 well was cased with fibreglass to provide greater monitoring options. The CSIRO In-Situ Laboratory was designed to integrate existing facilities and infrastructure from the South West Hub CCS Project managed by the West Australian Department of Mines, Industry Regulation and Safety. While new equipment was deployed for this specific project, the site facilities were complemented by a range of mobile deployable equipment from the National Geosequestration Laboratory (NGL). The geology of the area investigated poses interesting challenges: a large fault (F10) is estimated to have up to 1000 m throw overall, the presence of packages of paleosols rather than a contiguous mudstone seal, and a 1500 m vertical thickness of Triassic sandstone as the potential commercial storage interval. This unique site provides abundant opportunities for testing more challenging geological environments for carbon storage than at other sites. While details of this first project are described elsewhere, lessons were learned during the development and execution of the project. A rigorous risk register was developed to manage project risk, but not all events encountered were foreseen. This paper describes some of the challenges encountered and the team's response. Relocation of the project site due to changes in landholder ownership) and other sensitivities resulted in the need for rapid replanning of activities at short notice resulting in the development of the site at Harvey-2. The relocation allowed other research questions to be addressed through new activities, such as the ability to consider a shallow/controlled release experiment in an extensive fault zone, but this replanning did cause some timing stress. The first test at the In-Situ Laboratory was reconfigured to address some of those knowledge gaps that shallow/controlled release experiments had yet to address. Novel approaches to drilling and completing the monitoring well also threw up unanticipated difficulties. Loss of containment from the wellbore also posed significant challenges, and the team's response to this unintended release of gas and water from the monitoring well at the
The CSIRO In-Situ Laboratory Project (ISL) is located in Western Australia and has two main objec... more The CSIRO In-Situ Laboratory Project (ISL) is located in Western Australia and has two main objectives related to monitoring leaks from a CO2 storage complex by controlled-release experiments: 1) improving the monitorability of gaseous CO2 accumulations at intermediate depth, and 2) assessing the impact of faults on CO2 migration. A first test at the In-situ Lab has evaluated the ability to monitor and detect unwanted leakage of CO2 from a storage complex in a major fault zone. The ISL consists of three instrumented wells up to 400 m deep: 1) Harvey-2 used primarily for gaseous CO2 injection, 2) ISL OB-1, a fibreglass geophysical monitoring well with behind-casing instrumentation, and 3) a shallow (27 m) groundwater well for fluid sampling. A controlled-release test injected 38 tonnes of CO2 between 336-342 m depth in February 2019, and the gas was monitored by a wide range of downhole and surface monitoring technologies. CO2 reached the ISL OB-1 monitoring well (7 m away) after app...
International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control, 2020
A controlled-release test at the In-Situ Laboratory Project in Western Australia injected 38 tonn... more A controlled-release test at the In-Situ Laboratory Project in Western Australia injected 38 tonnes of gaseous CO2 between 336-342 m depth in a fault zone, and the gas was monitored by a wide range of downhole and surface monitoring technologies. Injection of CO2 at this depth fills the gap between shallow release (<25 m) and storage (>600 m) field trials. The main objectives of the controlled-release test were to assess the monitorability of shallow CO2 accumulations, and to investigate the impacts of a fault zone on CO2 migration. CO2 arrival was detected by distributed temperature sensing at the monitoring well (7 m away) after approximately 1.5 days and an injection volume of 5 tonnes. The CO2 plume was detected also by borehole seismic and electric resistivity imaging. The detection of significantly less than 38 tonnes of CO2 in the shallow subsurface demonstrates rapid and sensitive monitorability of potential leaks in the overburden of a commercial-scale storage project, prior to reaching shallow groundwater, soil zones or the atmosphere. Observations suggest that the fault zone did not alter the CO2 migration along bedding at the scale and depth of the test. Contrary to model predictions, no vertical CO2 migration was detected beyond the perforated injection interval. CO2 and formation water escaped to the surface through the monitoring well at the end of the experiment due to unexpected damage to the well's fibreglass casing. The well was successfully remediated without impact to the environment and the site is ready for future experiments.
