Explanations of working memory span in children were studied in a longitudinal follow-up of J. N.... more Explanations of working memory span in children were studied in a longitudinal follow-up of J. N. Towse, G. J. Hitch, and U. Hutton (1998). Reading span and operation span were lower when within-task retention intervals were lengthened. For each task, variation in span between test waves and age cohorts was systematically related to changes in processing speed. The two spans explained substantial shared variance in both reading and arithmetic scores, with some evidence for domain specificity. Combined span scores predicted unique variance in scholastic attainment over a 1-year interval. The authors concluded that working memory span is constrained by rapid loss of active codes and is not simply a measure of capacity for resource sharing. Working memory is also implicated in scholastic development.
The concept of working memory emphasizes the interrelationship between the transient retention of... more The concept of working memory emphasizes the interrelationship between the transient retention of information and concurrent processing activity. Three experiments address this relationship in children between 8 and 17 years of age by examining forgetting when a processing task is interpolated between presentation and recall of the memory items. Unlike previous studies, delivery of interpolated stimuli was under computer control and responses to these stimuli were timed. There were consistent effects of the duration of the interpolated task, but no effects of either its difficulty or similarity to memory material and no qualitative developmental differences in task performance. The absence of an effect of difficulty provides no support for models of working memory in which limited capacity is shared between the dual functions of processing and storage, but is compatible with an alternative ''task switching'' account. However, task switching did not explain developmental differences in recall. Other aspects of the results suggest that there can be interactions between processing and storage but it is argued that these cannot be straightforwardly explained in terms of either task switching or resource sharing.
International Journal of Behavioral Development, 1999
Four experiments investigate developmental changes in the effect of providing time-based cues to ... more Four experiments investigate developmental changes in the effect of providing time-based cues to lists for immediate recall. Data both provide a context for adult research and have implications for children’s memory processes. Sets of letters (Experiments 1-3) or numbers (Experiment 4) were presented to children with either regular inter-item temporal intervals (ungrouped lists) or pauses to segment sets (grouped lists). Experiment 1 indicated a developmental shift between 4 and 8 years of age, with an increasing recall bene”t from temporal group structure for visually presented ”xed-length lists. Experiment 2 confirmed the developmental shift with visual presentation using a span procedure, with sensitivity to temporal grouping becoming apparent by the age of 8 years. Experiments 3 and 4 revealed a similar developmental pattern with a span procedure using auditory stimuli. In summary, children capitalise on pauses in visual and auditory material at approximately the same age. There was no evidence that auditory presentation induces a fundamentally different grouping process or precocious strategy use, contrary to some previous accounts. Data are most consistent with the argument that grouping is a relatively late-developing, strategic process.
We describe and evaluate a recall reconstruction hypothesis for working memory (WM), according to... more We describe and evaluate a recall reconstruction hypothesis for working memory (WM), according to which items can be recovered from multiple memory representations. Across four experiments, participants recalled memoranda that were either integrated with or independent of the sentence content. We found consistently longer pauses accompanying the correct recall of integrated compared with independent words, supporting the argument that sentence memory could scaffold the access of target items. Integrated words were also more likely to be recalled correctly, dependent on the details of the task. Experiment 1 investigated the chronometry of spoken recall for word span and reading span, with participants completing an unfinished sentence in the latter case. Experiments 2 and 3 confirm recall time differences without using word generation requirements, while Experiment 4 used an item and order response choice paradigm with nonspoken responses. Data emphasise the value of recall timing in...
This paper considers the hypothesis that the coordination of cognitive operations in object count... more This paper considers the hypothesis that the coordination of cognitive operations in object counting depends on a limited-capacity central system, which may constrain children's counting performance. Different models of performance are considered in the light of knowledge about object counting. Four experiments varied the demands imposed by counting on any central coordinating system, by simultaneously manipulating the difficulty of visual and verbal components. Using children of different ages, all studies showed the effects of simultaneous manipulations of difficulty were additive, implying that the integration of visual and verbal information does not simultaneously draw on a common general purpose resource. It is suggested that while counting provides an example of a complex skill involving the coordination of processing in separate modules, a description of performance need not include a central executive as a limited capacity coordinating device. Counting objects is a much used procedure to determine set numerosity. Each object in an array is assigned a numerical name (tag) from an ordered sequence, and the set numerosity is the final value given. Thus array counting comprises at least two psychological processes: the visual identification of each object and the verbal production of a number sequence. Furthermore these processes must be executed in one-to-one temporal correspondence, and this has commonly been taken to imply a third component to object counting, to control and coordinate activities. A series of experiments are used to inform about the nature of this coordination. The research was conducted as part of a doctoral thesis submitted to the University of Manchester by the first author. Experiments 2-4 were conducted while the first author was supported by the Medical Research Council. We thank Peter McLeod and anonymous reviewers for comments on the research.
