The need to identify information sources which facilitate a functional coupling of perception and... more The need to identify information sources which facilitate a functional coupling of perception and action in representative practice contexts is an important challenge for sport scientists and coaches. The current study investigated the role of visual information in regulating athlete gait behaviours during a locomotor pointing task in cricket. Integration of experiential knowledge of elite coaches and theoretical understanding from previous empirical research led us to investigate whether the presence of an umpire would act as a vertical informational constraint that could constrain the emergent coordination tendencies of cricket bowlers' run-up patterns. To test this idea, umpire presence was manipulated during run-ups of 10 elite medium-fast bowlers. As hypothesised, removal of the umpire from the performance environment did not result in an inability to regulate gait to intercept a target, however, the absence of this informational constraint resulted in the emergence of diff...
Faculty of Health Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation School of Exercise Nutrition Sciences, May 10, 2013
This paper proposes how ecological dynamics, a theory focusing on the performer-environment relat... more This paper proposes how ecological dynamics, a theory focusing on the performer-environment relationship, provides a basis for understanding skill acquisition in sport. From this perspective, learners are conceptualized as complex, neurobiological systems in which inherent self-organisation tendencies support the emergence of adaptive behaviours under a range of interacting task and environmental constraints. Intentions, perceptions and actions are viewed as intertwined processes which underpin functional movement solutions assembled by each learner during skill acquisition. These ideas suggest that skill acquisition programmes need to sample information from the performance environment to guide behaviour in practice tasks. Skill acquisition task protocols should allow performers to use movement variability to explore and create opportunities for action, rather than constraining them to passively receiving information. This conceptualisation also needs to characterize the design of talent evaluation tests, which need to faithfully represent the perception-action relationships in the performance environment. Since the dynamic nature of changing task constraints in sports cannot be predicted over longer timescales, an implication is that talent programmes should focus on developing performance expertise in each individual, rather than over-relying on identification of expert performers at specific points in time.
Faculty of Health Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation School of Exercise Nutrition Sciences, Mar 10, 2010
... by Lynn Kidman and Bennett J. Lombardo Coaches Featured: Mike Ruddock Lyn Gunson Matt P... more ... by Lynn Kidman and Bennett J. Lombardo Coaches Featured: Mike Ruddock Lyn Gunson Matt Powell Guy Evans Greg Chappell Mark Norton Don Tricker With Guest Authors: Gareth Jones Paul Cooper Ian Renshaw Christian Edwards Rick Humm ...
Faculty of Health Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation School of Exercise Nutrition Sciences, Mar 5, 2015
ABSTRACT Background: Physical education teacher education (PETE) programmes have been identified ... more ABSTRACT Background: Physical education teacher education (PETE) programmes have been identified as a critical platform to encourage the exploration of alternative teaching approaches by pre-service teachers. However, the socio-cultural constraint of acculturation or past physical education and sporting experiences results in the maintenance of the status quo of a teacher-driven, reproductive paradigm. Previous studies have reported successfully overcoming the powerful influence of acculturation, resulting in a change in PETE students' custodial teaching beliefs and receptiveness to alternative teaching approaches. However, to date, limited information has been reported about how PETE students' acculturation shaped their receptiveness to an alternative teaching approach. This is particularly the case for PETE recruits identified in the literature as most resistant to change.
Faculty of Health Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation School of Exercise Nutrition Sciences, 2010
In fast bowling, cricketers are expected to produce a range of delivery lines and lengths while m... more In fast bowling, cricketers are expected to produce a range of delivery lines and lengths while maximising ball speed. From a coaching perspective, technique consistency has been typically associated with superior performance in these areas. However, although bowlers ...
Centre For Health Research Faculty of Health Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, 2005
DAVIDS, K., I. RENSHAW, and P. GLAZIER. Movement models from sports reveal fundamental insights i... more DAVIDS, K., I. RENSHAW, and P. GLAZIER. Movement models from sports reveal fundamental insights into coordination processes. . Trends for studying coordination and control have shifted from simple movement models toward complex, multijoint actions in sports such as cricket. Use of such movement models exemplifies the nature of interacting constraints that shape emergence of coordination and control processes as proposed by dynamical systems theory and ecological psychology.
