In order to increase dryland productivity, water harvesting techniques (WHT) have received renewe... more In order to increase dryland productivity, water harvesting techniques (WHT) have received renewed attention, leading to their massive implementation in marginal drylands. However, versatile tools to evaluate their efficiency under a wide range of conditions are often lacking. For two case studies in the arid and semi-arid central-northern zone of Chile, a fully coupled 3D surface-subsurface hydrological model based on the Richards’ and the Saint Venant equations was used to evaluate and improve existing water harvesting techniques using infiltration trenches (locally called ‘zanjas’). The model was parameterized with detailed runoff and soil-water content data collected during simulated rainfall from a 6 x 2 m experimental plot including a catchment area and infiltration trench at the arid site. Using seven responsive parameters identified by a global sensitivity analysis, surface and subsurface flow processes were calibrated simultaneously. The calibrated model accurately reproduc...
The classical determination of the soil water retention curve (SWRC) by measuring soil water cont... more The classical determination of the soil water retention curve (SWRC) by measuring soil water content $\theta$ at different matric potentials ψ using undisturbed soil samples is time consuming and expensive. Furthermore, undisturbed soil sampling can be an intricate task when coarse soil fragments (>2 mm) are present. The objective of this study was to test whether tension infiltrometry could be
In order to increase dryland crop productivity, water harvesting techniques (WHT) have received r... more In order to increase dryland crop productivity, water harvesting techniques (WHT) have received renewed attention, leading to their massive implementation in marginal drylands. However, versatile tools to evaluate their efficiency under a wide range of conditions are often lacking. For two case studies in the arid and semi-arid central-northern zone of Chile, a fully coupled 3D surface-subsurface hydrological model based on the Richards' and the Saint Venant equations was used to evaluate and improve existing water harvesting techniques using infiltration trenches (locally called 'zanjas'). The model was parameterized with detailed runoff and soil-water content data collected during simulated rainfall from a 6 x 2 m experimental plot including a catchment area and infiltration trench at the arid site. Using seven responsive parameters identified by a global sensitivity analysis, surface and subsurface flow processes were calibrated simultaneously. The calibrated model ac...
The climate in Venezuela is a product of a complex combination and interaction of meteorological ... more The climate in Venezuela is a product of a complex combination and interaction of meteorological and geographical factors such as the geographic location either north of Ecuador or in the tropics, and the presence of warm waters north and northeast, a vast tropical moist forest south and a mountain range west. In order to delimit the different climatic zones in Venezuela, a zoning of water regimes were used to classify climate indices primarily on rainfall parameters. A first index used was the length of a dry period, corresponding to the number of months in the year when precipitation is less than half of the reference evapotranspiration. Another index was the Aridity Index (Ia) proposed by UNEP (1997), for which calculations were based on values of average annual rainfall of the stations of the FAO database (1984, 2000). The reference evapotranspiration (ETo) was calculated by the CIRH program version 2.0 (Santibanez, 2005), which allows the calculation of ETo by the FAO (Allen et...
In arid and semi-arid zones runoff harvesting techniques are often applied to increase the water ... more In arid and semi-arid zones runoff harvesting techniques are often applied to increase the water retention and infiltration on steep slopes. Additionally, they act as an erosion control measure to reduce land degradation hazards. Both in literature and in the field, a large variety of runoff collecting systems are found, as well as large variations in design and dimensions. Therefore,
Today, more than ever, there is a need to implement robust statistical methods to ensure the prop... more Today, more than ever, there is a need to implement robust statistical methods to ensure the proper evaluation of water resources data to support decision makers in water resources planning and management. Graphing or mapping data for visualization is the easiest way to communicate trends, especially to a nontechnical audience. This paper describes the use of an approach that combines the Mann-Kendall test, Sen slope test and principal component analysis to detect and map the monthly trends of piezometric time series and their magnitude in the period 1979-2008. The data were obtained in 23 shallow wells in the alluvial aquifers of the Elqui River basin in central Chile, an area characterized by scarce water resources and intense agricultural and mining activities. The results show significant downward trends at the majority of the wells. Because groundwater in these shallow wells is highly dependent on the water in the river and its tributaries, the reasons for these downward trends are mainly related to a decrease of streamflow observed in the Elqui River. The streamflow is derived from mountain snowmelt rather than from rainfall, which showed no flow trend during the same period.
