Books by John A Challoner
The Mathematics of Language and Thought 2nd Edition Volume 2, 2022
This volume contains the mathematical proofs of theorems used in Volume1.
The Mathematics of Language and Thought Ed2 Vol1, 2022
This book describes a single, unified language covering all natural languages such as English, al... more This book describes a single, unified language covering all natural languages such as English, all formal languages such as algebra, and all branches of human reasoning. Thus, it provides a universal, formal, human language.
The language is a modified form of set theory that allows natural language sentences to be expressed in the form of equations and those equations to be combined and manipulated according to logical rules. It also enables equations in formal languages, such as arithmetic and algebra, to be expressed and manipulated in the same way, thus providing compatibility between the two. It is axiom-based and many of the symbols used are defined by equations composed of other, previously defined symbols.
Drafts by John A Challoner
In this article I compare data taken from the World Values Survey and the Fragile States Index wh... more In this article I compare data taken from the World Values Survey and the Fragile States Index which shed some light on why people follow a religion. Cause and effect are unclear, suggesting that feedback processes are involved. This article investigates those processes in some detail and finds that the relationship between the three factors is complex. The article also provides a general model that is applicable to circumstances in which any two competing cultures, ideologies, or cults draw on the same population.
Intuitively, many of us sense that there are intangible “forces” that are beyond our individual c... more Intuitively, many of us sense that there are intangible “forces” that are beyond our individual control and that shape our society. In this article, I draw together the information provided in my articles in rational-understanding.com on evolution, psychology, organisations, and systems theory, to show that these intangible “forces” are, in fact, tangible processes. These processes provide an understanding of why society is as it is. To a limited extent, the processes also provide an understanding of where society is heading unless we intervene.
To demonstrate the theory, I have chosen an example from the present-day Western world. The example provides an explanation of why the complexity of our society is increasing at an accelerating rate.
This paper, originally published in January, 2023, has been updated to include observations from:... more This paper, originally published in January, 2023, has been updated to include observations from:
a) “A Conceptual Framework for General System Theory”, John A. Challoner, Rational-Understanding.com, March, 2024.
b) “Different Interpretations of Systems Terms” sent to the Research towards a General Systems Theory SIG of the International Society for the Systems Sciences’ in April, 2024.
c) “The Mathematics of Language and Thought” (Challoner, 2021).
The paper discusses systems theory from a cognitive and physicalist perspective. The cognitive perspective holds that we are our minds and cannot escape the constraints imposed by their biology and evolutionary history. Nevertheless, human cognition is a reasonably accurate representation of reality. Physicalism holds that space-time comprises the whole of reality and that everything, including abstract concepts and information, exists within it.
From this perspective, conceptual and theoretical frameworks for systems theory are proposed and described. Concepts include: the importance of structure; the nature of relationships, causality, and physical laws; and the significance of recursion, hierarchy, holism, and emergence. Human cognitive factors are also discussed, including: their limitations; the nature of information and language; and the search for knowledge in a world of complexity and apparent disorder.
The paper includes the implications of this perspective for General System Theory and Social Systems Theory, suggesting further work to advance those disciplines.
Papers by John A Challoner
We often like to think of ourselves as independent thinkers, masters of our own beliefs, immune t... more We often like to think of ourselves as independent thinkers, masters of our own beliefs, immune to the influences of social pressures, peer groups, advertising, and political spin. Yet, beneath this comforting illusion of autonomy lies a complex web of external forces that shape our beliefs, often without our conscious awareness. Recognising these influences is not a concession to vulnerability but a step toward deeper understanding and authentic belief alignment.
Religion is a double-edged sword. On the one hand, it can assuage our otherwise unsatisfiable exi... more Religion is a double-edged sword. On the one hand, it can assuage our otherwise unsatisfiable existential needs, i.e., the need to escape death, the need for meaning and guidance, and the need to escape our ultimate state of isolation. On the other hand, autocrats can gain and retain wealth, power and influence by leveraging our religious beliefs. This is particularly the case for religions that emphasise obedience to the will of God. Throughout history autocrats have claimed to be a conduit for the will of God, from Egyptian Pharoahs and Incas, through popes and kings, to those of the present day. The current rise of humanism/secularism in the West and its global expansion poses a threat to autocrats who rely on religious obedience for their status. This results in internal stresses within nations where beliefs are divided. It also results in stresses between nations. A similar principle applies in the case of ideological beliefs. This paper presents two checklists which enable this risk to be assessed in nations, organisations and individual leaders.