Objectives: Experiential knowledge of elite athletes and coaches was investigated to reveal insig... more Objectives: Experiential knowledge of elite athletes and coaches was investigated to reveal insights on expertise acquisition in cricket fast bowling. Design: Twenty-one past or present elite cricket fast bowlers and coaches of national or international level were interviewed using an in-depth, open-ended, semi-structured approach. Methods: Participants were asked about specific factors which they believed were markers of fast bowling expertise potential. Of specific interest was the relative importance of each potential component of fast bowling expertise and how components interacted or developed over time.
Http Dx Doi Org 10 1080 17461390701643026, Sep 1, 2007
Ecological constraints of practice significantly affect the acquisition of functional information... more Ecological constraints of practice significantly affect the acquisition of functional information-movement couplings and learners need to converge on information-specifying perceptual variables. Consequently, prolonged and widespread use of ball projection machines for practice of interceptive actions may lack theoretical foundation because they afford information-specifying variables which are not present in competitive performance. To examine this issue, timing and coordination of the forward defensive stroke in cricket batting were examined in experienced batters under two typical practice task constraints: batting against a representative 'real' bowler (B) and a representative bowling machine (BM) (mean delivery velocity 26.76 m s -1 under both conditions). Results showed significant adaptation of coordination and timing under the different practice task constraints. For example, initiation of the backswing was later against a bowler and downswing was faster with a different ratio of backswing-downswing when batting in the BM condition (47%: 53%) compared to B (54%: 46%). Peak bat height differed under the two constraints (BM: 1.56±19.89 m and B: 1.72±10.36 m). Mean length of front foot stride was shorter against the BM (0.55±0.07 m)
Faculty of Health Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, Oct 14, 2004
Behavioural studies of human locomotor pointing have been dominated by specific task constraints ... more Behavioural studies of human locomotor pointing have been dominated by specific task constraints of generating maximal approach velocity towards spatial targets. To examine locomotor pointing under different nested task constraints, at sub-maximal approach velocities and with concomitant differences in speed-accuracy trade offs, run-ups of professional cricket bowlers (n = 6) were analysed. Inter-and intra-trial analyses of step length adjustments revealed how differences between current and required locomotor pointing behaviour constrained visual adaptations of gait. Results supported a continuous perception-action coupling control mechanism, although no relationship was observed between step number in sequence and total amount of adjustment made, implying that visual adaptations did not continue to the end of a run-up once initiated. Rather, bowlers made step adjustments throughout the run-up, with strong associations for amount of adjustment made and amount needed. Significant variations were observed in inter-individual strategies for making most adjustments at different points of the run-up. A key premise of prospective control models of locomotor pointing was found to be robust, since regulation of cricketer's gait was continuous and based on perception of current and required behaviour. Findings extend understanding of the nature and range of nested task constraints under which perception-action coupling controls locomotor pointing performance.
Faculty of Health Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation School of Early Childhood, Jul 1, 2013
Coordinative couplings are commonly classified as interpersonal and intrapersonal. Interpersonal ... more Coordinative couplings are commonly classified as interpersonal and intrapersonal. Interpersonal coordination is normally thought of as between organisms but a subset can also be considered where the co-actors movements are coupled to an environmental rhythm. This can be termed extrapersonal coordination. This study explores how coordination is achieved in a situation that demands that at least one actor makes use of extrapersonal sources. In this case multi-seat rowing, where one actor cannot see the other one behind them. A qualitative approach using experiential knowledge from expert rowers (N=9) and coaches (N=4) was used to examine how interpersonal coordination was achieved and maintained in 2 person rowing boats. It was reported that where possible, both rowers coordinated their movements by coupling with an invariant provided by the boat. This invariant is underpinned by perception of water flow past the boat; which is in turn used to determine changes in acceleration - 'rowing with the boat.' Bow seat also identified the rower in front and stroke seat identified the looming of the stern as viable alternative sources for coupling.
Centre For Health Research Faculty of Health Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation School of Exercise Nutrition Sciences, 2010
In this paper, we highlight key concepts from dynamical systems theory and complexity sciences to... more In this paper, we highlight key concepts from dynamical systems theory and complexity sciences to exemplify constraints on talent development in a sample of elite cricketers. Eleven international fast bowlers who cumulatively had taken more than 2,400 test wickets ...
Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, Mar 31, 2012
The relationship between performance variability and accuracy in cricket fast bowlers of differen... more The relationship between performance variability and accuracy in cricket fast bowlers of different skill levels under three different task conditions was investigated. Bowlers of different skill levels were examined to observe if they could adapt movement patterns to maintain performance accuracy on a bowling skills test. Design: 8 national, 12 emerging and 12 junior pace bowlers completed an adapted version of the Cricket Australia bowling skills test, in which they performed 30 trials involving short (n = 10), good (n = 10), and full (n = 10) length deliveries. Methods: Bowling accuracy was recorded by digitising ball position relative to the centre of a target. Performance measures were mean radial error (accuracy), variable error (consistency), centroid error (bias), bowling score and ball speed. Radial error changes across the duration of the skills test were used to record accuracy adjustment in subsequent deliveries. Results: Elite fast bowlers performed better in speed, accuracy, and test scores than developing athletes. Bowlers who were less variable were also more accurate across all delivery lengths. National and emerging bowlers were able to adapt subsequent performance trials within the same bowling session for short length deliveries. Conclusions: Accuracy and adaptive variability were key components of elite performance in fast bowling which improved with skill level. In this study, only national elite bowlers showed requisite levels of adaptive variability to bowl a range of lengths to different pitch locations.
Http Dx Doi Org 10 1080 026404100446757, Dec 9, 2010
Bowlers in cricket try to disguise their bowling action by movement pattern similarity. The batte... more Bowlers in cricket try to disguise their bowling action by movement pattern similarity. The batter's task is, therefore, to solve rapidly perceptual discrimination problems. Previous research has suggested that batters can discriminate perceptual cues that provide depth or target information. However, at present, there is a lack of applied research evidence on further perceptual cue utilization, including bowling delivery identification. This ability is required when batting against wrist-spin bowlers who may use five different types of delivery. In the present study, we assessed this perceptual discrimination ability among three distinct standards of batters. In addition, the relative potency of body action and ball flight information was assessed by visual occlusion techniques. We found that more expert batters in general showed greater perceptual discrimination skills when faced with different ball types. However, this discrimination ability was linked specifically to delivery type and to previous experience. We also found that additional ball flight information provided no more advantage to this discrimination ability. This finding reinforces the importance of advanced cue information and the need to expose cricket batters to different bowling actions. Further study of the development of movement pattern recognition is recommended.
Faculty of Health Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation School of Exercise Nutrition Sciences, 2012
This study evaluated effects of defensive pressure on running velocity in footballers during the ... more This study evaluated effects of defensive pressure on running velocity in footballers during the approach to kick a stationary football. Approach velocity and ball speed/accuracy data were recorded from eight football youth academy participants (15.25, SD=0.46 yrs). Participants were required to run to a football to cross it to a receiver to score against a goal-keeper. Defensive pressure was manipulated across three counterbalanced conditions: defender-absent (DA); defender-far (DF) and defender-near (DN). Pass accuracy (percentages of a total of 32 trials with 95% confidence limits in parenthesis) did not significantly reduce under changing defensive pressure: DA, 78% (55-100%); DF, 78% (61-96%); DN, 59% (40-79%). Ball speed (m · s(-1)) significantly reduced as defensive pressure was included and increased: DA, 23.10 (22.38-23.83); DF, 20.40 (19.69-21.11); DN, 19.22 (18.51-19.93). When defensive pressure was introduced, average running velocity of attackers did not change significantly: DA versus DF (m · s(-1)), 5.40 (5.30-5.51) versus 5.41 (5.34-5.48). Scaling defender starting positions closer to the start position of the attacker (DN) significantly increased average running velocity relative to the DA and DF conditions, 5.60 (5.50-5.71). In the final approach footfalls, all conditions significantly differed: DA, 5.69 (5.35-6.03); DF, 6 .22 (5.93-6.50); DN, 6.52 (6.23-6.80). Data suggested that approach velocity is constrained by both presence and initial distance of the defender during task performance. Implications are that the expression of kicking behaviour is specific to a performance context and some movement regulation features will not emerge unless a defender is present as a task constraint in practice.