The viability of Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) depends on the reliable containment of injected... more The viability of Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) depends on the reliable containment of injected CO2 in the subsurface. Robust and cost-effective approaches to measure monitor and verify CO2 containment are required to demonstrate that CO2 has not breached the reservoir, and to comply with CCS regulations. This includes capability to detect and quantify any potential leakage to surface. It is useful to consider the range of possible leak rates for potential CO2 leak pathways from an intended storage reservoir to surface to inform the design of effective monitoring approaches. However, in the absence of a portfolio of leakage from engineered CO2 stores we must instead learn from industrial and natural analogues, numerical models, and laboratory and field experiments that have intentionally released CO2 into the shallow subsurface to simulate a CO2 leak to surface. We collated a global dataset of measured or estimated CO2 flux (CO2 emission per unit area) and CO2 leak rate from industrial and natural analogues and field experiments. We then examined the dataset to compare emission and flux rates and seep style, and consider the measured emission rates in the context of commercial scale CCS operations. We find that natural and industrial analogues show very wide variation in the scale of CO2 emissions, and tend to be larger than leaks simulated by CO2 release experiments. For all analogue types (natural, industrial, or experiment) the emission rates show greater variation between sites than CO2 flux rates. Quantitation approaches are non-standardized, and that measuring and reporting both the CO2 flux and seep rate is rare as it remains challenging, particularly in marine environments. Finally, we observe that CO2 fluxes tend to be associated with particular emission characteristics (vent, diffuse, or water-associated). We propose that characteristics could inform the design and performance requirements for CO2 leak monitoring approaches tailored to detect specific emission styles.
Legislation and guidelines developed for Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) have set performance re... more Legislation and guidelines developed for Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) have set performance requirements to minimize leakage risk, and to quantify and remediate any leaks that arise. For compliance it is necessary to have a comprehensive understanding of the possible spread, fate and impacts of any leaked CO 2 , and the ability to detect and quantify any CO 2 seepage into marine or terrestrial environments. Over the past decade, a number of field scale CO2 release experiments have been conducted around the world to address many of the uncertainties regarding the characteristics of near-surface expression of CO 2 in terms of the impact and quantitation of CO2 leaks. In these experiments, either free phase or dissolved CO2 was injected and released into the shallow subsurface so as to artificially simulate a CO2 leak into the near-surface environment. The experiments differ in a number of ways, from the geological conditions, surface environments, injection rates and experimental setup including the injection and monitoring strategy. These experiments have provided abundant information to aid in the development of our scientific understanding of environmental impacts of CO2 while assessing state of the art monitoring techniques. We collated a global dataset of field-scale shallow (depths < ~25 m) controlled CO2 release experiments. The dataset includes 14 different field experiment locations, of which nine intended to release CO2 to the surface, and the remaining sites intended for CO2 to remain in the shallow subsurface. Several release experiments have been conducted at half of these sites, and so in total, 42 different CO2 release tests have taken place at the 14 sites in our dataset. We scrutinized our dataset to establish: (i) the range of experimental approaches and settings explored to date (such as the environment, subsurface conditions, injection strategy and whether gaseous or dissolved CO2 were injected and in what quantities); (ii) the range of CO2 injection and surface release rates at these experiments; (iii) the collective learnings about the surface and subsurface manifestation of the CO2 release, the spread and fate of the CO2, rates of CO2 flux to surface, and methods of measuring these; (iv) the strengths and limitations of current approaches for detecting and quantifying CO2. This allowed us to highlight where uncertainties remain and identify knowledge gaps that future experiments should seek to address. Further, drawing on the collective experiences, we have identified common issues or complications which future CO2 release experiments can learn from.
The oil and gas industry in Western Australia will need to address their carbon emissions in resp... more The oil and gas industry in Western Australia will need to address their carbon emissions in response to the state government’s aspiration of net zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050. The geological storage of carbon dioxide is a proven technology and an option for reducing emissions. Storage operations would need to provide adequate monitoring systems in compliance with yet to be defined regulations and to assure the public that potential leakage could be confidently detected, managed and remediated. The In-Situ Laboratory in the south-west of Western Australia was established as a research field site to support low emissions technology development and provides a unique field site for controlled CO2 release experiments in a fault zone and testing of monitoring technologies between 400 m depth and the ground surface. A first test injection of 38 tonnes of food-grade gaseous CO2 in 2019 demonstrated the ability to detect less than 10 tonnes of CO2 with fibre optic sensing and boreho...