The internet is brimming with intuitive "folk theories" of social change, often shared on platfor... more The internet is brimming with intuitive "folk theories" of social change, often shared on platforms like LinkedIn, YouTube, and personal blogs. These theories, ranging from grassroots mobilisation to social entrepreneurship, typically reflect a genuine desire to address societal and environmental concerns. However, they often appear fragmented, competing, or anecdotal, and can be dismissed for lacking rigorous scientific backing.
Yet “folk theories”, although lacking academic foundations, should not be dismissed. Frequently, they are based on the empirical observation of real-world events and draw on their proponents’ practical experience of dealing with them.
What if these theories could be unified under a scientific framework? Margaret Archer's Morphogenetic Cycle, a sociological model explaining how social structures, cultural systems, and human agency interact over time to yield social change, provides just such a foundation. By grounding these "folk theories" in Archer’s model, we can see them not as disparate or competing ideas but as complementary strategies in the dynamic process of societal transformation.
This document provides guidance for Motivational Reflexivity trainers. Ideally, before embarking ... more This document provides guidance for Motivational Reflexivity trainers. Ideally, before embarking on training others you should read the Guidance for Practitioners and also gain some experience of the practice yourself.
Needs-driven beliefs are beliefs that satisfy human needs but that are not necessarily true. The ... more Needs-driven beliefs are beliefs that satisfy human needs but that are not necessarily true. The purpose of Motivational Reflexivity is the identification of false and harmful needs-driven beliefs and a better alignment of our beliefs with reality. This brings benefits to the individual practitioner in terms of overall wellbeing. It also brings benefits to society and the natural environment through an objective recognition of the harms that needs-driven beliefs can cause.
This document provides guidance for practitioners of Motivational Reflexivity. It is an iterative process and not something to rush. Benefits will accrue over time. The guidance should also be tailored to the practitioner’s individual circumstances. In particular, practitioners must practise self-care and take breaks as they confront challenging beliefs.
The guidance is broken down into two sections: “preparation” and “tackling an unethical needs-driven belief”. Each section briefly describes a number of steps in the process. Supporting information and worksheets are provided in the appendices.
For Motivational Reflexivity to bring benefits to society and the environment it is important that many people practise it. So, please share this guidance as widely as you can and encourage others to adopt the practice. However, if you are considering teaching it, then please read the companion guidance for trainers beforehand.
There are two social media groups where you can share your experience of Motivational Reflexivity, ask questions, and so on. They are:
LinkedIn: https://www.linkedin.com/groups/13114517/
Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/groups/1486884782057726
Motivational reflexivity is a reflective practice aimed at understanding the motivations behind o... more Motivational reflexivity is a reflective practice aimed at understanding the motivations behind our personal beliefs, especially those driven by the satisfaction of needs. Drawing from diverse theoretical foundations in psychology, sociology, and philosophy, this concept offers individuals a means to critically evaluate their beliefs and decisions. In particular, motivational reflexivity helps distinguish between beliefs grounded in objective reality and those formed to satisfy emotional or psychological needs. This paper explores the foundations of motivational reflexivity through the lenses of human needs, automaticity, reflexivity, and the morphogenic cycle, ultimately offering strategies for integrating this practice into daily life.
This paper presents a comprehensive hypothesis that seeks to explain the nature of reality and ho... more This paper presents a comprehensive hypothesis that seeks to explain the nature of reality and how humans understand it, integrating foundational concepts from critical realism, systems theory, and causality. The hypothesis holds that reality can be viewed as a fractal-like structure, generated by underlying organising principles that operate at various ranks in a hierarchy. Starting from acausal foundational principles, the paper explores how systems interact, transfer matter, energy, and information, and contribute to the complexity observed at different levels of organisation. The hypothesis extends to the idea that human understanding is structured by organising principles that differ from reality's, leading to distinct layers of comprehension reflected in scientific disciplines. The paper suggests that integrating these principles may help bridge gaps between disciplines, such as the disconnect between social sciences and the biological sciences. This unification has the potential to deepen our understanding of both the natural world and human social behaviour, while identifying new pathways for societal change.
