Coffee production is impacting the climate by emitting greenhouse gasses. Coffee production is al... more Coffee production is impacting the climate by emitting greenhouse gasses. Coffee production is also vulnerable to climate change. As a consequence, the coffee sector is interested in climate-friendly forms of coffee production, but there is no consensus of what exactly this implies. Therefore, we studied two aspects of the climate impact of coffee production: the standing carbon stocks in the production systems and the product carbon footprint, which measures the greenhouse gas emissions per unit weight of coffee produced. We collected data from 116 coffee farms in five Latin American countries, Mexico, Guatemala, Nicaragua, El Salvador, and Colombia, for four coffee production systems: (1) traditional polycultures, (2) commercial polycultures, (3) shaded monocultures, and (4) unshaded monocultures. We found that polycultures have a lower mean carbon footprint, of 6.2-7.3 kg CO 2-equivalent kg −1 of parchment coffee, than monocultures, of 9.0-10.8 kg. We also found that traditional polycultures have much higher carbon stocks in the vegetation, of 42.5 Mg per ha, than unshaded monocultures, of 10.5 Mg. We designed a graphic system to classify production systems according to their climate friendliness. We identified several strategies to increase positive and reduce negative climate impacts of coffee production. Strategies include diversification of coffee farms with trees, the use of their wood to substitute for fossil fuel and energy-intensive building materials, the targeted use of fertilizer, and the use of dry or ecological processing methods for coffee instead of the traditional fully washed process.
Face a une reduction des surfaces agricoles disponibles et une augmentation des besoins d'une... more Face a une reduction des surfaces agricoles disponibles et une augmentation des besoins d'une population croissante, il devient necessaire d'intensifier (avec le moins d'intrants possibles) les "systemes d'agriculture sur brulis de jachere spontanee", en reduisant la duree de la jachere, et/ou, en ralentissant la baisse de fertilite pendant la periode de culture, si possible tout en diversifiant les productions. Une equipe de chercheurs a suivi un essai en station concernant la plantation de legumineuses arborees (chute de litiere, bois) en analysant les contenus mineraux. D'autre part, l'evolution du sol amende par cette biomasse et l'impact sur la production du mais, du riz ou de l'arachide cultives entre les haies ou apres coupe de la jachere ont ete suivis. Les effets sur le sol et sur la production des cultures de ce systeme agroforestier sont trop limites ou pas assez rapides pour inciter la majorite des agriculteurs a abondonner leur ...
Data for current and future suitability for cocoa farming of the world's leading producer cou... more Data for current and future suitability for cocoa farming of the world's leading producer countries, Ghana and Ivory Coast. Based on species distribution modelling: MaxEnt.
Les propositions pour la stabilisation des systemes agricoles reposent sur l'amelioration du ... more Les propositions pour la stabilisation des systemes agricoles reposent sur l'amelioration du microclimat par l'introduction et la sauvegarde des arbres dans les plantations, la diversification des cultures de rente en accentuant les cultures a caractere "forestier" et l'intensification des cultures vivrieres et de l'elevage
Introduction About 40 million hectars of cleared land are potentially available for crop producti... more Introduction About 40 million hectars of cleared land are potentially available for crop production in the Amazon, most of which is abandoned today. ln the SHIFT Programme "Recultivation of abandoned monoculture areas through mixed cropping systems in the Central Amazon", a project is underway to develop a land use system better adapted to the humid tropical conditions ofthe Amazon region than common production methods. Its principIe is to establish mixed cropping systems and monitor ali ecological, social and economic functions. In the presented project, the nutrient and water fluxes are studied and used as indicators for the stability ofthe agroforestry systems. Here, an overview ofthe activities is given and results from various studies are summarized.