21st Century Watershed Technology: Improving Water Quality and Environment Conference Proceedings, 29 March - 3 April 2008, Concepcion, Chile, 2008
Abstract. More than 25% of South America is arid or semi-arid. Mining is the sector with the high... more Abstract. More than 25% of South America is arid or semi-arid. Mining is the sector with the highest environmental impact, whereas it contributes more to legal export earnings in the region than any other sector. There is a need to rigorously review the effectiveness of existing ...
The Watershed Sustainability Index WSI, developed as an integrated method to assess the sustainab... more The Watershed Sustainability Index WSI, developed as an integrated method to assess the sustainability of basin management, and particularly water resource management, was applied in the Elqui River Basin over a period of five years (2001-2005). The Elqui watershed is located in a semiarid region of Chile, and it has been incorporated into the River Basin Network of the UNESCO HELP Program. The result was an overall WSI score of 0.61 (within a possible range of 0 to 1), rating the basin sustainability as "intermediate". The main watershed strengths were related to the Environment and Policies indicators. On the other hand, the weakness observed in the watershed was related to the Hydrology indicator, mainly due to water scarcity issues. The bottlenecks and limitations identified in this study represent a window of opportunity to improve the current situation in the basin, and calls for more efficient coordination between the different institutions involved in natural resource management. The application of the WSI in the Elqui basin demonstrated the practicality of the method, both as an analytic instrument, and as a useful management tool for water authorities, water users and stakeholders. An important limitation encountered in this study, however, was a general lack of up to date local information. This needs to be addressed in applying the method for mid-to long-term planning and management strategies, both in the Elqui basin and elsewhere.
All rights reserved. No part of this periodical may be reproduced or transmi ed in any form or by... more All rights reserved. No part of this periodical may be reproduced or transmi ed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any informa on storage and retrieval system, without permission in wri ng from the publisher.
ABSTRACT Multivariate data analysis techniques were used to identify the interrelationships betwe... more ABSTRACT Multivariate data analysis techniques were used to identify the interrelationships between the physical–chemical analyses of 22 parameters sampled monthly from 1991 to 2007 at 16 monitoring stations along the Elqui river and its tributaries to characterize the scale of the geogenic and anthropogenic impacts on the river’s water quality. Principal component analysis was used to identify the differences and similarities between variables in the watershed. Factorial indices, computed to highlight the sections of the river and tributaries more influenced by hydrothermal, mining or agricultural activities, made it possible to synthesize groups of parameters with similar characteristics into a single value. Zusammenfassung Von 1991 bis 2007 wurden an 16 Beobachtungstationen entlang des Elqui-Flusses und seinen Zuflüssen monatlich 22 physiko-chemische Parameter gemessen. Der Grad geogener und anthropogener Einflüsse auf die Wasserqualität wurde mit multivariaten Analysen untersucht. Hauptkomponentenanalyse wurde angewendet, um Unterschiede und Ähnlichkeiten zwischen Variablen in dem Wassereinzugsgebiet zu identifizieren. Um Abschnitte des Flusses und seiner Zuflüsse mit stärkerem Einfluß hydrothermaler, bergaulicher oder landwirtschaftlicher Aktivitäten hervorzuheben, wurden faktorielle Kennzahlen berechnet. Damit war es möglich, Gruppen von Parametern ähnlicher Besonderheiten in einen Einzelwert zusammenzuführen. Resumen Se utilizaron técnicas de análisis multivariante para identificar las relaciones entre los análisis de 22 parámetros fisicoquímicos obtenidos mensualmente desde 1991 hasta 2007 en 16 estaciones de monitorio a lo largo del Río Elqui y sus tributarios, en función de caracterizar de la escala de los impactos geogénicos y antropogénicos sobre la calidad del agua del río. El análisis de componentes principales (PCA) fue usado para identificar las diferencias y similitudes entre variables de la cuenca. Los índices factoriales, estimados para destacar las zonas del río y sus tributarios más influida por las actividades minerales, hidrotérmicas o agrícolas, permitieron reunir grupos de parámetros con similares características dentro de un solo valor. 抽象 化学水质监测指标之间的关系,以研究地质成因和人类活动作用对流域水质的影响程度。利用主成分分析法(PCA)识别了流域内各变量之间的差异与相似性。利用因子分析突出了埃尔基河及其支流受热液、采矿和农业活动的影响程度,使具有相似特征的多元变量转化为单一变量成为可能。
Two major pollutant sources related to hydrothermal ore deposits and mining operations exist in t... more Two major pollutant sources related to hydrothermal ore deposits and mining operations exist in the Elqui river basin, Chile: (a) acid drainage from Andean epithermal El Indio Au-Ag-Cu-As district and nearby hydrothermal alteration zones, and (b) diffuse sediment dispersion from abandoned tailings deposits in usually dry creeks in the western belt of the basin. This work analyses the contribution of both sources to the current metal contents of the fine grained sediments of the rivers and creeks of the Elqui basin, including a group of chemical elements and data analysis techniques not considered in previous works carried out in the area. Analysis of "active sediments" (i.e., sediments in permanent contact with surface water) in the main channel and tributaries of the Elqui river reveals that both pollutant sources contribute to their exceptionally high Cu contents (between 0.1 and 0.2% in the minus 60 mesh fraction). However, As pollution (0.03%) is mainly derived from the El Indio district. Potentially toxic heavy metals (notably Cd, Pb, Hg and Mo) are present in low concentrations and do not represent major threats to ecology or human health. Nevertheless, ongoing erosion of abandoned tailings deposits may result in soil contamination and thus be detrimental to the export-oriented agriculture of the Elqui basin. Consequently, remediation of that source should be prioritized.
