With labour markets already polarised in industrialised economies, if Covid-19 worsens this polar... more With labour markets already polarised in industrialised economies, if Covid-19 worsens this polarity, young people could be more severely affected. This is because their entry into a post-pandemic economy has ramifications for their divergent or convergent career trajectories far into the future. Therefore, on the premise that work life is central to quality of life, this article assesses the effects of low wage and Covid-19 on the psychological outlook of young people in Singapore. We found that Covid-19 did worsen polarisation. On average, higher wage workers telecommuted more and had more work, but low wage young workers bore the brunt of earnings loss and job disruption. Low wage respondents also experienced poorer psychological well-being, even after adverse child experiences, highest educational qualification and occupation type were controlled for. However, higher wage workers might be more psychologically affected by the Covid-19 impacts. This might be because low earning workers are more accustomed to employment instability. These findings suggest the urgency of policy attention to help low wage young workers recover from Covid-19.
Asia Pacific Journal of Social Work and Development, 2018
In his speech, he emphasized the importance of strengthening family support and addressing issues... more In his speech, he emphasized the importance of strengthening family support and addressing issues such as income and stigma in more effective rehabilitation. Professor Paul Cheung of the Social Service Research Centre drew attention to elderly prisoners in his welcome speech. In fast ageing societies, a different approach to rehabilitation of inmates older than 60 years of age is needed. These two opening speeches in the conference show how far offender work has come. From highly punitive systems focused on desistence and prevention (sending a strong signal against crime), the cumulative evidence today is that strong rehabilitative programs have shown greater effectiveness at decreasing crime through reduced recidivism. They also highlight the new challenges as society changes. For example, demographic shifts, labour market insecurities and stressed families are factors central to effective reintegration of ex-offenders. This special issue contains six articles on a variety of innovations. It comprises articles from presentations made at the conference and from an open call for papers. They show how far-reaching true rehabilitation can and should be. From the judicial system to in-prison work to diversionary or aftercare programs, the innovations are increasingly taking into account the circumstances of the exoffender and his/her ecosystem. "Court Processes and Orders for Positive Outcomes" by Judge Lim Keng Yeow analyzes how court processes can be more rehabilitative. It gives as example two initiatives in the Singapore court system, post-sentencing judicial monitoring and a pre-sentencing protocol, aimed at better supporting rehabilitation. "Enhancing corrections, transforming lives: a Singapore Perspective" by Desmond K.T. Chin and Neeti Iyer is excerpted from the keynote speech by Desmond Chin, the Commissioner of Prisons in Singapore. It gives a historical account of how the Singapore Prison System has become more rehabilitative, with positive outcomes: "the period of transformation coincided with a dramatic reduction in the prison population and recidivism rate". It also looks forward to the future, outlining the ways that the Singapore Prison System will move upstream towards prevention and
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2019
Significance The impact of chronic debt on the poor is psychological, not just financial. We hypo... more Significance The impact of chronic debt on the poor is psychological, not just financial. We hypothesize that chronic debt impairs psychological functioning and decision-making, contributing to the poverty trap. This is because debt is not considered fungible and is viewed as costly mental accounts that consume cognitive bandwidth. We test this using quasiexperimental evidence from a one-off, unanticipated debt-relief program worth several months’ household income. Comparing the poor before and after debt relief, those with more debt accounts paid off experienced greater improvements in cognitive functioning, reported less anxiety, and became less present-biased. These findings provide actionable evidence for poverty-alleviation policy.
The purpose of the study is to examine the impact of childhood maltreatment on youth offender rec... more The purpose of the study is to examine the impact of childhood maltreatment on youth offender recidivism in Singapore. The study used case file coding on a sample of 3,744 youth offenders, among whom about 6% had a childhood maltreatment history. The results showed that the Youth Level of Service/Case Management Inventory 2.0 (YLS/CMI 2.0) ratings significantly predicted recidivism for nonmaltreated youth offenders, but not for maltreated youth offenders. Using propensity score matching, the result from a Cox regression analysis showed that maltreated youth offenders were 1.38 times as likely as their nonmaltreated counterparts to reoffend with a follow-up period of up to 7.4 years. The results implied that the YLS/CMI 2.0 measures were insufficient for assessing the risk for recidivism for the maltreated youth offenders, and that other information is needed to help assessors use the professional override when making the overall risk ratings.