Abstract The increase of soil organic matter (SOM) content under no–till (NT) management of field... more Abstract The increase of soil organic matter (SOM) content under no–till (NT) management of field crops can reduce the availability of copper (Cu) in the soil. A field experiment was conducted during two growing seasons (2014–2015 and 2015–2016) with the objective of determining optimum Cu rates and critical Cu levels in soybean-wheat intercropping in a NT management. We used a randomized block design consisting of five Cu rates (0, 1, 2, 4, and 8 kg ha–1) applied before the first soybean crop. Both soybean and wheat showed a significant yield response to Cu, and the estimated value for maximum yield (EVMY) was 4.4 and 4.2 kg ha–1 Cu application for soybean and wheat, respectively. Wheat required available Cu levels of 15.5 (DTPA–TEA extractant) and 20.5 mg kg−1 (Mehlich 1 extractant) in the soil for maximum yield, whereas for soybean maximum yields were obtained with 7.7 and 14.1 mg kg–1, respectively, for the two extractants. For soybean, number of pods per plant (NPP) and Fe concentration in the grain were influenced by Cu rate, whereas in wheat Cu rate only affected plant height. Cu rates also had a positive effect on photosynthetic rate (A), intercellular CO2 level, transpiration rate, stomatal conductance, and chlorophyll content of soybean, and A and chlorophyll content in wheat. The results suggest the need to increase the amount of Cu applied to the soil in soybean-wheat intercropping in a NT management.
Cocoa agroforests like the cabrucas of Brazil&amp... more Cocoa agroforests like the cabrucas of Brazil's Atlantic forest are among the agro-ecosystems with greatest potential for biodiversity conservation. Despite a global trend for their intensification, cocoa agroforests are also being abandoned for socioeconomic reasons especially on marginal sites, because they are incorporated in public or private protected areas, or are part of mandatory set-asides under Brazilian environmental legislation. However, little is known about phylogenetic structure, the processes of forest regeneration after abandonment and the conservation value of former cabruca sites. Here we compare the vegetation structure and composition of a former cabruca 30-40 years after abandonment with a managed cabruca and mature forest in the Atlantic forest region of Espirito Santo, Brazil. The forest in the abandoned cabruca had recovered a substantial part of its original structure. Abandoned cabruca have a higher density (mean ± CI95 %: 525.0 ± 40.3 stems per ha), basal area (34.0 ± 6.5 m(2) per ha) and species richness (148 ± 11.5 species) than managed cabruca (96.0 ± 17.7; 24.15 ± 3.9 and 114.5 ± 16.0, respectively) but no significant differences to mature forest in density (581.0 ± 42.2), basal area (29.9.0 ± 3.3) and species richness (162.6 ± 15.5 species). Thinning (understory removal) changes phylogenetic structure from evenness in mature forest to clustering in managed cabruca, but after 30-40 years abandoned cabruca had a random phylogenetic structure, probably due to a balance between biotic and abiotic filters at this age. We conclude that abandoned cocoa agroforests present highly favorable conditions for the regeneration of Atlantic forest and could contribute to the formation of an interconnected network of forest habitat in this biodiversity hotspot.
Bats and birds play important roles as arthropod predators in top-down control. Both groups are r... more Bats and birds play important roles as arthropod predators in top-down control. Both groups are represented by a large number of species in agroforests, but are likely to respond negatively to management intensification. This study investigates the potential role of bats and birds on arthropod pest control in shaded cacao plantations through a field experiment. We tested if bat and/or bird exclusion from cacao trees leads to higher arthropod abundance and leaf damage, and conducted the experiment in high and low shade plantations. Our results suggest a complex food web, with at least four trophic levels, connecting top predators to primary producers in cacao agroforests. Bird exclusion increased leaf damage while bat exclusion increased total arthropod and plant-sucking insect relative abundance. Simultaneous bird and bat exclusion increased spider relative abundance, triggering a mesopredator release, which negatively affected herbivore activity and reduced leaf damage. Shade level did not significantly influence observed top-down effects. This finding, coupled with previous knowledge on bat and bird diversity in agroforestry landscapes in southern Bahia, suggests that landscape-scale effects may be more relevant than local shade management for maintaining diverse bird and bat assemblages. Agroforestry systems harbour natural biological control functions played by bats and birds. Because these are highly mobile organisms, large-scale implementation of wildlife-friendly landscapes is likely to be more important for this than local shade management within agroforests.
Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 2016
The production of tropical agricultural commodities, such as cocoa (Theobroma cacao) and coffee (... more The production of tropical agricultural commodities, such as cocoa (Theobroma cacao) and coffee (Coffea spp.), the countries and communities engaged in it, and the industries dependent on these commodities, are vulnerable to climate change. This is especially so where a large percentage of the global supply is grown in a single geographical region. Fortunately, there is often considerable spatial heterogeneity in the vulnerability to climate change within affected regions, implying that local production losses could be compensated through intensification and expansion of production elsewhere. However, this requires that site-level actions are integrated into a regional approach to climate change adaptation. We discuss here such a regional approach for cocoa in West Africa, where 70 % of global cocoa supply originates. On the basis of a statistical model of relative climatic suitability calibrated on West African cocoa farming areas and average climate projections for the 2030s and 2050s of, respectively, 15 and 19 Global Circulation Models, we divide the region into three adaptation zones: (i) a little affected zone permitting intensification and/or expansion of cocoa farming; (ii) a moderately affected zone requiring diversification and agronomic adjustments of farming practices; and (iii) a severely affected zone with need for progressive crop change. We argue that for tropical agricultural commodities, larger-scale adaptation planning that attempts to balance production trends across countries and regions could help reduce negative impacts of climate change on regional economies and global commodity supplies, despite the institutional challenges that this integration may pose.
Agroforestry is a promising land use option for humid tropical ecosystems. Tree root systems are ... more Agroforestry is a promising land use option for humid tropical ecosystems. Tree root systems are assumed to play a vital role in the maintenance of soil fertility under agroforestry, but they are also the organs with which the trees compete with associated crops for soil water and nutrients. Progress in the understanding of the complex root ecology of agroforestry associations depends on the employment of sensitive and time-efficient research methods. In this paper, four examples of root research projects in humid tropical agroforestry and plantation ecosystems are discussed. The methods used include sequential soil coring for root turnover; root excavation for total biomass determinations; the profile wall method for the analysis of spatial patterns of root distribution in topsoil and subsoil; and descriptive graphic representation of root systems for the analysis of small-scale interactions between different root systems. Strengths and weaknesses of each method are explained, and the necessity of selecting suitable methods according to clearly defined research objectives is stressed.
The region hosts two major protected areas facing each other on the eastern and western bank of t... more The region hosts two major protected areas facing each other on the eastern and western bank of the Tapajós. The 600,000 hectare Tapajós National Forest was created in 1974 to ensure the timber supply to the region. The 650,000 hectare Tapajós-Arapiuns Extractive Reserve was created in 1998 after a history of conflict between local populations and logging companies (Fig. 1). Both protected areas are inhabited mostly along the margins of the Tapajós and its tributaries by a traditional population of mixed origin (caboclos), with some predominantly indigenous communities. The Tapajós-Arapiuns Extractive Reserve, which is the focus of this case study, is home to 15-20,000 inhabitants distributed in about 70 communities. Most of them are located on the banks of the two major rivers after which the reserve was named. Extractive Reserves are one of several types of inhabited, "sustainable use" protected areas in the Brazilian Amazon (other types include the Sustainable Developme...
The Mesoamerican region is considered to be one of the areas in the world most vulnerable to clim... more The Mesoamerican region is considered to be one of the areas in the world most vulnerable to climate change. We developed a framework for quantifying the vulnerability of the livelihoods of coffee growers in Mesoamerica at regional and local levels and identify adaptation strategies. Following the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concepts, vulnerability was defined as the combination of exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity. To quantify exposure, changes in the climatic suitability for coffee and other crops were predicted through niche modelling based on historical climate data and locations of coffee growing areas from Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador and Nicaragua. Future climate projections were generated from 19 Global Circulation Models. Focus groups were used to identify nine indicators of sensitivity and eleven indicators of adaptive capacity, which were evaluated through semi-structured interviews with 558 coffee producers. Exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity were then condensed into an index of vulnerability, and adaptation strategies were identified in participatory workshops. Models predict that all target countries will experience a decrease in climatic suitability for growing Arabica coffee, with highest suitability loss for El Salvador and lowest loss for Mexico. High vulnerability resulted from loss in climatic suitability for coffee production and high sensitivity through variability of yields and out-migration of the work force. This was combined with low adaptation capacity as evidenced by poor post harvest infrastructure and in some cases poor access to credit and low levels of social organization. Nevertheless, the specific contributors to vulnerability varied strongly among countries, municipalities and families making general trends difficult to identify. Flexible strategies for adaption are therefore needed. Families need the support of government and institutions specialized in impacts of climate change and strengthening of farmer organizations to enable the adjustment of adaptation strategies to local needs and conditions.