The main objective of this paper is to present a critical analysis of the stakeholder participati... more The main objective of this paper is to present a critical analysis of the stakeholder participation process within the Environmental Impact Assessment System in Chile, after ca. 14 years of being enforced. This analysis is sustained by the description and analysis of the stakeholder participation possibilities in a representative rural area of North-Central Chile. The Environmental Basis Act 19300, enacted in 1994, considers the participation of the local community in the environmental impact assessment of new projects. However, this possibility is very limited and difficult to exert, often resulting in frustration for the participants. This is due to a number of reasons, such as the imbalance of resources and knowledge among the majority of participating communities and project proponents, the complexity and administrative and legal constraints to participation, and the dominant interest of the Central Government in approving investments, specifically in energy and natural resources related projects, which generate wealth and jobs. Also, the State's rush to develop Internet-based communication and management systems has built a barrier for poor, traditional communities. This factor is clearly reflected in the case study considered. Results show that there is generally a significant lack of knowledge about institutions and participation tools. From this base, we intend to raise concern on these selected aspects that could be addressed to improve the effectiveness of the existing framework, both in Chile and in other developing countries, where immature environmental impact assessment and public management systems face similar pressures in relation to the sustainable use of their natural resources. Finally, some basic steps are proposed in order to make the community participation an effective tool for sustainable development.
In arid and semi-arid zones, runoff harvesting techniques are often applied to increase the water... more In arid and semi-arid zones, runoff harvesting techniques are often applied to increase the water retention and infiltration on steep slopes. Additionally, they act as an erosion control measure to reduce land degradation hazards. Nevertheless, few efforts were observed to quantify the water harvesting processes of these techniques and to evaluate their efficiency. In this study, a combination of detailed field measurements and modelling with the HYDRUS-2D software package was used to visualize the effect of an infiltration trench on the soil water content of a bare slope in northern Chile. Rainfall simulations were combined with high spatial and temporal resolution water content monitoring in order to construct a useful dataset for inverse modelling purposes. Initial estimates of model parameters were provided by detailed infiltration and soil water retention measurements. Four different measurement techniques were used to determine the saturated hydraulic conductivity (K sat) independently. The tension infiltrometer measurements proved a good estimator of the K sat value and a proxy for those measured under simulated rainfall, whereas the pressure and constant head well infiltrometer measurements showed larger variability. Six different parameter optimization functions were tested as a combination of soil-water content, water retention and cumulative infiltration data. Infiltration data alone proved insufficient to obtain high model accuracy, due to large scatter on the data set, and water content data were needed to obtain optimized effective parameter sets with small confidence intervals. Correlation between the observed soil water content and the simulated values was as high as R 2 =0.93 for ten selected observation points used in the model calibration phase, with overall correlation for
In order to increase dryland productivity, water harvesting techniques (WHT) have received renewe... more In order to increase dryland productivity, water harvesting techniques (WHT) have received renewed attention, leading to their massive implementation in marginal drylands. However, versatile tools to evaluate their efficiency under a wide range of conditions are often lacking. For two case studies in the arid and semi-arid central-northern zone of Chile, a fully coupled 3D surface-subsurface hydrological model based on the Richards’ and the Saint Venant equations was used to evaluate and improve existing water harvesting techniques using infiltration trenches (locally called ‘zanjas’). The model was parameterized with detailed runoff and soil-water content data collected during simulated rainfall from a 6 x 2 m experimental plot including a catchment area and infiltration trench at the arid site. Using seven responsive parameters identified by a global sensitivity analysis, surface and subsurface flow processes were calibrated simultaneously. The calibrated model accurately reproduc...