Youth participation in social groups is important in developing skills and experience for success... more Youth participation in social groups is important in developing skills and experience for successful transition to adulthood. What kinds of families do youth who are active in social groups and who take on leadership positions come from? Using data from the National Youth Survey 2005, this research studies the social participation of Singaporean youth aged 15-18. Through probit regression analysis, it examines how youth participation in Singapore is associated with two types of family characteristics. First, it examines the role of maternal education. As a proxy for social class, maternal education represents the roles of cultural capital formation and concerted involvement by middle class parents. Second, it studies the role of family challenge and support. Maternal education is found to predict both high participation and leadership. While additional family challenge induces greater participation, family support increases participation only when the level of support is high.
This article studies the relationship between neighborhood factors and juvenile serious offenders... more This article studies the relationship between neighborhood factors and juvenile serious offenders in Wayne County, Michigan. This is where Detroit is, a city with a glorious past but a bleak future. Administrative data are linked to tract-level census characteristics that proxy for social disorganization structural factors. Results by negative binomial regressions found significant associations in the expected direction with concentrated disadvantage, concentrated affluence, and inequality. However, concentrated immigration is insignificantly related to juvenile serious offending and residential stability increases rather than decreases offending. These counter-theoretical results may be due to the presence of homes to students and young professionals and vibrant Latino immigrant communities. The stark contrasts documented by the analysis and the high correlation of economic conditions to juvenile crime demand urgent and radical responses to completely transform impoverished neighborhoods in Wayne County.
Digital resources—which include devices, internet connection and digital literacy—have become bas... more Digital resources—which include devices, internet connection and digital literacy—have become basic needs. Thus with the global COVID-19 pandemic having accelerated digitalization, the urgency for universal digital inclusion has hastened. Otherwise, digital inequality will lead to social inequality and impede social mobility. Using Singapore as a case study, this article applies the insights learned from a participatory action research to recommend a policy framework for universal digital access, with practical humanistic steps towards full digital inclusion. Singapore is a digitally advanced nation with almost universal digital availability, yet when COVID-19 forced rapid digital adoption, gaps in access by vulnerable groups such as low-income households, elderly and migrant workers were found. From the learning points on gaps and measures taken by community groups, volunteers and policy-makers in our research, we recommend making access to all three digital resources automatic and...
This chapter discusses the mental health effects of financial challenges on an individual, as wel... more This chapter discusses the mental health effects of financial challenges on an individual, as well as on families and children. It also proposes potentially effective strategies for tackling economic and mental distress given the correlation between mental and financial well-being. Financial challenges are scoped within the context of urban poverty and the related issues of unemployment, job conditions, and debt. Mental health is more broadly defined and can encompass general psychological well-being, stress, or severe mental disorders, depending on the relevant studies and models discussed. While different sources of financial challenges have different effects on different types of mental wellbeing, it appears that generally economic distress and poor mental health negatively reinforce each other in ways that have ripple effects on the family and intergenerational effects on children. The consequences become more deleterious when considered alongside other effects, such as impaired cognitive functioning or the trauma effects of adverse child experiences (ACE). In terms of interventions, then, it is important to develop a comprehensive set of responses that takes into consideration the challenges faced by both mental illness and poverty/ economic strain, tackles both individual and environmental/structural factors, and supports the whole family. Initiatives such as supported employment, financial or mobility coaching, early intervention, universal basic income (UBI), child accounts, and trauma-informed practice are highlighted as examples with the potential to address financial and mental distress more holistically.
Governments around the world are increasingly worried about widening income inequalities and the ... more Governments around the world are increasingly worried about widening income inequalities and the stagnation of low-skilled wages. Social Workers are the frontline staff providing financial as well as other social services to low income households. The effectiveness of national and agency-based programs to the poor depends heavily on the discretionary help given by such front line staff. Using Singapore as a case study, this article reflects on the question what if Social Workers are paid more. The Compensating Wage Differential model in Labor Economics explains low salaries and high turnover of Social Workers. Comparison of two small surveys with a past research and nationally reported wages shows that Social Work salaries in Singapore are low compared to other occupations and countries. Implications of the study include government intervention to increase relative wages of Social Workers and specifications for future empirical research.
This study compared intergenerational earnings mobility in Singapore and the United States by rep... more This study compared intergenerational earnings mobility in Singapore and the United States by replicating the limitations in the Singapore National Youth Survey on the U.S. Panel Study of Income Dynamics. The mean estimated earnings elasticities are almost identical: 0.26 in Singapore and 0.27 in the United States. Transformed to 0.45 and 0.47 respectively to reflect permanent status, mobility in the two countries is moderately low compared internationally. The finding of similar mobility is not surprising given that the economic realities, welfare systems, education regimes, and labor structures in the two countries are similar. Policy makers face the daunting challenge of overcoming immobility and inequality while maintaining global competitiveness.