Coffee production is impacting the climate by emitting greenhouse gasses. Coffee production is al... more Coffee production is impacting the climate by emitting greenhouse gasses. Coffee production is also vulnerable to climate change. As a consequence, the coffee sector is interested in climate-friendly forms of coffee production, but there is no consensus of what exactly this implies. Therefore, we studied two aspects of the climate impact of coffee production: the standing carbon stocks in the production systems and the product carbon footprint, which measures the greenhouse gas emissions per unit weight of coffee produced. We collected data from 116 coffee farms in five Latin American countries, Mexico, Guatemala, Nicaragua, El Salvador, and Colombia, for four coffee production systems: (1) traditional polycultures, (2) commercial polycultures, (3) shaded monocultures, and (4) unshaded monocultures. We found that polycultures have a lower mean carbon footprint, of 6.2-7.3 kg CO 2-equivalent kg −1 of parchment coffee, than monocultures, of 9.0-10.8 kg. We also found that traditional polycultures have much higher carbon stocks in the vegetation, of 42.5 Mg per ha, than unshaded monocultures, of 10.5 Mg. We designed a graphic system to classify production systems according to their climate friendliness. We identified several strategies to increase positive and reduce negative climate impacts of coffee production. Strategies include diversification of coffee farms with trees, the use of their wood to substitute for fossil fuel and energy-intensive building materials, the targeted use of fertilizer, and the use of dry or ecological processing methods for coffee instead of the traditional fully washed process.
Face a une reduction des surfaces agricoles disponibles et une augmentation des besoins d'une... more Face a une reduction des surfaces agricoles disponibles et une augmentation des besoins d'une population croissante, il devient necessaire d'intensifier (avec le moins d'intrants possibles) les "systemes d'agriculture sur brulis de jachere spontanee", en reduisant la duree de la jachere, et/ou, en ralentissant la baisse de fertilite pendant la periode de culture, si possible tout en diversifiant les productions. Une equipe de chercheurs a suivi un essai en station concernant la plantation de legumineuses arborees (chute de litiere, bois) en analysant les contenus mineraux. D'autre part, l'evolution du sol amende par cette biomasse et l'impact sur la production du mais, du riz ou de l'arachide cultives entre les haies ou apres coupe de la jachere ont ete suivis. Les effets sur le sol et sur la production des cultures de ce systeme agroforestier sont trop limites ou pas assez rapides pour inciter la majorite des agriculteurs a abondonner leur ...
Data for current and future suitability for cocoa farming of the world's leading producer cou... more Data for current and future suitability for cocoa farming of the world's leading producer countries, Ghana and Ivory Coast. Based on species distribution modelling: MaxEnt.
Les propositions pour la stabilisation des systemes agricoles reposent sur l'amelioration du ... more Les propositions pour la stabilisation des systemes agricoles reposent sur l'amelioration du microclimat par l'introduction et la sauvegarde des arbres dans les plantations, la diversification des cultures de rente en accentuant les cultures a caractere "forestier" et l'intensification des cultures vivrieres et de l'elevage
Introduction About 40 million hectars of cleared land are potentially available for crop producti... more Introduction About 40 million hectars of cleared land are potentially available for crop production in the Amazon, most of which is abandoned today. ln the SHIFT Programme "Recultivation of abandoned monoculture areas through mixed cropping systems in the Central Amazon", a project is underway to develop a land use system better adapted to the humid tropical conditions ofthe Amazon region than common production methods. Its principIe is to establish mixed cropping systems and monitor ali ecological, social and economic functions. In the presented project, the nutrient and water fluxes are studied and used as indicators for the stability ofthe agroforestry systems. Here, an overview ofthe activities is given and results from various studies are summarized.