The classical determination of the soil water retention curve (SWRC) by measuring soil water cont... more The classical determination of the soil water retention curve (SWRC) by measuring soil water content $\theta$ at different matric potentials ψ using undisturbed soil samples is time consuming and expensive. Furthermore, undisturbed soil sampling can be an intricate task when coarse soil fragments (>2 mm) are present. The objective of this study was to test whether tension infiltrometry could be
In order to increase dryland crop productivity, water harvesting techniques (WHT) have received r... more In order to increase dryland crop productivity, water harvesting techniques (WHT) have received renewed attention, leading to their massive implementation in marginal drylands. However, versatile tools to evaluate their efficiency under a wide range of conditions are often lacking. For two case studies in the arid and semi-arid central-northern zone of Chile, a fully coupled 3D surface-subsurface hydrological model based on the Richards' and the Saint Venant equations was used to evaluate and improve existing water harvesting techniques using infiltration trenches (locally called 'zanjas'). The model was parameterized with detailed runoff and soil-water content data collected during simulated rainfall from a 6 x 2 m experimental plot including a catchment area and infiltration trench at the arid site. Using seven responsive parameters identified by a global sensitivity analysis, surface and subsurface flow processes were calibrated simultaneously. The calibrated model ac...
The climate in Venezuela is a product of a complex combination and interaction of meteorological ... more The climate in Venezuela is a product of a complex combination and interaction of meteorological and geographical factors such as the geographic location either north of Ecuador or in the tropics, and the presence of warm waters north and northeast, a vast tropical moist forest south and a mountain range west. In order to delimit the different climatic zones in Venezuela, a zoning of water regimes were used to classify climate indices primarily on rainfall parameters. A first index used was the length of a dry period, corresponding to the number of months in the year when precipitation is less than half of the reference evapotranspiration. Another index was the Aridity Index (Ia) proposed by UNEP (1997), for which calculations were based on values of average annual rainfall of the stations of the FAO database (1984, 2000). The reference evapotranspiration (ETo) was calculated by the CIRH program version 2.0 (Santibanez, 2005), which allows the calculation of ETo by the FAO (Allen et...
In arid and semi-arid zones runoff harvesting techniques are often applied to increase the water ... more In arid and semi-arid zones runoff harvesting techniques are often applied to increase the water retention and infiltration on steep slopes. Additionally, they act as an erosion control measure to reduce land degradation hazards. Both in literature and in the field, a large variety of runoff collecting systems are found, as well as large variations in design and dimensions. Therefore,
Today, more than ever, there is a need to implement robust statistical methods to ensure the prop... more Today, more than ever, there is a need to implement robust statistical methods to ensure the proper evaluation of water resources data to support decision makers in water resources planning and management. Graphing or mapping data for visualization is the easiest way to communicate trends, especially to a nontechnical audience. This paper describes the use of an approach that combines the Mann-Kendall test, Sen slope test and principal component analysis to detect and map the monthly trends of piezometric time series and their magnitude in the period 1979-2008. The data were obtained in 23 shallow wells in the alluvial aquifers of the Elqui River basin in central Chile, an area characterized by scarce water resources and intense agricultural and mining activities. The results show significant downward trends at the majority of the wells. Because groundwater in these shallow wells is highly dependent on the water in the river and its tributaries, the reasons for these downward trends are mainly related to a decrease of streamflow observed in the Elqui River. The streamflow is derived from mountain snowmelt rather than from rainfall, which showed no flow trend during the same period.
