Efectividad de los tratamientos antiparasitarios como método para prevenir la introducción de nem... more Efectividad de los tratamientos antiparasitarios como método para prevenir la introducción de nematodos en el campo. How effective is pre-release nematode control in farm reared red-legged partridges (Alectoris rufa)?.
This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative... more This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY
This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative... more This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY
Resumen del trabajo presentado al XIII Congreso de la Sociedad Española para la Conservación y Es... more Resumen del trabajo presentado al XIII Congreso de la Sociedad Española para la Conservación y Estudio de los Mamíferos, celebrado en Guadalajara del 6 al 9 de diciembre de 2017.Para la gestión y conservación de la fauna silvestre es necesario poder estimar con cierta precisión y exactitud la densidad poblacional. A lo largo de los años los gestores han buscado métodos con los que monitorizar la fauna silvestre, siempre con la intención de identificar aquel con un mejor balance costerendimiento en cada ambiente. En este contexto, nos planteamos evaluar la capacidad de tres métodos comúnmente aplicados en monitorización (fototrampeo, recorridos nocturnos e índices indirectos, basados estos últimos en conteos de huellas y excrementos) para detectar un amplio rango de especies, de manera que se pueda optimizar la relación coste-rendimiento si fueran usados en programas de monitorización. Para ello durante un año monitorizamos, comparativamente con los tres métodos, a diecisiete especies de mamíferos silvestres en un ambiente agrario español (UTM 10x10km - 30TWN91). Los datos han mostrado que con el conteo de indicios de presencia se puede detectar un mayor número de especies y, por tanto, este método presenta el mejor balance coste- rendimiento. La detectabilidad de las especies varió entre estaciones, registrando mayores riquezas en invierno y verano, ex aqueo. Actualmente los estudios que valoran la eficacia de los diferentes métodos para monitorizar la fauna silvestre son muy demandados en Europa. Se están promoviendo experiencias que permitan estandarizar protocolos, reducir el esfuerzo de muestreo, y por tanto favorecer optimizar la recogida de datos estandarizados a gran escala espacial. En este sentido nuestro trabajo contribuye en: i) la búsqueda de un método efectivo con el que registrar la comunidad de mamíferos silvestres, y ii) la descripción de un protocolo de campo estandarizado que podrá ser aplicado en ambientes agrarios de la cuenca Mediterránea.Peer reviewe
Resumen del Workshop celebrado en el XXXth International Union of Game Biologists and Perdix XIII... more Resumen del Workshop celebrado en el XXXth International Union of Game Biologists and Perdix XIII, celebrados en Barcelona (Espana) del 5 al 9 de septiembre de 2011.
While thousands of in vitro-produced (IVP) bovine embryos have been transferred commercially with... more While thousands of in vitro-produced (IVP) bovine embryos have been transferred commercially with no reports of disease transmission, such risks must be considered. Due to differences in their zonae pellucidae, the disease risks with IVP embryos are known to be higher than with in vivo-derived embryos. Possible sources of infection include the oocytes, spermatozoa, serum, and co-culture cells. The Terrestrial Animal Health Code of the Office International des Epizooties (OIE, 2003) stipulates that disease risk management should meet standards set by the World Trade Organization. These standards include subjecting the IVP procedures to quantitative risk assessment to evaluate disease transmission risk. The purpose of the present work was to measure the risks of transmitting disease with IVP embryos obtained from abattoir-derived tissues. A simulation model was developed using Microsoft Excel spreadsheets with the Palisade @RISK (London, UK) software program. The model incorporates probability distributions, the shapes of which reflect the random nature of some of the data (e.g. fluid volumes in cultures and washes) and the conjectural nature of some of the scientific information (e.g. on disease agents). The model is adaptable so that, when accurate data or information become available, variability estimates and degrees of uncertainty can be replaced with fixed values. The model assumes: (1) the IVP method is as described in the IETS Manual (1998); (2) there are five possible sources of infection; donor cow, donor bull, fetal calf serum, bovine serum albumin, and co-culture cells; (3) the disease agents can survive and/or proliferate during in vitro maturation, fertilization and culture; (4) fluid volumes in cultures and washes follow "known" normal distributions; (5) uncertainties in current knowledge of IVP embryos and disease agents can be taken into account by use of appropriate probability distributions; (6) different methods of in vitro fertilization do not affect the level of risk; and (7) different methods of in vitro culture can affect the level of risk. The model as constructed fits comfortably into a single workbook with one worksheet allocated for the model itself and another serving to store data on diseases of interest. Data on oocytes, blastocyst numbers, etc., and on media and wash fluid volumes are held within the model while information relating to particular diseases can be selected from a drop-down list at the top of the first worksheet. The relevant data stored in the database are then retrieved and used for modelling, using Monte Carlo simulation. The model estimates the final titer of the disease agent in IVP embryos and the probability of at least one infective transmission to a recipient, expressed as distributions.