CCS project, a test was conducted where 38 t of gaseous CO 2 were injected over 5 days into a fau... more CCS project, a test was conducted where 38 t of gaseous CO 2 were injected over 5 days into a fault zone at a depth of approximately 340 m. As a release test, this project enabled the testing and validation of surface and shallow well monitoring strategies at intermediate depths (i.e. depths much deeper than previous release projects and shallower than reservoirs used for CO 2 storage). One of the aims of this project is to understand how CO 2 would behave at intermediate depths if it did migrate from deeper depths (i.e. from a storage reservoir); the CO 2 was not intended to migrate to the shallow subsurface or to surface/atmosphere. To verify that the injected CO 2 remained in the subsurface, and to comply with environmental performance requirements on site, a comprehensive surface gas and groundwater monitoring program was conducted. The monitoring strategy was designed such that any leakage(s) to the surface of injected CO 2 would be detected, mapped and, ultimately, quantified. The surface air monitoring program was comprised of three different but complementary approaches allowing data to be efficiently collected over different spatial and temporal scales. These approaches included continuous soil-gas chamber measurements at fixed locations, periodic soil-gas chamber measurements on gridded locations and near-surface atmospheric measurements on a mobile platform. The surface air monitoring approaches gave self-consistent results and reduced the risk of "false negative" test results. The only anomalous CO 2 detected at the surface flowed from the observation well and could be directly attributed to a breach in the well casing at the injection depth providing a conduit for CO 2 / water to rise to the surface. Groundwater monitoring program revealed no impact on the groundwater resources attributable to the carbon injection project. Based on this work, we demonstrate that this multi-pronged monitoring strategy can be utilized to minimize the overall resources devoted to monitoring by increasing the number of monitoring approaches and diminishing the resources devoted to each technique. By maximizing the effectiveness of each element of the monitoring program, a cost-efficient and robust monitoring strategy capable of early leak detection and attribution of any leaking CO 2 can be achieved.
International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control, 2019
Wettability of CO2-brine-mineral systems plays a vital role during geological CO2-storage. Residu... more Wettability of CO2-brine-mineral systems plays a vital role during geological CO2-storage. Residual trapping is lower in deep saline aquifers where the CO2 is migrating through quartz rich reservoirs but CO2 accumulation within a three-way structural closure would have a high storage volume due to higher CO2 saturation in hydrophobic quartz rich reservoir rock. However, such wettability is only poorly understood at realistic subsurface conditions, which
Laboratory experiments, natural analogues and pilot projects have been fundamental in developing ... more Laboratory experiments, natural analogues and pilot projects have been fundamental in developing scientific understanding of risk and uncertainty from georesource exploration. International research into CO2 and CH4 leakage provide scientific understanding of potential leakage styles, rates and environmental impacts. However, the value of these experiments as a communication tool for stakeholders and the wider public is often overlooked in the form of visual information and comparisons. Quantifiable laboratory experiments, measurement of gas at natural springs or controlled release of CO2 (e.g. Quantifying and Monitoring Potential Ecosystem Impacts of Geological Carbon Storage Project (QICS)) raise awareness and commitment to understanding environmental impacts and geological complexities. Visuals can greatly facilitate communication, and research into public understanding of the subsurface demonstrates that quality and scale of schematics can affect perceived risk. Here we consider...
Coals in the Sydney Basin contain large amounts of gas ranging in composition from pure methane (... more Coals in the Sydney Basin contain large amounts of gas ranging in composition from pure methane (CH4) to pure carbon dioxide (CO2). These gases are derived from thermogenic, magmatic and biogenic sources and their present-day distribution is mainly related to geological structure, depth and proximity to igneous intrusions.A coal bed methane (CBM) study of the Camden area of the Sydney Basin has been jointly conducted by Sydney Gas Company NL (SGC) and the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO). The delineation of high production fairways is vital for any CBM project development to be commercially successful. An integrated research project employing various methods of reservoir characterisation, including geological, geochemical, geomechanical and gas storage analyses contribute to this delineation for the Camden area, where SGC is currently developing the 300-well Camden Gas Project.In particular, accurate determinations of gas content, saturation level...