In this study, we investigate the development of primary memory capacity among children. Children... more In this study, we investigate the development of primary memory capacity among children. Children between the ages of 5 and 8 completed 3 novel tasks (split span, interleaved lists, and a modified free-recall task) that measured primary memory by estimating the number of items in the focus of attention that could be spontaneously recalled in serial order. These tasks were calibrated against traditional measures of simple and complex span. Clear age-related changes in these primary memory estimates were observed. There were marked individual differences in primary memory capacity, but each novel measure was predictive of simple span performance. Among older children, each measure shared variance with reading and mathematics performance, whereas for younger children, the interleaved lists task was the strongest single predictor of academic ability. We argue that these novel tasks have considerable potential for the measurement of primary memory capacity and provide new, complementary ...
The development of working memory capacity is considered from the perspective of the active maint... more The development of working memory capacity is considered from the perspective of the active maintenance of items in primary memory (PM) and a cue-dependent search component, secondary memory (SM). Using free recall, plus a more novel serial interleaved items task, age-related increases in PM estimates were evident in both paradigms. In addition to this, age-related improvements in attentional selectivity were observed, indexed by the recall of target and non-target information respectively. To further characterize PM, presentation modality was varied in the serial interleaved items task (auditory, visual and dual presentation). Developmental differences were found in the effectiveness of presentation formats. Older children's recall was enhanced by the combination of labeled visual items and enduring auditory information, whilst the same format was detrimental to younger children's recall of target information. The present results show how estimates of PM and SM in children ...
Recall response durations were used to clarify processing in working-memory tasks. Experiment 1 e... more Recall response durations were used to clarify processing in working-memory tasks. Experiment 1 examined children's performance in reading span, a task in which sentences were processed and the final word of each sentence was retained for subsequent recall. Experiment 2 examined the development of listening-, counting-, and digit-span task performance. Responses were much longer in the reading-and listening-span tasks than in the other span tasks, suggesting that participants in sentence-based span tasks take time to retrieve the semantic or linguistic structure as cues to recall of the sentence-final words. Response durations in working-memory tasks helped to predict academic skill and achievement, largely separate from the contributions of the memory spans themselves. Response durations thus are important in the interpretation of span task performance.
The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A, 2005
Hall helped to cross-check the accuracy of data, and anonymous reviewers provided useful comments... more Hall helped to cross-check the accuracy of data, and anonymous reviewers provided useful comments. We acknowledge the support of the ESRC (grant R000222789
Explanations of working memory span in children were studied in a longitudinal follow-up of J. N.... more Explanations of working memory span in children were studied in a longitudinal follow-up of J. N. Towse, G. J. Hitch, and U. Hutton (1998). Reading span and operation span were lower when within-task retention intervals were lengthened. For each task, variation in span between test waves and age cohorts was systematically related to changes in processing speed. The two spans explained substantial shared variance in both reading and arithmetic scores, with some evidence for domain specificity. Combined span scores predicted unique variance in scholastic attainment over a 1-year interval. The authors concluded that working memory span is constrained by rapid loss of active codes and is not simply a measure of capacity for resource sharing. Working memory is also implicated in scholastic development.
The concept of working memory emphasizes the interrelationship between the transient retention of... more The concept of working memory emphasizes the interrelationship between the transient retention of information and concurrent processing activity. Three experiments address this relationship in children between 8 and 17 years of age by examining forgetting when a processing task is interpolated between presentation and recall of the memory items. Unlike previous studies, delivery of interpolated stimuli was under computer control and responses to these stimuli were timed. There were consistent effects of the duration of the interpolated task, but no effects of either its difficulty or similarity to memory material and no qualitative developmental differences in task performance. The absence of an effect of difficulty provides no support for models of working memory in which limited capacity is shared between the dual functions of processing and storage, but is compatible with an alternative ''task switching'' account. However, task switching did not explain developmental differences in recall. Other aspects of the results suggest that there can be interactions between processing and storage but it is argued that these cannot be straightforwardly explained in terms of either task switching or resource sharing.
International Journal of Behavioral Development, 1999
Four experiments investigate developmental changes in the effect of providing time-based cues to ... more Four experiments investigate developmental changes in the effect of providing time-based cues to lists for immediate recall. Data both provide a context for adult research and have implications for children’s memory processes. Sets of letters (Experiments 1-3) or numbers (Experiment 4) were presented to children with either regular inter-item temporal intervals (ungrouped lists) or pauses to segment sets (grouped lists). Experiment 1 indicated a developmental shift between 4 and 8 years of age, with an increasing recall bene”t from temporal group structure for visually presented ”xed-length lists. Experiment 2 confirmed the developmental shift with visual presentation using a span procedure, with sensitivity to temporal grouping becoming apparent by the age of 8 years. Experiments 3 and 4 revealed a similar developmental pattern with a span procedure using auditory stimuli. In summary, children capitalise on pauses in visual and auditory material at approximately the same age. There was no evidence that auditory presentation induces a fundamentally different grouping process or precocious strategy use, contrary to some previous accounts. Data are most consistent with the argument that grouping is a relatively late-developing, strategic process.