21st Century Watershed Technology: Improving Water Quality and Environment Conference Proceedings, 29 March - 3 April 2008, Concepcion, Chile, 2008
Abstract. More than 25% of South America is arid or semi-arid. Mining is the sector with the high... more Abstract. More than 25% of South America is arid or semi-arid. Mining is the sector with the highest environmental impact, whereas it contributes more to legal export earnings in the region than any other sector. There is a need to rigorously review the effectiveness of existing ...
The Watershed Sustainability Index WSI, developed as an integrated method to assess the sustainab... more The Watershed Sustainability Index WSI, developed as an integrated method to assess the sustainability of basin management, and particularly water resource management, was applied in the Elqui River Basin over a period of five years (2001-2005). The Elqui watershed is located in a semiarid region of Chile, and it has been incorporated into the River Basin Network of the UNESCO HELP Program. The result was an overall WSI score of 0.61 (within a possible range of 0 to 1), rating the basin sustainability as "intermediate". The main watershed strengths were related to the Environment and Policies indicators. On the other hand, the weakness observed in the watershed was related to the Hydrology indicator, mainly due to water scarcity issues. The bottlenecks and limitations identified in this study represent a window of opportunity to improve the current situation in the basin, and calls for more efficient coordination between the different institutions involved in natural resource management. The application of the WSI in the Elqui basin demonstrated the practicality of the method, both as an analytic instrument, and as a useful management tool for water authorities, water users and stakeholders. An important limitation encountered in this study, however, was a general lack of up to date local information. This needs to be addressed in applying the method for mid-to long-term planning and management strategies, both in the Elqui basin and elsewhere.
All rights reserved. No part of this periodical may be reproduced or transmi ed in any form or by... more All rights reserved. No part of this periodical may be reproduced or transmi ed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any informa on storage and retrieval system, without permission in wri ng from the publisher.
ABSTRACT Multivariate data analysis techniques were used to identify the interrelationships betwe... more ABSTRACT Multivariate data analysis techniques were used to identify the interrelationships between the physical–chemical analyses of 22 parameters sampled monthly from 1991 to 2007 at 16 monitoring stations along the Elqui river and its tributaries to characterize the scale of the geogenic and anthropogenic impacts on the river’s water quality. Principal component analysis was used to identify the differences and similarities between variables in the watershed. Factorial indices, computed to highlight the sections of the river and tributaries more influenced by hydrothermal, mining or agricultural activities, made it possible to synthesize groups of parameters with similar characteristics into a single value. Zusammenfassung Von 1991 bis 2007 wurden an 16 Beobachtungstationen entlang des Elqui-Flusses und seinen Zuflüssen monatlich 22 physiko-chemische Parameter gemessen. Der Grad geogener und anthropogener Einflüsse auf die Wasserqualität wurde mit multivariaten Analysen untersucht. Hauptkomponentenanalyse wurde angewendet, um Unterschiede und Ähnlichkeiten zwischen Variablen in dem Wassereinzugsgebiet zu identifizieren. Um Abschnitte des Flusses und seiner Zuflüsse mit stärkerem Einfluß hydrothermaler, bergaulicher oder landwirtschaftlicher Aktivitäten hervorzuheben, wurden faktorielle Kennzahlen berechnet. Damit war es möglich, Gruppen von Parametern ähnlicher Besonderheiten in einen Einzelwert zusammenzuführen. Resumen Se utilizaron técnicas de análisis multivariante para identificar las relaciones entre los análisis de 22 parámetros fisicoquímicos obtenidos mensualmente desde 1991 hasta 2007 en 16 estaciones de monitorio a lo largo del Río Elqui y sus tributarios, en función de caracterizar de la escala de los impactos geogénicos y antropogénicos sobre la calidad del agua del río. El análisis de componentes principales (PCA) fue usado para identificar las diferencias y similitudes entre variables de la cuenca. Los índices factoriales, estimados para destacar las zonas del río y sus tributarios más influida por las actividades minerales, hidrotérmicas o agrícolas, permitieron reunir grupos de parámetros con similares características dentro de un solo valor. 抽象 化学水质监测指标之间的关系,以研究地质成因和人类活动作用对流域水质的影响程度。利用主成分分析法(PCA)识别了流域内各变量之间的差异与相似性。利用因子分析突出了埃尔基河及其支流受热液、采矿和农业活动的影响程度,使具有相似特征的多元变量转化为单一变量成为可能。