possible baffle units within this member. Core-based work on pore-scale processes is developing k... more possible baffle units within this member. Core-based work on pore-scale processes is developing knowledge about the impacts of CO 2 injected into Wonnerup sandstones and how it may be distributed and retained for long-term storage. Together the seismic and well data are being integrated toward more detailed static and dynamic models for simulations of trapping potential and long-term behaviour of injected CO 2. Monitoring methods are being examined and field tested to establish environmental baselines and to ensure the ability to validate models and for public and regulatory assurance. Ongoing phases of research will continue to focus on reducing technical uncertainty at the South West Hub storage site. Addressing several outstanding questions about injectivity and containment at the site are driving additional research involving in situ well tests.
Hydrogen is set to play a part in delivering a net zero emissions future globally. However, previ... more Hydrogen is set to play a part in delivering a net zero emissions future globally. However, previous research finds that risk perception issues are particularly challenging for emerging and potentially unfamiliar technologies. Hydrogen as a fuel falls into this category. Thus, while the hydrogen value chain could offer a range of potential environmental, economic and social benefits, it is imperative that the roll-out of hydrogen fits with societal expectations of how risk ought to be managed—and by whom. Communication and engagement are critical to ensure 1) communities and stakeholders are able to come to informed decisions on hydrogen and 2) developers, operators and regulators are able to respond to societal concerns and adapt practices appropriately.Within the hydrogen value chain, geological storage may be an important step, but could present challenges in terms of perceived safety. Lessons can be learned from international research and practice of CO2 and natural gas storage ...
Presented on Thursday 19 May: Session 21 Interest in hydrogen (H2) energy has exploded in the las... more Presented on Thursday 19 May: Session 21 Interest in hydrogen (H2) energy has exploded in the last few years. Much of the interest comes from transitioning to a decarbonised energy future, through the use of renewables, to convert hydrogen-rich materials (methane, water) to pure hydrogen gas streams. Each of these methods have their own challenges, such as the need for carbon capture and storage to manage carbon emissions or perspectives on the use of fresh water. At the same time as this engineered approach to generating hydrogen, there has been a quiet but exponential upsurge in research surrounding the origins and fate of naturally occurring hydrogen. Sometimes referred to as ‘gold’ or ‘white’ hydrogen, geological forms of hydrogen have been recognised for thousands of years. While already present as H2, hydrogen may exist with other gases, such as methane, helium, hydrogen sulfide and/or nitrogen. But is it real? Is it volumetrically significant, discoverable, predictable or exp...
Recent research suggests that the effects of climate change are already tangible, making the requ... more Recent research suggests that the effects of climate change are already tangible, making the requirement for net zero more pressing than ever. New emissions targets have been announced in April 2021 by various governments, including by the United Kingdom, United States, and China, prior to the Conference of the Parties (COP26) in Glasgow. Part of the solution for net zero will be geo-energy technologies in the subsurface, these include: mine water geothermal, aquifer thermal energy storage (ATES), enhanced geothermal systems and other thermal storage options, compressed air energy storage (CAES), and carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) including bioenergy CCS (BECCS). Subsurface net zero technologies have been studied by geologists at laboratory scale and with models, but also require testing at greater-than laboratory scale and in representative conditions not reproducible in laboratories and models. Test, pilot and demonstration facilities aid rock characterisation process un...