We describe and evaluate a recall reconstruction hypothesis for working memory (WM), according to... more We describe and evaluate a recall reconstruction hypothesis for working memory (WM), according to which items can be recovered from multiple memory representations. Across four experiments, participants recalled memoranda that were either integrated with or independent of the sentence content. We found consistently longer pauses accompanying the correct recall of integrated compared with independent words, supporting the argument that sentence memory could scaffold the access of target items. Integrated words were also more likely to be recalled correctly, dependent on the details of the task. Experiment 1 investigated the chronometry of spoken recall for word span and reading span, with participants completing an unfinished sentence in the latter case. Experiments 2 and 3 confirm recall time differences without using word generation requirements, while Experiment 4 used an item and order response choice paradigm with nonspoken responses. Data emphasise the value of recall timing in...
This paper considers the hypothesis that the coordination of cognitive operations in object count... more This paper considers the hypothesis that the coordination of cognitive operations in object counting depends on a limited-capacity central system, which may constrain children's counting performance. Different models of performance are considered in the light of knowledge about object counting. Four experiments varied the demands imposed by counting on any central coordinating system, by simultaneously manipulating the difficulty of visual and verbal components. Using children of different ages, all studies showed the effects of simultaneous manipulations of difficulty were additive, implying that the integration of visual and verbal information does not simultaneously draw on a common general purpose resource. It is suggested that while counting provides an example of a complex skill involving the coordination of processing in separate modules, a description of performance need not include a central executive as a limited capacity coordinating device. Counting objects is a much used procedure to determine set numerosity. Each object in an array is assigned a numerical name (tag) from an ordered sequence, and the set numerosity is the final value given. Thus array counting comprises at least two psychological processes: the visual identification of each object and the verbal production of a number sequence. Furthermore these processes must be executed in one-to-one temporal correspondence, and this has commonly been taken to imply a third component to object counting, to control and coordinate activities. A series of experiments are used to inform about the nature of this coordination. The research was conducted as part of a doctoral thesis submitted to the University of Manchester by the first author. Experiments 2-4 were conducted while the first author was supported by the Medical Research Council. We thank Peter McLeod and anonymous reviewers for comments on the research.
In this study, we investigate the development of primary memory capacity among children. Children... more In this study, we investigate the development of primary memory capacity among children. Children between the ages of 5 and 8 completed 3 novel tasks (split span, interleaved lists, and a modified free-recall task) that measured primary memory by estimating the number of items in the focus of attention that could be spontaneously recalled in serial order. These tasks were calibrated against traditional measures of simple and complex span. Clear age-related changes in these primary memory estimates were observed. There were marked individual differences in primary memory capacity, but each novel measure was predictive of simple span performance. Among older children, each measure shared variance with reading and mathematics performance, whereas for younger children, the interleaved lists task was the strongest single predictor of academic ability. We argue that these novel tasks have considerable potential for the measurement of primary memory capacity and provide new, complementary ...
The development of working memory capacity is considered from the perspective of the active maint... more The development of working memory capacity is considered from the perspective of the active maintenance of items in primary memory (PM) and a cue-dependent search component, secondary memory (SM). Using free recall, plus a more novel serial interleaved items task, age-related increases in PM estimates were evident in both paradigms. In addition to this, age-related improvements in attentional selectivity were observed, indexed by the recall of target and non-target information respectively. To further characterize PM, presentation modality was varied in the serial interleaved items task (auditory, visual and dual presentation). Developmental differences were found in the effectiveness of presentation formats. Older children's recall was enhanced by the combination of labeled visual items and enduring auditory information, whilst the same format was detrimental to younger children's recall of target information. The present results show how estimates of PM and SM in children ...
Recall response durations were used to clarify processing in working-memory tasks. Experiment 1 e... more Recall response durations were used to clarify processing in working-memory tasks. Experiment 1 examined children's performance in reading span, a task in which sentences were processed and the final word of each sentence was retained for subsequent recall. Experiment 2 examined the development of listening-, counting-, and digit-span task performance. Responses were much longer in the reading-and listening-span tasks than in the other span tasks, suggesting that participants in sentence-based span tasks take time to retrieve the semantic or linguistic structure as cues to recall of the sentence-final words. Response durations in working-memory tasks helped to predict academic skill and achievement, largely separate from the contributions of the memory spans themselves. Response durations thus are important in the interpretation of span task performance.
The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A, 2005
Hall helped to cross-check the accuracy of data, and anonymous reviewers provided useful comments... more Hall helped to cross-check the accuracy of data, and anonymous reviewers provided useful comments. We acknowledge the support of the ESRC (grant R000222789
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Papers by John Towse