Background While existing research has shown higher prevalence of depression among incarcerated y... more Background While existing research has shown higher prevalence of depression among incarcerated youths compared with non-incarcerated youths, none has studied incarceration as a cause of depression. Aims/hypothesis This study suggests that incarceration, in particular placement of youths in adult incarceration, is a factor in developing depression. Method A records based comparison of depression among youths in different types of incarceration with non-incarcerated youths, controlling for other predictors of depression, namely offence type, family poverty, parents' history of incarceration and demographic profi le. Results Youths in adult placements were signifi cantly more likely to be depressed than youths in juvenile placements and community-based youths. Conclusion and implications The fi ndings suggest that there are mental health implications against incarcerating youths in adult prisons, a concern that current juvenile justice might not have considered adequately.
We gratefully acknowledge all participants of this study, for the time and thought taken to respo... more We gratefully acknowledge all participants of this study, for the time and thought taken to respond, participate, and provide further comments. We thank Siri Jayaratne for comments on an earlier draft.
Welfare reforms in the 1990s have shifted governments around the world towards financial assistan... more Welfare reforms in the 1990s have shifted governments around the world towards financial assistance conditional on work. While large-scale rigorous research on welfare-to-work programs has demonstrated effectiveness toward employment in other countries, no such micro-level evaluation of a policy has ever been conducted in Singapore. This article describes the process of developing a large experimental evaluation of the Work Support Program, which the Ministry of Community Development, Youth and Sports started in 2006. The lessons learned from planning and implementing the research can be helpful to future researchers in negotiating long-term rigorous evaluations in an environment where collaborators lack sufficient research knowledge. Insights include ways to focus on the essentials, find alternative experimental designs, collaborate effectively, and adapt instruments across cultures.
In these times of an economic downturn, several stressors impact more stiffly on vulnerable group... more In these times of an economic downturn, several stressors impact more stiffly on vulnerable groups in Singapore. Irene Ng and David Rothwell point out these stressors at multiple levels and suggest ways social policy can continue to respond. The current economic realities are introducing a wide range of new demands and economic pressures into the family system that will challenge the unit’s ability to adapt.
With labour markets already polarised in industrialised economies, if Covid-19 worsens this polar... more With labour markets already polarised in industrialised economies, if Covid-19 worsens this polarity, young people could be more severely affected. This is because their entry into a post-pandemic economy has ramifications for their divergent or convergent career trajectories far into the future. Therefore, on the premise that work life is central to quality of life, this article assesses the effects of low wage and Covid-19 on the psychological outlook of young people in Singapore. We found that Covid-19 did worsen polarisation. On average, higher wage workers telecommuted more and had more work, but low wage young workers bore the brunt of earnings loss and job disruption. Low wage respondents also experienced poorer psychological well-being, even after adverse child experiences, highest educational qualification and occupation type were controlled for. However, higher wage workers might be more psychologically affected by the Covid-19 impacts. This might be because low earning workers are more accustomed to employment instability. These findings suggest the urgency of policy attention to help low wage young workers recover from Covid-19.
Asia Pacific Journal of Social Work and Development, 2018
In his speech, he emphasized the importance of strengthening family support and addressing issues... more In his speech, he emphasized the importance of strengthening family support and addressing issues such as income and stigma in more effective rehabilitation. Professor Paul Cheung of the Social Service Research Centre drew attention to elderly prisoners in his welcome speech. In fast ageing societies, a different approach to rehabilitation of inmates older than 60 years of age is needed. These two opening speeches in the conference show how far offender work has come. From highly punitive systems focused on desistence and prevention (sending a strong signal against crime), the cumulative evidence today is that strong rehabilitative programs have shown greater effectiveness at decreasing crime through reduced recidivism. They also highlight the new challenges as society changes. For example, demographic shifts, labour market insecurities and stressed families are factors central to effective reintegration of ex-offenders. This special issue contains six articles on a variety of innovations. It comprises articles from presentations made at the conference and from an open call for papers. They show how far-reaching true rehabilitation can and should be. From the judicial system to in-prison work to diversionary or aftercare programs, the innovations are increasingly taking into account the circumstances of the exoffender and his/her ecosystem. "Court Processes and Orders for Positive Outcomes" by Judge Lim Keng Yeow analyzes how court processes can be more rehabilitative. It gives as example two initiatives in the Singapore court system, post-sentencing judicial monitoring and a pre-sentencing protocol, aimed at better supporting rehabilitation. "Enhancing corrections, transforming lives: a Singapore Perspective" by Desmond K.T. Chin and Neeti Iyer is excerpted from the keynote speech by Desmond Chin, the Commissioner of Prisons in Singapore. It gives a historical account of how the Singapore Prison System has become more rehabilitative, with positive outcomes: "the period of transformation coincided with a dramatic reduction in the prison population and recidivism rate". It also looks forward to the future, outlining the ways that the Singapore Prison System will move upstream towards prevention and
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2019
Significance The impact of chronic debt on the poor is psychological, not just financial. We hypo... more Significance The impact of chronic debt on the poor is psychological, not just financial. We hypothesize that chronic debt impairs psychological functioning and decision-making, contributing to the poverty trap. This is because debt is not considered fungible and is viewed as costly mental accounts that consume cognitive bandwidth. We test this using quasiexperimental evidence from a one-off, unanticipated debt-relief program worth several months’ household income. Comparing the poor before and after debt relief, those with more debt accounts paid off experienced greater improvements in cognitive functioning, reported less anxiety, and became less present-biased. These findings provide actionable evidence for poverty-alleviation policy.