The need to identify information sources which facilitate a functional coupling of perception and... more The need to identify information sources which facilitate a functional coupling of perception and action in representative practice contexts is an important challenge for sport scientists and coaches. The current study investigated the role of visual information in regulating athlete gait behaviours during a locomotor pointing task in cricket. Integration of experiential knowledge of elite coaches and theoretical understanding from previous empirical research led us to investigate whether the presence of an umpire would act as a vertical informational constraint that could constrain the emergent coordination tendencies of cricket bowlers' run-up patterns. To test this idea, umpire presence was manipulated during run-ups of 10 elite medium-fast bowlers. As hypothesised, removal of the umpire from the performance environment did not result in an inability to regulate gait to intercept a target, however, the absence of this informational constraint resulted in the emergence of diff...
Faculty of Health Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation School of Exercise Nutrition Sciences, May 10, 2013
This paper proposes how ecological dynamics, a theory focusing on the performer-environment relat... more This paper proposes how ecological dynamics, a theory focusing on the performer-environment relationship, provides a basis for understanding skill acquisition in sport. From this perspective, learners are conceptualized as complex, neurobiological systems in which inherent self-organisation tendencies support the emergence of adaptive behaviours under a range of interacting task and environmental constraints. Intentions, perceptions and actions are viewed as intertwined processes which underpin functional movement solutions assembled by each learner during skill acquisition. These ideas suggest that skill acquisition programmes need to sample information from the performance environment to guide behaviour in practice tasks. Skill acquisition task protocols should allow performers to use movement variability to explore and create opportunities for action, rather than constraining them to passively receiving information. This conceptualisation also needs to characterize the design of talent evaluation tests, which need to faithfully represent the perception-action relationships in the performance environment. Since the dynamic nature of changing task constraints in sports cannot be predicted over longer timescales, an implication is that talent programmes should focus on developing performance expertise in each individual, rather than over-relying on identification of expert performers at specific points in time.
Faculty of Health Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation School of Exercise Nutrition Sciences, Mar 10, 2010
... by Lynn Kidman and Bennett J. Lombardo Coaches Featured: Mike Ruddock Lyn Gunson Matt P... more ... by Lynn Kidman and Bennett J. Lombardo Coaches Featured: Mike Ruddock Lyn Gunson Matt Powell Guy Evans Greg Chappell Mark Norton Don Tricker With Guest Authors: Gareth Jones Paul Cooper Ian Renshaw Christian Edwards Rick Humm ...
Faculty of Health Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation School of Exercise Nutrition Sciences, Mar 5, 2015
ABSTRACT Background: Physical education teacher education (PETE) programmes have been identified ... more ABSTRACT Background: Physical education teacher education (PETE) programmes have been identified as a critical platform to encourage the exploration of alternative teaching approaches by pre-service teachers. However, the socio-cultural constraint of acculturation or past physical education and sporting experiences results in the maintenance of the status quo of a teacher-driven, reproductive paradigm. Previous studies have reported successfully overcoming the powerful influence of acculturation, resulting in a change in PETE students' custodial teaching beliefs and receptiveness to alternative teaching approaches. However, to date, limited information has been reported about how PETE students' acculturation shaped their receptiveness to an alternative teaching approach. This is particularly the case for PETE recruits identified in the literature as most resistant to change.
Faculty of Health Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation School of Exercise Nutrition Sciences, 2010
In fast bowling, cricketers are expected to produce a range of delivery lines and lengths while m... more In fast bowling, cricketers are expected to produce a range of delivery lines and lengths while maximising ball speed. From a coaching perspective, technique consistency has been typically associated with superior performance in these areas. However, although bowlers ...
Centre For Health Research Faculty of Health Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, 2005
DAVIDS, K., I. RENSHAW, and P. GLAZIER. Movement models from sports reveal fundamental insights i... more DAVIDS, K., I. RENSHAW, and P. GLAZIER. Movement models from sports reveal fundamental insights into coordination processes. . Trends for studying coordination and control have shifted from simple movement models toward complex, multijoint actions in sports such as cricket. Use of such movement models exemplifies the nature of interacting constraints that shape emergence of coordination and control processes as proposed by dynamical systems theory and ecological psychology.