Carbon capture, utilisation and storage (CCUS) as a set of activities have been undertaken in var... more Carbon capture, utilisation and storage (CCUS) as a set of activities have been undertaken in various forms for many tens of years to separate CO2 from natural gas or for enhanced oil recovery (EOR). The role of CCUS as a tool to mitigate emissions has been increasingly studied and applied, for example at this series of conferences and through coordinated research around the world (e.g. Carbon Capture and Storage Flagship Program in Australia, Regional Carbon Sequestration partnerships in the US, and a whole range of projects in Norway such as Sleipner). The overall value chain and processes typically encompass: • Capture technology (e.g. natural gas clean-up, coal combustion, industrial processes, hydrogen production) • Utilisation (e.g. EOR, production of chemicals, geothermal) • Transportation by pipeline and shipping • Geological storage (aquifer, depleted hydrocarbon fields, EOR, coal, basalts etc.) • Monitoring of storage over the longer term (leakage, environmental impacts) These activities are underpinned by regulatory frameworks, international standards, government policy/legislation and social license to operate. While it is not expected that everyone employed or facing CCUS has expert levels of understanding of all facets of CCUS, few may be familiar or comfortable with the (a) technology (b) footprint (c) scale (d) impacts of the different parts of the CCUS process. How were these observations made? The CSIRO booth at the GHGT-14 Conference in Melbourne (2018) was set up to accommodate two virtual reality (VR) stations with a virtual tour of a carbon capture and storage journey (Figure 1). This was navigated in part by the visitor (i.e. wearing the VR headset) or controlled by the tour guide (operator) or both. The tour provides the visitor with a reasonable proxy for a carbon capture and storage plant. The use of VR can make significant steps in overcoming this lack of built project in the early stages of full-scale development of CCUS (or other large-scale emerging industries) globally. VR could be used in obtaining social license as it could provide much clearer context for community groups where new developments might take place. Some aspects of the tour are highly conceptualized, in particular the space in the base of the well, the diameter of the well bore and the use of bubbles to mimic CO2 movement. Typically, the CO2 would be injected as a supercritical fluid, not bubbles, but that is harder to render for the purposes of the tour. Key observations from running the tours over the course of the conference were that prior to taking part in the VR tour most attendees had not really considered what their levels of understanding of the whole of the CCUS process might be. After the tour they felt much more enlightened and comfortable to discuss those aspects; they understood better the challenges in areas that they were not so familiar with and felt better informed to discuss the different steps in the process with non-specialists. Geological storage has been much more challenging to convey through other imagery, description and information/education [1]. The perception of depth and presence of geological rock overburden as a seal to retard CO2 mobility was therefore much better understood. Areas where the visitor could interact with the location and environment were more engaging and the sense of being transported to another location or environment to interact at a site without induction training, personal protective equipment and no change in climate was not lost on those participating. The tours have now been used in a few Open House activities in relation to the CSIRO In-Situ Laboratory field trial to provide a sense of context for the local community, but a more systematic approach to testing the role of VR tours in social license is required to evaluate this approach as a mechanism to better inform the public of CCUS and its impact locally.
The industry in western Australia has committed to addressing their carbon emissions in response ... more The industry in western Australia has committed to addressing their carbon emissions in response to the governments aspiration of net zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050. Natural gas will play an important role in the transition to a fully renewable energy market but will require the geological storage of carbon dioxide to limit emissions and enable the production of blue hydrogen. Underground storage of energy in general (e.g. natural gas, hydrogen, compressed air) will be needed increasingly for providing options for temporary storage of energy from renewable resources and for energy export. Storage operations would need to provide adequate monitoring systems in compliance with yet to be defined regulations and to assure the public that potential leakage or induced seismicity could be confidently detected, managed and remediated. The In-Situ Laboratory in the southwest of western Australia was established in 2019 as a research field site to support low emissions technologies dev...
The CSIRO In-Situ Laboratory has been a world first injection of CO2 into a large faulted zone at... more The CSIRO In-Situ Laboratory has been a world first injection of CO2 into a large faulted zone at depth. A total of 38 tonnes of CO2 was injected into the F10 fault zone at approximately 330 m depth and the process monitored in detail. The site uses a well, Harvey-2, in SW Western Australia (the South West Hub CCS Project area). The top 400 m section of Harvey-2 was available for injection and instrumentation. An observation well, ISL OB-1 (400 m depth) was drilled 7 m to the north east of Harvey-2. ISL OB-1 well was cased with fibreglass to provide greater monitoring options. The CSIRO In-Situ Laboratory was designed to integrate existing facilities and infrastructure from the South West Hub CCS Project managed by the West Australian Department of Mines, Industry Regulation and Safety. While new equipment was deployed for this specific project, the site facilities were complemented by a range of mobile deployable equipment from the National Geosequestration Laboratory (NGL). The geology of the area investigated poses interesting challenges: a large fault (F10) is estimated to have up to 1000 m throw overall, the presence of packages of paleosols rather than a contiguous mudstone seal, and a 1500 