The purpose of the study is to examine the impact of childhood maltreatment on youth offender rec... more The purpose of the study is to examine the impact of childhood maltreatment on youth offender recidivism in Singapore. The study used case file coding on a sample of 3,744 youth offenders, among whom about 6% had a childhood maltreatment history. The results showed that the Youth Level of Service/Case Management Inventory 2.0 (YLS/CMI 2.0) ratings significantly predicted recidivism for nonmaltreated youth offenders, but not for maltreated youth offenders. Using propensity score matching, the result from a Cox regression analysis showed that maltreated youth offenders were 1.38 times as likely as their nonmaltreated counterparts to reoffend with a follow-up period of up to 7.4 years. The results implied that the YLS/CMI 2.0 measures were insufficient for assessing the risk for recidivism for the maltreated youth offenders, and that other information is needed to help assessors use the professional override when making the overall risk ratings.
Youth participation in social groups is important in developing skills and experience for success... more Youth participation in social groups is important in developing skills and experience for successful transition to adulthood. What kinds of families do youth who are active in social groups and who take on leadership positions come from? Using data from the National Youth Survey 2005, this research studies the social participation of Singaporean youth aged 15-18. Through probit regression analysis, it examines how youth participation in Singapore is associated with two types of family characteristics. First, it examines the role of maternal education. As a proxy for social class, maternal education represents the roles of cultural capital formation and concerted involvement by middle class parents. Second, it studies the role of family challenge and support. Maternal education is found to predict both high participation and leadership. While additional family challenge induces greater participation, family support increases participation only when the level of support is high.
This article studies the relationship between neighborhood factors and juvenile serious offenders... more This article studies the relationship between neighborhood factors and juvenile serious offenders in Wayne County, Michigan. This is where Detroit is, a city with a glorious past but a bleak future. Administrative data are linked to tract-level census characteristics that proxy for social disorganization structural factors. Results by negative binomial regressions found significant associations in the expected direction with concentrated disadvantage, concentrated affluence, and inequality. However, concentrated immigration is insignificantly related to juvenile serious offending and residential stability increases rather than decreases offending. These counter-theoretical results may be due to the presence of homes to students and young professionals and vibrant Latino immigrant communities. The stark contrasts documented by the analysis and the high correlation of economic conditions to juvenile crime demand urgent and radical responses to completely transform impoverished neighborhoods in Wayne County.
Digital resources—which include devices, internet connection and digital literacy—have become bas... more Digital resources—which include devices, internet connection and digital literacy—have become basic needs. Thus with the global COVID-19 pandemic having accelerated digitalization, the urgency for universal digital inclusion has hastened. Otherwise, digital inequality will lead to social inequality and impede social mobility. Using Singapore as a case study, this article applies the insights learned from a participatory action research to recommend a policy framework for universal digital access, with practical humanistic steps towards full digital inclusion. Singapore is a digitally advanced nation with almost universal digital availability, yet when COVID-19 forced rapid digital adoption, gaps in access by vulnerable groups such as low-income households, elderly and migrant workers were found. From the learning points on gaps and measures taken by community groups, volunteers and policy-makers in our research, we recommend making access to all three digital resources automatic and...