Objectives: Experiential knowledge of elite athletes and coaches was investigated to reveal insig... more Objectives: Experiential knowledge of elite athletes and coaches was investigated to reveal insights on expertise acquisition in cricket fast bowling. Design: Twenty-one past or present elite cricket fast bowlers and coaches of national or international level were interviewed using an in-depth, open-ended, semi-structured approach. Methods: Participants were asked about specific factors which they believed were markers of fast bowling expertise potential. Of specific interest was the relative importance of each potential component of fast bowling expertise and how components interacted or developed over time.
Http Dx Doi Org 10 1080 17461390701643026, Sep 1, 2007
Ecological constraints of practice significantly affect the acquisition of functional information... more Ecological constraints of practice significantly affect the acquisition of functional information-movement couplings and learners need to converge on information-specifying perceptual variables. Consequently, prolonged and widespread use of ball projection machines for practice of interceptive actions may lack theoretical foundation because they afford information-specifying variables which are not present in competitive performance. To examine this issue, timing and coordination of the forward defensive stroke in cricket batting were examined in experienced batters under two typical practice task constraints: batting against a representative 'real' bowler (B) and a representative bowling machine (BM) (mean delivery velocity 26.76 m s -1 under both conditions). Results showed significant adaptation of coordination and timing under the different practice task constraints. For example, initiation of the backswing was later against a bowler and downswing was faster with a different ratio of backswing-downswing when batting in the BM condition (47%: 53%) compared to B (54%: 46%). Peak bat height differed under the two constraints (BM: 1.56±19.89 m and B: 1.72±10.36 m). Mean length of front foot stride was shorter against the BM (0.55±0.07 m)
Faculty of Health Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, Oct 14, 2004
Behavioural studies of human locomotor pointing have been dominated by specific task constraints ... more Behavioural studies of human locomotor pointing have been dominated by specific task constraints of generating maximal approach velocity towards spatial targets. To examine locomotor pointing under different nested task constraints, at sub-maximal approach velocities and with concomitant differences in speed-accuracy trade offs, run-ups of professional cricket bowlers (n = 6) were analysed. Inter-and intra-trial analyses of step length adjustments revealed how differences between current and required locomotor pointing behaviour constrained visual adaptations of gait. Results supported a continuous perception-action coupling control mechanism, although no relationship was observed between step number in sequence and total amount of adjustment made, implying that visual adaptations did not continue to the end of a run-up once initiated. Rather, bowlers made step adjustments throughout the run-up, with strong associations for amount of adjustment made and amount needed. Significant variations were observed in inter-individual strategies for making most adjustments at different points of the run-up. A key premise of prospective control models of locomotor pointing was found to be robust, since regulation of cricketer's gait was continuous and based on perception of current and required behaviour. Findings extend understanding of the nature and range of nested task constraints under which perception-action coupling controls locomotor pointing performance.
Faculty of Health Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation School of Early Childhood, Jul 1, 2013
Coordinative couplings are commonly classified as interpersonal and intrapersonal. Interpersonal ... more Coordinative couplings are commonly classified as interpersonal and intrapersonal. Interpersonal coordination is normally thought of as between organisms but a subset can also be considered where the co-actors movements are coupled to an environmental rhythm. This can be termed extrapersonal coordination. This study explores how coordination is achieved in a situation that demands that at least one actor makes use of extrapersonal sources. In this case multi-seat rowing, where one actor cannot see the other one behind them. A qualitative approach using experiential knowledge from expert rowers (N=9) and coaches (N=4) was used to examine how interpersonal coordination was achieved and maintained in 2 person rowing boats. It was reported that where possible, both rowers coordinated their movements by coupling with an invariant provided by the boat. This invariant is underpinned by perception of water flow past the boat; which is in turn used to determine changes in acceleration - 'rowing with the boat.' Bow seat also identified the rower in front and stroke seat identified the looming of the stern as viable alternative sources for coupling.
Centre For Health Research Faculty of Health Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation School of Exercise Nutrition Sciences, 2010
In this paper, we highlight key concepts from dynamical systems theory and complexity sciences to... more In this paper, we highlight key concepts from dynamical systems theory and complexity sciences to exemplify constraints on talent development in a sample of elite cricketers. Eleven international fast bowlers who cumulatively had taken more than 2,400 test wickets ...
Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, Mar 31, 2012
The relationship between performance variability and accuracy in cricket fast bowlers of differen... more The relationship between performance variability and accuracy in cricket fast bowlers of different skill levels under three different task conditions was investigated. Bowlers of different skill levels were examined to observe if they could adapt movement patterns to maintain performance accuracy on a bowling skills test. Design: 8 national, 12 emerging and 12 junior pace bowlers completed an adapted version of the Cricket Australia bowling skills test, in which they performed 30 trials involving short (n = 10), good (n = 10), and full (n = 10) length deliveries. Methods: Bowling accuracy was recorded by digitising ball position relative to the centre of a target. Performance measures were mean radial error (accuracy), variable error (consistency), centroid error (bias), bowling score and ball speed. Radial error changes across the duration of the skills test were used to record accuracy adjustment in subsequent deliveries. Results: Elite fast bowlers performed better in speed, accuracy, and test scores than developing athletes. Bowlers who were less variable were also more accurate across all delivery lengths. National and emerging bowlers were able to adapt subsequent performance trials within the same bowling session for short length deliveries. Conclusions: Accuracy and adaptive variability were key components of elite performance in fast bowling which improved with skill level. In this study, only national elite bowlers showed requisite levels of adaptive variability to bowl a range of lengths to different pitch locations.
Http Dx Doi Org 10 1080 026404100446757, Dec 9, 2010
Bowlers in cricket try to disguise their bowling action by movement pattern similarity. The batte... more Bowlers in cricket try to disguise their bowling action by movement pattern similarity. The batter's task is, therefore, to solve rapidly perceptual discrimination problems. Previous research has suggested that batters can discriminate perceptual cues that provide depth or target information. However, at present, there is a lack of applied research evidence on further perceptual cue utilization, including bowling delivery identification. This ability is required when batting against wrist-spin bowlers who may use five different types of delivery. In the present study, we assessed this perceptual discrimination ability among three distinct standards of batters. In addition, the relative potency of body action and ball flight information was assessed by visual occlusion techniques. We found that more expert batters in general showed greater perceptual discrimination skills when faced with different ball types. However, this discrimination ability was linked specifically to delivery type and to previous experience. We also found that additional ball flight information provided no more advantage to this discrimination ability. This finding reinforces the importance of advanced cue information and the need to expose cricket batters to different bowling actions. Further study of the development of movement pattern recognition is recommended.
Faculty of Health Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation School of Exercise Nutrition Sciences, 2012
This study evaluated effects of defensive pressure on running velocity in footballers during the ... more This study evaluated effects of defensive pressure on running velocity in footballers during the approach to kick a stationary football. Approach velocity and ball speed/accuracy data were recorded from eight football youth academy participants (15.25, SD=0.46 yrs). Participants were required to run to a football to cross it to a receiver to score against a goal-keeper. Defensive pressure was manipulated across three counterbalanced conditions: defender-absent (DA); defender-far (DF) and defender-near (DN). Pass accuracy (percentages of a total of 32 trials with 95% confidence limits in parenthesis) did not significantly reduce under changing defensive pressure: DA, 78% (55-100%); DF, 78% (61-96%); DN, 59% (40-79%). Ball speed (m · s(-1)) significantly reduced as defensive pressure was included and increased: DA, 23.10 (22.38-23.83); DF, 20.40 (19.69-21.11); DN, 19.22 (18.51-19.93). When defensive pressure was introduced, average running velocity of attackers did not change significantly: DA versus DF (m · s(-1)), 5.40 (5.30-5.51) versus 5.41 (5.34-5.48). Scaling defender starting positions closer to the start position of the attacker (DN) significantly increased average running velocity relative to the DA and DF conditions, 5.60 (5.50-5.71). In the final approach footfalls, all conditions significantly differed: DA, 5.69 (5.35-6.03); DF, 6 .22 (5.93-6.50); DN, 6.52 (6.23-6.80). Data suggested that approach velocity is constrained by both presence and initial distance of the defender during task performance. Implications are that the expression of kicking behaviour is specific to a performance context and some movement regulation features will not emerge unless a defender is present as a task constraint in practice.
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