m vertical thickness of Triassic sandstone as the potential commercial storage interval. This unique site provides abundant opportunities for testing more challenging geological environments for carbon storage than at other sites. While details of this first project are described elsewhere, lessons were learned during the development and execution of the project. A rigorous risk register was developed to manage project risk, but not all events encountered were foreseen. This paper describes some of the challenges encountered and the team's response. Relocation of the project site due to changes in landholder ownership) and other sensitivities resulted in the need for rapid replanning of activities at short notice resulting in the development of the site at Harvey-2. The relocation allowed other research questions to be addressed through new activities, such as the ability to consider a shallow/controlled release experiment in an extensive fault zone, but this replanning did cause some timing stress. The first test at the In-Situ Laboratory was reconfigured to address some of those knowledge gaps that shallow/controlled release experiments had yet to address. Novel approaches to drilling and completing the monitoring well also threw up unanticipated difficulties. Loss of containment from the wellbore also posed significant challenges, and the team's response to this unintended release of gas and water from the monitoring well at the
The CSIRO In-Situ Laboratory Project (ISL) is located in Western Australia and has two main objec... more The CSIRO In-Situ Laboratory Project (ISL) is located in Western Australia and has two main objectives related to monitoring leaks from a CO2 storage complex by controlled-release experiments: 1) improving the monitorability of gaseous CO2 accumulations at intermediate depth, and 2) assessing the impact of faults on CO2 migration. A first test at the In-situ Lab has evaluated the ability to monitor and detect unwanted leakage of CO2 from a storage complex in a major fault zone. The ISL consists of three instrumented wells up to 400 m deep: 1) Harvey-2 used primarily for gaseous CO2 injection, 2) ISL OB-1, a fibreglass geophysical monitoring well with behind-casing instrumentation, and 3) a shallow (27 m) groundwater well for fluid sampling. A controlled-release test injected 38 tonnes of CO2 between 336-342 m depth in February 2019, and the gas was monitored by a wide range of downhole and surface monitoring technologies. CO2 reached the ISL OB-1 monitoring well (7 m away) after app...
International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control, 2020
A controlled-release test at the In-Situ Laboratory Project in Western Australia injected 38 tonn... more A controlled-release test at the In-Situ Laboratory Project in Western Australia injected 38 tonnes of gaseous CO2 between 336-342 m depth in a fault zone, and the gas was monitored by a wide range of downhole and surface monitoring technologies. Injection of CO2 at this depth fills the gap between shallow release (<25 m) and storage (>600 m) field trials. The main objectives of the controlled-release test were to assess the monitorability of shallow CO2 accumulations, and to investigate the impacts of a fault zone on CO2 migration. CO2 arrival was detected by distributed temperature sensing at the monitoring well (7 m away) after approximately 1.5 days and an injection volume of 5 tonnes. The CO2 plume was detected also by borehole seismic and electric resistivity imaging. The detection of significantly less than 38 tonnes of CO2 in the shallow subsurface demonstrates rapid and sensitive monitorability of potential leaks in the overburden of a commercial-scale storage project, prior to reaching shallow groundwater, soil zones or the atmosphere. Observations suggest that the fault zone did not alter the CO2 migration along bedding at the scale and depth of the test. Contrary to model predictions, no vertical CO2 migration was detected beyond the perforated injection interval. CO2 and formation water escaped to the surface through the monitoring well at the end of the experiment due to unexpected damage to the well's fibreglass casing. The well was successfully remediated without impact to the environment and the site is ready for future experiments.
The viability of Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) depends on the reliable containment of injected... more The viability of Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) depends on the reliable containment of injected CO2 in the subsurface. Robust and cost-effective approaches to measure monitor and verify CO2 containment are required to demonstrate that CO2 has not breached the reservoir, and to comply with CCS regulations. This includes capability to detect and quantify any potential leakage to surface. It is useful to consider the range of possible leak rates for potential CO2 leak pathways from an intended storage reservoir to surface to inform the design of effective monitoring approaches. However, in the absence of a portfolio of leakage from engineered CO2 stores we must instead learn from industrial and natural analogues, numerical models, and laboratory and field experiments that have intentionally released CO2 into the shallow subsurface to simulate a CO2 leak to surface. We collated a global dataset of measured or estimated CO2 flux (CO2 emission per unit area) and CO2 leak rate from industrial and natural analogues and field experiments. We then examined the dataset to compare emission and flux rates and seep style, and consider the measured emission rates in the context of commercial scale CCS operations. We find that natural and industrial analogues show very wide variation in the scale of CO2 emissions, and tend to be larger than leaks simulated by CO2 release experiments. For all analogue types (natural, industrial, or experiment) the emission rates show greater variation between sites than CO2 flux rates. Quantitation approaches are non-standardized, and that measuring and reporting both the CO2 flux and seep rate is rare as it remains challenging, particularly in marine environments. Finally, we observe that CO2 fluxes tend to be associated with particular emission characteristics (vent, diffuse, or water-associated). We propose that characteristics could inform the design and performance requirements for CO2 leak monitoring approaches tailored to detect specific emission styles.