Part 1 of this series of papers discusses the structure of society, i.e., the relationships betwe... more Part 1 of this series of papers discusses the structure of society, i.e., the relationships between human holons, such as individuals, organisations or nations, the various forms these relationships can take, and how they alter with time. It notes that, with a very few exceptions, human interactions are much the same as those encountered elsewhere in the animal world. Conventionally, the structure of society is taken to mean its network of cooperative relationships. However, in this series of papers, a much broader definition is used that includes non-cooperative ones. Thus, for example, ongoing wars are also considered a part of this structure. It is also acknowledged that it is not only human needs that dictate relationships and the way that they change but also the values, norms and beliefs held by the related parties (Law C13). Thus, the subsequent Parts of this series discuss the latter in more detail.
Part 2 describes the work of the English philosopher of science, Roy Bhaskar (1944 – 2014), and the English sociologist, Margaret Archer (1943 – 2023). Roy Bhaskar is regarded as the founder of Critical Realism, a philosophy that holds reality to exist and to be the source of truth. It also holds that our beliefs about reality are not necessarily true. Both Roy Bhaskar and Margaret Archer described how culture affects individual agency and how individual agency alters culture. Bhaskar referred to his model as the Transformational Model of Social Activity (TMSA) (Collier, 1994), and Archer to her model as the Morphogenetic Cycle (Archer, 1995). Archer also described how reflexivity, i.e., an agent’s internal conversations, can lead to cultural and structural change.
Part 3 built on the work of Margaret Archer to describe the outcomes of those internal conversations in more detail. It explains that to satisfy our needs or to avoid contra-satisfiers, we can adopt, form and propagate beliefs that are not necessarily true, but ones thought likely to satisfy our needs. Furthermore, to avoid anxiety caused by circumstances beyond our control we can adopt beliefs that act as psychological defence mechanisms. These beliefs when propagated do, of course, influence culture and structure.
This Part 4 now draws on the preceding three to discuss the nature of culture in more detail together with the processes of cultural evolution, stagnation, and regression.
Part 1 of this series of papers focussed largely on the principles of systems, ecology, and evolu... more Part 1 of this series of papers focussed largely on the principles of systems, ecology, and evolution to describe the ways in which individuals and organisations of all types interact, and so, create the structure of society. That is, how they exchange satisfiers and contra-satisfiers; satisfiers being those things that increase the level of satisfaction of our needs, and contra-satisfiers those things that decrease their level of satisfaction. However, Part 1 did not account for the choices that we make in the ways that we interact.
Human needs motivate our behaviour, but beliefs determine what form that behaviour takes. Although needs are fundamental to everything that has a function, beliefs are an emergent property of humanity, and a consequence of our ability to manipulate information and our highly social nature. However, beliefs can be true, or they can be false. In observing reality, we make mistakes and frequently distort it to satisfy our needs or avoid our contra-needs.
Part 3 will, therefore, discuss the psychological and social psychological aspects of our nature, particularly the beliefs, psychological defence mechanisms, and their socio-cultural reinforcement, that lead to our choices.
In this part, the work of the English philosopher of science, Roy Bhaskar (1944 – 2014), and the ... more In this part, the work of the English philosopher of science, Roy Bhaskar (1944 – 2014), and the English sociologist, Margaret Archer (1943 - 2023), is described and commented upon. Bhaskar’s contribution to the theory of society was twofold. Firstly, his “transcendental realism” dealt with the nature of science in general, and secondly, his “critical naturalism” with the social sciences in particular. The two terms were later conflated by his followers into “critical realism”, the philosophy of science of which he is now regarded as the founder. His transcendental realism is consistent with the author’s “Systems Theory from a Cognitive and Physicalist Perspective” (Challoner, 2023). The latter was derived independently, largely from work on symbolic logic. However, Bhaskar also provides further insights that will be described here. His work can be regarded as falling within the discipline of systems science, although Bhaskar makes little reference to systems. Regarding Bhaskar’s critical naturalism, the author generally agrees. However, there are details on which we diverge that will also be described. Archer’s main contributions to the theory of society were her explanations of social morphogenesis and reflexivity, both of which will also be described and commented upon.