This chapter discusses the mental health effects of financial challenges on an individual, as wel... more This chapter discusses the mental health effects of financial challenges on an individual, as well as on families and children. It also proposes potentially effective strategies for tackling economic and mental distress given the correlation between mental and financial well-being. Financial challenges are scoped within the context of urban poverty and the related issues of unemployment, job conditions, and debt. Mental health is more broadly defined and can encompass general psychological well-being, stress, or severe mental disorders, depending on the relevant studies and models discussed. While different sources of financial challenges have different effects on different types of mental wellbeing, it appears that generally economic distress and poor mental health negatively reinforce each other in ways that have ripple effects on the family and intergenerational effects on children. The consequences become more deleterious when considered alongside other effects, such as impaired cognitive functioning or the trauma effects of adverse child experiences (ACE). In terms of interventions, then, it is important to develop a comprehensive set of responses that takes into consideration the challenges faced by both mental illness and poverty/ economic strain, tackles both individual and environmental/structural factors, and supports the whole family. Initiatives such as supported employment, financial or mobility coaching, early intervention, universal basic income (UBI), child accounts, and trauma-informed practice are highlighted as examples with the potential to address financial and mental distress more holistically.
Governments around the world are increasingly worried about widening income inequalities and the ... more Governments around the world are increasingly worried about widening income inequalities and the stagnation of low-skilled wages. Social Workers are the frontline staff providing financial as well as other social services to low income households. The effectiveness of national and agency-based programs to the poor depends heavily on the discretionary help given by such front line staff. Using Singapore as a case study, this article reflects on the question what if Social Workers are paid more. The Compensating Wage Differential model in Labor Economics explains low salaries and high turnover of Social Workers. Comparison of two small surveys with a past research and nationally reported wages shows that Social Work salaries in Singapore are low compared to other occupations and countries. Implications of the study include government intervention to increase relative wages of Social Workers and specifications for future empirical research.
This study compared intergenerational earnings mobility in Singapore and the United States by rep... more This study compared intergenerational earnings mobility in Singapore and the United States by replicating the limitations in the Singapore National Youth Survey on the U.S. Panel Study of Income Dynamics. The mean estimated earnings elasticities are almost identical: 0.26 in Singapore and 0.27 in the United States. Transformed to 0.45 and 0.47 respectively to reflect permanent status, mobility in the two countries is moderately low compared internationally. The finding of similar mobility is not surprising given that the economic realities, welfare systems, education regimes, and labor structures in the two countries are similar. Policy makers face the daunting challenge of overcoming immobility and inequality while maintaining global competitiveness.
Background While existing research has shown higher prevalence of depression among incarcerated y... more Background While existing research has shown higher prevalence of depression among incarcerated youths compared with non-incarcerated youths, none has studied incarceration as a cause of depression. Aims/hypothesis This study suggests that incarceration, in particular placement of youths in adult incarceration, is a factor in developing depression. Method A records based comparison of depression among youths in different types of incarceration with non-incarcerated youths, controlling for other predictors of depression, namely offence type, family poverty, parents' history of incarceration and demographic profi le. Results Youths in adult placements were signifi cantly more likely to be depressed than youths in juvenile placements and community-based youths. Conclusion and implications The fi ndings suggest that there are mental health implications against incarcerating youths in adult prisons, a concern that current juvenile justice might not have considered adequately.
We gratefully acknowledge all participants of this study, for the time and thought taken to respo... more We gratefully acknowledge all participants of this study, for the time and thought taken to respond, participate, and provide further comments. We thank Siri Jayaratne for comments on an earlier draft.
Welfare reforms in the 1990s have shifted governments around the world towards financial assistan... more Welfare reforms in the 1990s have shifted governments around the world towards financial assistance conditional on work. While large-scale rigorous research on welfare-to-work programs has demonstrated effectiveness toward employment in other countries, no such micro-level evaluation of a policy has ever been conducted in Singapore. This article describes the process of developing a large experimental evaluation of the Work Support Program, which the Ministry of Community Development, Youth and Sports started in 2006. The lessons learned from planning and implementing the research can be helpful to future researchers in negotiating long-term rigorous evaluations in an environment where collaborators lack sufficient research knowledge. Insights include ways to focus on the essentials, find alternative experimental designs, collaborate effectively, and adapt instruments across cultures.
In these times of an economic downturn, several stressors impact more stiffly on vulnerable group... more In these times of an economic downturn, several stressors impact more stiffly on vulnerable groups in Singapore. Irene Ng and David Rothwell point out these stressors at multiple levels and suggest ways social policy can continue to respond. The current economic realities are introducing a wide range of new demands and economic pressures into the family system that will challenge the unit’s ability to adapt.
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