Legislation and guidelines developed for Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) have set performance re... more Legislation and guidelines developed for Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) have set performance requirements to minimize leakage risk, and to quantify and remediate any leaks that arise. For compliance it is necessary to have a comprehensive understanding of the possible spread, fate and impacts of any leaked CO 2 , and the ability to detect and quantify any CO 2 seepage into marine or terrestrial environments. Over the past decade, a number of field scale CO2 release experiments have been conducted around the world to address many of the uncertainties regarding the characteristics of near-surface expression of CO 2 in terms of the impact and quantitation of CO2 leaks. In these experiments, either free phase or dissolved CO2 was injected and released into the shallow subsurface so as to artificially simulate a CO2 leak into the near-surface environment. The experiments differ in a number of ways, from the geological conditions, surface environments, injection rates and experimental setup including the injection and monitoring strategy. These experiments have provided abundant information to aid in the development of our scientific understanding of environmental impacts of CO2 while assessing state of the art monitoring techniques. We collated a global dataset of field-scale shallow (depths < ~25 m) controlled CO2 release experiments. The dataset includes 14 different field experiment locations, of which nine intended to release CO2 to the surface, and the remaining sites intended for CO2 to remain in the shallow subsurface. Several release experiments have been conducted at half of these sites, and so in total, 42 different CO2 release tests have taken place at the 14 sites in our dataset. We scrutinized our dataset to establish: (i) the range of experimental approaches and settings explored to date (such as the environment, subsurface conditions, injection strategy and whether gaseous or dissolved CO2 were injected and in what quantities); (ii) the range of CO2 injection and surface release rates at these experiments; (iii) the collective learnings about the surface and subsurface manifestation of the CO2 release, the spread and fate of the CO2, rates of CO2 flux to surface, and methods of measuring these; (iv) the strengths and limitations of current approaches for detecting and quantifying CO2. This allowed us to highlight where uncertainties remain and identify knowledge gaps that future experiments should seek to address. Further, drawing on the collective experiences, we have identified common issues or complications which future CO2 release experiments can learn from.
The oil and gas industry in Western Australia will need to address their carbon emissions in resp... more The oil and gas industry in Western Australia will need to address their carbon emissions in response to the state government’s aspiration of net zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050. The geological storage of carbon dioxide is a proven technology and an option for reducing emissions. Storage operations would need to provide adequate monitoring systems in compliance with yet to be defined regulations and to assure the public that potential leakage could be confidently detected, managed and remediated. The In-Situ Laboratory in the south-west of Western Australia was established as a research field site to support low emissions technology development and provides a unique field site for controlled CO2 release experiments in a fault zone and testing of monitoring technologies between 400 m depth and the ground surface. A first test injection of 38 tonnes of food-grade gaseous CO2 in 2019 demonstrated the ability to detect less than 10 tonnes of CO2 with fibre optic sensing and boreho...