The lack of a unified theory of human society is hampering our ability to tackle the self-induced... more The lack of a unified theory of human society is hampering our ability to tackle the self-induced existential threats that we currently face. This paper presents a practical social systems theory that addresses that absence. Furthermore, because the theory has been derived largely from the principles of systems science, ecology, and evolution, it has a broader application to natural ecosystems, artificial ones, and the interactions between them and the human species. The theory draws on an empirical observation of society; the principles of systems science to describe the general structure of society; on the principles of ecology to describe the ways in which two components of society can interact; and on the principles of psychology and evolution to demonstrate how those interactions can alter with time. The principles employed are fundamental to the field from which they were derived, are broadly accepted by practitioners in those fields, and were obtained by research of the literature. What is new, in this paper, is the combined application of principles from these different fields to human society. The result is a model that accurately reflects real situations involving social units of all sizes from individuals, through organisations, to nations. Methods are suggested for symbolising, diagramming, and analysing these interactions and how they change over time. This provides a basis for better understanding the causes of the threats that humanity and the natural world faces, and for designing interventions to counter them. This paper is targeted at a broad audience which may include specialists from various disciplines. Interpretation of the language used and the concepts that underpin this theory may differ from individual to individual and from discipline to discipline. No prior knowledge is assumed, therefore.
From the results of a 2014 survey (McManus et al. 2016), the Mental Health charity MIND says that... more From the results of a 2014 survey (McManus et al. 2016), the Mental Health charity MIND says that 1 in 6 people in England report experiencing a common mental health problem in any given week. This paper discusses the three main causes: functional differentiation or a progressive growth in the complexity of society; economic change and it detrimental effects; and toxic workplace cultures.
Many Professional Civil Engineers quickly learn that the technical and economic difficulties of i... more Many Professional Civil Engineers quickly learn that the technical and economic difficulties of implementing a project are often dwarfed by the social difficulties. Successful projects must not only be technically and economically viable, but also socially acceptable. But what is "social acceptability", especially when some favour a project and others actively oppose it? This article addresses that question.
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Books by John A Challoner
The language is a modified form of set theory that allows natural language sentences to be expressed in the form of equations and those equations to be combined and manipulated according to logical rules. It also enables equations in formal languages, such as arithmetic and algebra, to be expressed and manipulated in the same way, thus providing compatibility between the two. It is axiom-based and many of the symbols used are defined by equations composed of other, previously defined symbols.
Drafts by John A Challoner
To demonstrate the theory, I have chosen an example from the present-day Western world. The example provides an explanation of why the complexity of our society is increasing at an accelerating rate.
a) “A Conceptual Framework for General System Theory”, John A. Challoner, Rational-Understanding.com, March, 2024.
b) “Different Interpretations of Systems Terms” sent to the Research towards a General Systems Theory SIG of the International Society for the Systems Sciences’ in April, 2024.
c) “The Mathematics of Language and Thought” (Challoner, 2021).
The paper discusses systems theory from a cognitive and physicalist perspective. The cognitive perspective holds that we are our minds and cannot escape the constraints imposed by their biology and evolutionary history. Nevertheless, human cognition is a reasonably accurate representation of reality. Physicalism holds that space-time comprises the whole of reality and that everything, including abstract concepts and information, exists within it.
From this perspective, conceptual and theoretical frameworks for systems theory are proposed and described. Concepts include: the importance of structure; the nature of relationships, causality, and physical laws; and the significance of recursion, hierarchy, holism, and emergence. Human cognitive factors are also discussed, including: their limitations; the nature of information and language; and the search for knowledge in a world of complexity and apparent disorder.