Abstract The increase of soil organic matter (SOM) content under no–till (NT) management of field... more Abstract The increase of soil organic matter (SOM) content under no–till (NT) management of field crops can reduce the availability of copper (Cu) in the soil. A field experiment was conducted during two growing seasons (2014–2015 and 2015–2016) with the objective of determining optimum Cu rates and critical Cu levels in soybean-wheat intercropping in a NT management. We used a randomized block design consisting of five Cu rates (0, 1, 2, 4, and 8 kg ha–1) applied before the first soybean crop. Both soybean and wheat showed a significant yield response to Cu, and the estimated value for maximum yield (EVMY) was 4.4 and 4.2 kg ha–1 Cu application for soybean and wheat, respectively. Wheat required available Cu levels of 15.5 (DTPA–TEA extractant) and 20.5 mg kg−1 (Mehlich 1 extractant) in the soil for maximum yield, whereas for soybean maximum yields were obtained with 7.7 and 14.1 mg kg–1, respectively, for the two extractants. For soybean, number of pods per plant (NPP) and Fe concentration in the grain were influenced by Cu rate, whereas in wheat Cu rate only affected plant height. Cu rates also had a positive effect on photosynthetic rate (A), intercellular CO2 level, transpiration rate, stomatal conductance, and chlorophyll content of soybean, and A and chlorophyll content in wheat. The results suggest the need to increase the amount of Cu applied to the soil in soybean-wheat intercropping in a NT management.
Cocoa agroforests like the cabrucas of Brazil&amp... more Cocoa agroforests like the cabrucas of Brazil's Atlantic forest are among the agro-ecosystems with greatest potential for biodiversity conservation. Despite a global trend for their intensification, cocoa agroforests are also being abandoned for socioeconomic reasons especially on marginal sites, because they are incorporated in public or private protected areas, or are part of mandatory set-asides under Brazilian environmental legislation. However, little is known about phylogenetic structure, the processes of forest regeneration after abandonment and the conservation value of former cabruca sites. Here we compare the vegetation structure and composition of a former cabruca 30-40 years after abandonment with a managed cabruca and mature forest in the Atlantic forest region of Espirito Santo, Brazil. The forest in the abandoned cabruca had recovered a substantial part of its original structure. Abandoned cabruca have a higher density (mean ± CI95 %: 525.0 ± 40.3 stems per ha), basal area (34.0 ± 6.5 m(2) per ha) and species richness (148 ± 11.5 species) than managed cabruca (96.0 ± 17.7; 24.15 ± 3.9 and 114.5 ± 16.0, respectively) but no significant differences to mature forest in density (581.0 ± 42.2), basal area (29.9.0 ± 3.3) and species richness (162.6 ± 15.5 species). Thinning (understory removal) changes phylogenetic structure from evenness in mature forest to clustering in managed cabruca, but after 30-40 years abandoned cabruca had a random phylogenetic structure, probably due to a balance between biotic and abiotic filters at this age. We conclude that abandoned cocoa agroforests present highly favorable conditions for the regeneration of Atlantic forest and could contribute to the formation of an interconnected network of forest habitat in this biodiversity hotspot.
Bats and birds play important roles as arthropod predators in top-down control. Both groups are r... more Bats and birds play important roles as arthropod predators in top-down control. Both groups are represented by a large number of species in agroforests, but are likely to respond negatively to management intensification. This study investigates the potential role of bats and birds on arthropod pest control in shaded cacao plantations through a field experiment. We tested if bat and/or bird exclusion from cacao trees leads to higher arthropod abundance and leaf damage, and conducted the experiment in high and low shade plantations. Our results suggest a complex food web, with at least four trophic levels, connecting top predators to primary producers in cacao agroforests. Bird exclusion increased leaf damage while bat exclusion increased total arthropod and plant-sucking insect relative abundance. Simultaneous bird and bat exclusion increased spider relative abundance, triggering a mesopredator release, which negatively affected herbivore activity and reduced leaf damage. Shade level did not significantly influence observed top-down effects. This finding, coupled with previous knowledge on bat and bird diversity in agroforestry landscapes in southern Bahia, suggests that landscape-scale effects may be more relevant than local shade management for maintaining diverse bird and bat assemblages. Agroforestry systems harbour natural biological control functions played by bats and birds. Because these are highly mobile organisms, large-scale implementation of wildlife-friendly landscapes is likely to be more important for this than local shade management within agroforests.
Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 2016
The production of tropical agricultural commodities, such as cocoa (Theobroma cacao) and coffee (... more The production of tropical agricultural commodities, such as cocoa (Theobroma cacao) and coffee (Coffea spp.), the countries and communities engaged in it, and the industries dependent on these commodities, are vulnerable to climate change. This is especially so where a large percentage of the global supply is grown in a single geographical region. Fortunately, there is often considerable spatial heterogeneity in the vulnerability to climate change within affected regions, implying that local production losses could be compensated through intensification and expansion of production elsewhere. However, this requires that site-level actions are integrated into a regional approach to climate change adaptation. We discuss here such a regional approach for cocoa in West Africa, where 70 % of global cocoa supply originates. On the basis of a statistical model of relative climatic suitability calibrated on West African cocoa farming areas and average climate projections for the 2030s and 2050s of, respectively, 15 and 19 Global Circulation Models, we divide the region into three adaptation zones: (i) a little affected zone permitting intensification and/or expansion of cocoa farming; (ii) a moderately affected zone requiring diversification and agronomic adjustments of farming practices; and (iii) a severely affected zone with need for progressive crop change. We argue that for tropical agricultural commodities, larger-scale adaptation planning that attempts to balance production trends across countries and regions could help reduce negative impacts of climate change on regional economies and global commodity supplies, despite the institutional challenges that this integration may pose.
Agroforestry is a promising land use option for humid tropical ecosystems. Tree root systems are ... more Agroforestry is a promising land use option for humid tropical ecosystems. Tree root systems are assumed to play a vital role in the maintenance of soil fertility under agroforestry, but they are also the organs with which the trees compete with associated crops for soil water and nutrients. Progress in the understanding of the complex root ecology of agroforestry associations depends on the employment of sensitive and time-efficient research methods. In this paper, four examples of root research projects in humid tropical agroforestry and plantation ecosystems are discussed. The methods used include sequential soil coring for root turnover; root excavation for total biomass determinations; the profile wall method for the analysis of spatial patterns of root distribution in topsoil and subsoil; and descriptive graphic representation of root systems for the analysis of small-scale interactions between different root systems. Strengths and weaknesses of each method are explained, and the necessity of selecting suitable methods according to clearly defined research objectives is stressed.
The region hosts two major protected areas facing each other on the eastern and western bank of t... more The region hosts two major protected areas facing each other on the eastern and western bank of the Tapajós. The 600,000 hectare Tapajós National Forest was created in 1974 to ensure the timber supply to the region. The 650,000 hectare Tapajós-Arapiuns Extractive Reserve was created in 1998 after a history of conflict between local populations and logging companies (Fig. 1). Both protected areas are inhabited mostly along the margins of the Tapajós and its tributaries by a traditional population of mixed origin (caboclos), with some predominantly indigenous communities. The Tapajós-Arapiuns Extractive Reserve, which is the focus of this case study, is home to 15-20,000 inhabitants distributed in about 70 communities. Most of them are located on the banks of the two major rivers after which the reserve was named. Extractive Reserves are one of several types of inhabited, "sustainable use" protected areas in the Brazilian Amazon (other types include the Sustainable Developme...
The Mesoamerican region is considered to be one of the areas in the world most vulnerable to clim... more The Mesoamerican region is considered to be one of the areas in the world most vulnerable to climate change. We developed a framework for quantifying the vulnerability of the livelihoods of coffee growers in Mesoamerica at regional and local levels and identify adaptation strategies. Following the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concepts, vulnerability was defined as the combination of exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity. To quantify exposure, changes in the climatic suitability for coffee and other crops were predicted through niche modelling based on historical climate data and locations of coffee growing areas from Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador and Nicaragua. Future climate projections were generated from 19 Global Circulation Models. Focus groups were used to identify nine indicators of sensitivity and eleven indicators of adaptive capacity, which were evaluated through semi-structured interviews with 558 coffee producers. Exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity were then condensed into an index of vulnerability, and adaptation strategies were identified in participatory workshops. Models predict that all target countries will experience a decrease in climatic suitability for growing Arabica coffee, with highest suitability loss for El Salvador and lowest loss for Mexico. High vulnerability resulted from loss in climatic suitability for coffee production and high sensitivity through variability of yields and out-migration of the work force. This was combined with low adaptation capacity as evidenced by poor post harvest infrastructure and in some cases poor access to credit and low levels of social organization. Nevertheless, the specific contributors to vulnerability varied strongly among countries, municipalities and families making general trends difficult to identify. Flexible strategies for adaption are therefore needed. Families need the support of government and institutions specialized in impacts of climate change and strengthening of farmer organizations to enable the adjustment of adaptation strategies to local needs and conditions.
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Papers by Götz Schroth