CCS project, a test was conducted where 38 t of gaseous CO 2 were injected over 5 days into a fau... more CCS project, a test was conducted where 38 t of gaseous CO 2 were injected over 5 days into a fault zone at a depth of approximately 340 m. As a release test, this project enabled the testing and validation of surface and shallow well monitoring strategies at intermediate depths (i.e. depths much deeper than previous release projects and shallower than reservoirs used for CO 2 storage). One of the aims of this project is to understand how CO 2 would behave at intermediate depths if it did migrate from deeper depths (i.e. from a storage reservoir); the CO 2 was not intended to migrate to the shallow subsurface or to surface/atmosphere. To verify that the injected CO 2 remained in the subsurface, and to comply with environmental performance requirements on site, a comprehensive surface gas and groundwater monitoring program was conducted. The monitoring strategy was designed such that any leakage(s) to the surface of injected CO 2 would be detected, mapped and, ultimately, quantified. The surface air monitoring program was comprised of three different but complementary approaches allowing data to be efficiently collected over different spatial and temporal scales. These approaches included continuous soil-gas chamber measurements at fixed locations, periodic soil-gas chamber measurements on gridded locations and near-surface atmospheric measurements on a mobile platform. The surface air monitoring approaches gave self-consistent results and reduced the risk of "false negative" test results. The only anomalous CO 2 detected at the surface flowed from the observation well and could be directly attributed to a breach in the well casing at the injection depth providing a conduit for CO 2 / water to rise to the surface. Groundwater monitoring program revealed no impact on the groundwater resources attributable to the carbon injection project. Based on this work, we demonstrate that this multi-pronged monitoring strategy can be utilized to minimize the overall resources devoted to monitoring by increasing the number of monitoring approaches and diminishing the resources devoted to each technique. By maximizing the effectiveness of each element of the monitoring program, a cost-efficient and robust monitoring strategy capable of early leak detection and attribution of any leaking CO 2 can be achieved.
International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control, 2019
Wettability of CO2-brine-mineral systems plays a vital role during geological CO2-storage. Residu... more Wettability of CO2-brine-mineral systems plays a vital role during geological CO2-storage. Residual trapping is lower in deep saline aquifers where the CO2 is migrating through quartz rich reservoirs but CO2 accumulation within a three-way structural closure would have a high storage volume due to higher CO2 saturation in hydrophobic quartz rich reservoir rock. However, such wettability is only poorly understood at realistic subsurface conditions, which
Laboratory experiments, natural analogues and pilot projects have been fundamental in developing ... more Laboratory experiments, natural analogues and pilot projects have been fundamental in developing scientific understanding of risk and uncertainty from georesource exploration. International research into CO2 and CH4 leakage provide scientific understanding of potential leakage styles, rates and environmental impacts. However, the value of these experiments as a communication tool for stakeholders and the wider public is often overlooked in the form of visual information and comparisons. Quantifiable laboratory experiments, measurement of gas at natural springs or controlled release of CO2 (e.g. Quantifying and Monitoring Potential Ecosystem Impacts of Geological Carbon Storage Project (QICS)) raise awareness and commitment to understanding environmental impacts and geological complexities. Visuals can greatly facilitate communication, and research into public understanding of the subsurface demonstrates that quality and scale of schematics can affect perceived risk. Here we consider...
Coals in the Sydney Basin contain large amounts of gas ranging in composition from pure methane (... more Coals in the Sydney Basin contain large amounts of gas ranging in composition from pure methane (CH4) to pure carbon dioxide (CO2). These gases are derived from thermogenic, magmatic and biogenic sources and their present-day distribution is mainly related to geological structure, depth and proximity to igneous intrusions.A coal bed methane (CBM) study of the Camden area of the Sydney Basin has been jointly conducted by Sydney Gas Company NL (SGC) and the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO). The delineation of high production fairways is vital for any CBM project development to be commercially successful. An integrated research project employing various methods of reservoir characterisation, including geological, geochemical, geomechanical and gas storage analyses contribute to this delineation for the Camden area, where SGC is currently developing the 300-well Camden Gas Project.In particular, accurate determinations of gas content, saturation level...
possible baffle units within this member. Core-based work on pore-scale processes is developing k... more possible baffle units within this member. Core-based work on pore-scale processes is developing knowledge about the impacts of CO 2 injected into Wonnerup sandstones and how it may be distributed and retained for long-term storage. Together the seismic and well data are being integrated toward more detailed static and dynamic models for simulations of trapping potential and long-term behaviour of injected CO 2. Monitoring methods are being examined and field tested to establish environmental baselines and to ensure the ability to validate models and for public and regulatory assurance. Ongoing phases of research will continue to focus on reducing technical uncertainty at the South West Hub storage site. Addressing several outstanding questions about injectivity and containment at the site are driving additional research involving in situ well tests.
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Papers by Linda Stalker