Two major pollutant sources related to hydrothermal ore deposits and mining operations exist in t... more Two major pollutant sources related to hydrothermal ore deposits and mining operations exist in the Elqui river basin, Chile: (a) acid drainage from Andean epithermal El Indio Au-Ag-Cu-As district and nearby hydrothermal alteration zones, and (b) diffuse sediment dispersion from abandoned tailings deposits in usually dry creeks in the western belt of the basin. This work analyses the contribution of both sources to the current metal contents of the fine grained sediments of the rivers and creeks of the Elqui basin, including a group of chemical elements and data analysis techniques not considered in previous works carried out in the area. Analysis of "active sediments" (i.e., sediments in permanent contact with surface water) in the main channel and tributaries of the Elqui river reveals that both pollutant sources contribute to their exceptionally high Cu contents (between 0.1 and 0.2% in the minus 60 mesh fraction). However, As pollution (0.03%) is mainly derived from the El Indio district. Potentially toxic heavy metals (notably Cd, Pb, Hg and Mo) are present in low concentrations and do not represent major threats to ecology or human health. Nevertheless, ongoing erosion of abandoned tailings deposits may result in soil contamination and thus be detrimental to the export-oriented agriculture of the Elqui basin. Consequently, remediation of that source should be prioritized.
The main objective of this paper is to present a critical analysis of the stakeholder participati... more The main objective of this paper is to present a critical analysis of the stakeholder participation process within the Environmental Impact Assessment System in Chile, after ca. 14 years of being enforced. This analysis is sustained by the description and analysis of the stakeholder participation possibilities in a representative rural area of North-Central Chile. The Environmental Basis Act 19300, enacted in 1994, considers the participation of the local community in the environmental impact assessment of new projects. However, this possibility is very limited and difficult to exert, often resulting in frustration for the participants. This is due to a number of reasons, such as the imbalance of resources and knowledge among the majority of participating communities and project proponents, the complexity and administrative and legal constraints to participation, and the dominant interest of the Central Government in approving investments, specifically in energy and natural resources related projects, which generate wealth and jobs. Also, the State's rush to develop Internet-based communication and management systems has built a barrier for poor, traditional communities. This factor is clearly reflected in the case study considered. Results show that there is generally a significant lack of knowledge about institutions and participation tools. From this base, we intend to raise concern on these selected aspects that could be addressed to improve the effectiveness of the existing framework, both in Chile and in other developing countries, where immature environmental impact assessment and public management systems face similar pressures in relation to the sustainable use of their natural resources. Finally, some basic steps are proposed in order to make the community participation an effective tool for sustainable development.
In arid and semi-arid zones, runoff harvesting techniques are often applied to increase the water... more In arid and semi-arid zones, runoff harvesting techniques are often applied to increase the water retention and infiltration on steep slopes. Additionally, they act as an erosion control measure to reduce land degradation hazards. Nevertheless, few efforts were observed to quantify the water harvesting processes of these techniques and to evaluate their efficiency. In this study, a combination of detailed field measurements and modelling with the HYDRUS-2D software package was used to visualize the effect of an infiltration trench on the soil water content of a bare slope in northern Chile. Rainfall simulations were combined with high spatial and temporal resolution water content monitoring in order to construct a useful dataset for inverse modelling purposes. Initial estimates of model parameters were provided by detailed infiltration and soil water retention measurements. Four different measurement techniques were used to determine the saturated hydraulic conductivity (K sat) independently. The tension infiltrometer measurements proved a good estimator of the K sat value and a proxy for those measured under simulated rainfall, whereas the pressure and constant head well infiltrometer measurements showed larger variability. Six different parameter optimization functions were tested as a combination of soil-water content, water retention and cumulative infiltration data. Infiltration data alone proved insufficient to obtain high model accuracy, due to large scatter on the data set, and water content data were needed to obtain optimized effective parameter sets with small confidence intervals. Correlation between the observed soil water content and the simulated values was as high as R 2 =0.93 for ten selected observation points used in the model calibration phase, with overall correlation for
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