The paper includes the implications of this perspective for General System Theory and Social Systems Theory, suggesting further work to advance those disciplines.
Papers by John A Challoner
Yet “folk theories”, although lacking academic foundations, should not be dismissed. Frequently, they are based on the empirical observation of real-world events and draw on their proponents’ practical experience of dealing with them.
What if these theories could be unified under a scientific framework? Margaret Archer's Morphogenetic Cycle, a sociological model explaining how social structures, cultural systems, and human agency interact over time to yield social change, provides just such a foundation. By grounding these "folk theories" in Archer’s model, we can see them not as disparate or competing ideas but as complementary strategies in the dynamic process of societal transformation.
This document provides guidance for practitioners of Motivational Reflexivity. It is an iterative process and not something to rush. Benefits will accrue over time. The guidance should also be tailored to the practitioner’s individual circumstances. In particular, practitioners must practise self-care and take breaks as they confront challenging beliefs.
The guidance is broken down into two sections: “preparation” and “tackling an unethical needs-driven belief”. Each section briefly describes a number of steps in the process. Supporting information and worksheets are provided in the appendices.
For Motivational Reflexivity to bring benefits to society and the environment it is important that many people practise it. So, please share this guidance as widely as you can and encourage others to adopt the practice. However, if you are considering teaching it, then please read the companion guidance for trainers beforehand.
There are two social media groups where you can share your experience of Motivational Reflexivity, ask questions, and so on. They are:
LinkedIn: https://www.linkedin.com/groups/13114517/
Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/groups/1486884782057726
Part 2 describes the work of the English philosopher of science, Roy Bhaskar (1944 – 2014), and the English sociologist, Margaret Archer (1943 – 2023). Roy Bhaskar is regarded as the founder of Critical Realism, a philosophy that holds reality to exist and to be the source of truth. It also holds that our beliefs about reality are not necessarily true. Both Roy Bhaskar and Margaret Archer described how culture affects individual agency and how individual agency alters culture. Bhaskar referred to his model as the Transformational Model of Social Activity (TMSA) (Collier, 1994), and Archer to her model as the Morphogenetic Cycle (Archer, 1995). Archer also described how reflexivity, i.e., an agent’s internal conversations, can lead to cultural and structural change.
Part 3 built on the work of Margaret Archer to describe the outcomes of those internal conversations in more detail. It explains that to satisfy our needs or to avoid contra-satisfiers, we can adopt, form and propagate beliefs that are not necessarily true, but ones thought likely to satisfy our needs. Furthermore, to avoid anxiety caused by circumstances beyond our control we can adopt beliefs that act as psychological defence mechanisms. These beliefs when propagated do, of course, influence culture and structure.
This Part 4 now draws on the preceding three to discuss the nature of culture in more detail together with the processes of cultural evolution, stagnation, and regression.
Human needs motivate our behaviour, but beliefs determine what form that behaviour takes. Although needs are fundamental to everything that has a function, beliefs are an emergent property of humanity, and a consequence of our ability to manipulate information and our highly social nature. However, beliefs can be true, or they can be false. In observing reality, we make mistakes and frequently distort it to satisfy our needs or avoid our contra-needs.
Part 3 will, therefore, discuss the psychological and social psychological aspects of our nature, particularly the beliefs, psychological defence mechanisms, and their socio-cultural reinforcement, that lead to our choices.
The language is a modified form of set theory that allows natural language sentences to be expressed in the form of equations and those equations to be combined and manipulated according to logical rules. It also enables equations in formal languages, such as arithmetic and algebra, to be expressed and manipulated in the same way, thus providing compatibility between the two. It is axiom-based and many of the symbols used are defined by equations composed of other, previously defined symbols.
To demonstrate the theory, I have chosen an example from the present-day Western world. The example provides an explanation of why the complexity of our society is increasing at an accelerating rate.
a) “A Conceptual Framework for General System Theory”, John A. Challoner, Rational-Understanding.com, March, 2024.
b) “Different Interpretations of Systems Terms” sent to the Research towards a General Systems Theory SIG of the International Society for the Systems Sciences’ in April, 2024.
c) “The Mathematics of Language and Thought” (Challoner, 2021).
The paper discusses systems theory from a cognitive and physicalist perspective. The cognitive perspective holds that we are our minds and cannot escape the constraints imposed by their biology and evolutionary history. Nevertheless, human cognition is a reasonably accurate representation of reality. Physicalism holds that space-time comprises the whole of reality and that everything, including abstract concepts and information, exists within it.
From this perspective, conceptual and theoretical frameworks for systems theory are proposed and described. Concepts include: the importance of structure; the nature of relationships, causality, and physical laws; and the significance of recursion, hierarchy, holism, and emergence. Human cognitive factors are also discussed, including: their limitations; the nature of information and language; and the search for knowledge in a world of complexity and apparent disorder.
The paper includes the implications of this perspective for General System Theory and Social Systems Theory, suggesting further work to advance those disciplines.
Yet “folk theories”, although lacking academic foundations, should not be dismissed. Frequently, they are based on the empirical observation of real-world events and draw on their proponents’ practical experience of dealing with them.
What if these theories could be unified under a scientific framework? Margaret Archer's Morphogenetic Cycle, a sociological model explaining how social structures, cultural systems, and human agency interact over time to yield social change, provides just such a foundation. By grounding these "folk theories" in Archer’s model, we can see them not as disparate or competing ideas but as complementary strategies in the dynamic process of societal transformation.
This document provides guidance for practitioners of Motivational Reflexivity. It is an iterative process and not something to rush. Benefits will accrue over time. The guidance should also be tailored to the practitioner’s individual circumstances. In particular, practitioners must practise self-care and take breaks as they confront challenging beliefs.
The guidance is broken down into two sections: “preparation” and “tackling an unethical needs-driven belief”. Each section briefly describes a number of steps in the process. Supporting information and worksheets are provided in the appendices.
For Motivational Reflexivity to bring benefits to society and the environment it is important that many people practise it. So, please share this guidance as widely as you can and encourage others to adopt the practice. However, if you are considering teaching it, then please read the companion guidance for trainers beforehand.
There are two social media groups where you can share your experience of Motivational Reflexivity, ask questions, and so on. They are:
LinkedIn: https://www.linkedin.com/groups/13114517/
Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/groups/1486884782057726
Part 2 describes the work of the English philosopher of science, Roy Bhaskar (1944 – 2014), and the English sociologist, Margaret Archer (1943 – 2023). Roy Bhaskar is regarded as the founder of Critical Realism, a philosophy that holds reality to exist and to be the source of truth. It also holds that our beliefs about reality are not necessarily true. Both Roy Bhaskar and Margaret Archer described how culture affects individual agency and how individual agency alters culture. Bhaskar referred to his model as the Transformational Model of Social Activity (TMSA) (Collier, 1994), and Archer to her model as the Morphogenetic Cycle (Archer, 1995). Archer also described how reflexivity, i.e., an agent’s internal conversations, can lead to cultural and structural change.
Part 3 built on the work of Margaret Archer to describe the outcomes of those internal conversations in more detail. It explains that to satisfy our needs or to avoid contra-satisfiers, we can adopt, form and propagate beliefs that are not necessarily true, but ones thought likely to satisfy our needs. Furthermore, to avoid anxiety caused by circumstances beyond our control we can adopt beliefs that act as psychological defence mechanisms. These beliefs when propagated do, of course, influence culture and structure.
This Part 4 now draws on the preceding three to discuss the nature of culture in more detail together with the processes of cultural evolution, stagnation, and regression.
Human needs motivate our behaviour, but beliefs determine what form that behaviour takes. Although needs are fundamental to everything that has a function, beliefs are an emergent property of humanity, and a consequence of our ability to manipulate information and our highly social nature. However, beliefs can be true, or they can be false. In observing reality, we make mistakes and frequently distort it to satisfy our needs or avoid our contra-needs.
Part 3 will, therefore, discuss the psychological and social psychological aspects of our nature, particularly the beliefs, psychological defence mechanisms, and their socio-cultural reinforcement, that lead to our choices.