We analyzed changes in the composition of the community of birds of prey and corvids in a rainfed... more We analyzed changes in the composition of the community of birds of prey and corvids in a rainfed agrosystem after the transformation of 37.2 % of the sampled area into irrigated land between 2005 and 2020. We sampled 57 transects (372 km per year) and fitted generalized linear mixed models (GLMM) to study changes in species occurrence. Our results showed that specific richness and the Shannon index did not vary significantly between rainfed and irrigated transects, but there was a certain positive trend when comparing the years 2005 and 2020. Regarding the differences detected for each species, the occurrence of Montagu’s harrier Circus pygargus, hen harrier Circus cyaneus, Eurasian short-toed eagle Circaetus gallicus, griffon vulture Gyps fulvus and carrion crow Corvus corone was significantly lower in irrigated land than in rainfed land, while magpie Pica pica, Western marsh harrier Circus aeruginosus, common kestrel Falco tinnunculus and black kite Milvus migrans showed a signif...
We have compiled the information available for the White-Backed Woodpecker (Dendrocopos leucotos ... more We have compiled the information available for the White-Backed Woodpecker (Dendrocopos leucotos lilfordi) on the south-facing slopes of the Pyrenees since its detection in 1968 until 2016 and we have added the results of specific censuses carried out between 2017 and 2021 and the results of the GPS marking of reproductive specimens, both within the known range, as in other beech forests beyond its borders. An expansion towards the West and North has been verified. The nests are always located in F. sylvatica, except in the extreme western territories where they use Q. rubra too. The breeders in the traditional range are always individuals of more than two years old (euring 6), although a number of breeding juveniles have appeared in the extreme west (euring 5). Beech occupies more than 70% of the surface of all the territories, but this percentage is significantly lower in the newly detected territories than in those within the traditional distribution area. These latest results su...
The Bonelli's eagle is one of the rarest and most threatened birds of prey in Europe, which m... more The Bonelli's eagle is one of the rarest and most threatened birds of prey in Europe, which means that great efforts are being made to guarantee its conservation. One of the lines of work is the reintroduction of specimens in areas where the species has recently become extinct and those in which the factors that caused its disappearance have been corrected. The present study presents the results of one of these reintroduction projects carried out in Navarra, Northern Spain, between 2011 and 2021. Forty-seven individuals (36 born in captivity and 11 from wild nests) were released in five places close to historical territories. After those 11 years of work, the occupation of two of the historical and the creation of a new one has been achieved. 44.68 % of the birds died in the first year after their release and 19.14%, during the first month in the field. No significant differences were found associated with the sex or the origin of the specimens in survival during the first month...
Variation in winter thrush abundance during the hunting season in southern Europe: the importance... more Variation in winter thrush abundance during the hunting season in southern Europe: the importance of hunting–free reserves. We analysed variations in the abundance of the song thrush (Turdus philomelos) and the blackbird (T. merula) in the hunting season in hunting areas and hunting–free reserves. After controlling for habitat, we found that the abundance of song thrushes (hunted species) was lower in hunting areas than in reserves during the hunting season. This effect was not found for the blackbird (non–hunted species). This finding indicates hunting–free reserves have a positive effect on song thrush conservation. Further research is crucial to determine the traits that should be promoted in this type of reserve in order to improve their efficiency.
Hunting statistics can be suitable to determine wild boar density estimates if a calibration with... more Hunting statistics can be suitable to determine wild boar density estimates if a calibration with an accepted rigorous method is performed. Here, densities calculated from drive counts during collective drive hunting activities are compared against density values calculated by camera trapping using the random encounter method. For this purpose, we selected 10 study sites in Spain, from North to South representing a diversity of habitats, management and hunting traditions without artificial feeding, plus one study site in Czech Republic where artificial feeding was practiced. Density values estimated from both drive counts and camera trapping were strongly positively correlated (R 2 =0.84 and 0.87 for linear and non-linear models, respectively) and showed a good agreement. Drive counts data might be therefore used as a density estimate to calibrate models for estimating density in large areas and potentially, to compare densities among areas. For these purposes, there is still the need to harmonise hunting data collection across Europe to make them usable at a large scale. Our results need to be confirmed across a wider number of European populations to provide valid geographical wild boar density predictions across Europe.
Open landfills seem to be playing an increasing role as target feeding areas for several species,... more Open landfills seem to be playing an increasing role as target feeding areas for several species, not only in their breeding areas or during the winter, but also during the migration period. Evaluating the extent to which landfill sites are used by migrants is crucial to understanding their role in driving stopover decisions during migration, and in the potential health risks linked to feeding on refuse. The aim of this study was to evaluate the role of two open landfills located just before (France) and after (Spain) the East‐Atlantic flyway enters Iberia through the western Pyrenees as potentially important stopover sites for the White Stork populations moving along this route. Overall, we detected that these sites were used by storks that had been ringed from many western European breeding populations, mainly during the migration period, but also in winter. The mean distance between the stork breeding/ringing origin and the landfill sites increased from summer to winter, suggesti...
The migratory behaviour of European Song Thrush (Turdus philomelos) populations ranges from resid... more The migratory behaviour of European Song Thrush (Turdus philomelos) populations ranges from resident in the south and west to partly or totally migratory in northern, central and eastern Europe. This varied migratory behaviour could be reflected in morphological adaptations, with migrants having a proportionally longer wing, lower tail:wing ratio, and, if foraging more on fruits, deeper and wider bills. We used data from Song Thrushes captured during the breeding season and in winter in northern Iberia to test for morphological variations between these two periods. In three consecutive years (2014-16), Song Thrushes were captured with mist nests in a region of southern Navarra (Spain) during the breeding season (from May to July) or in the winter period (October to February), during a period of four hours starting at dawn per sampling day. We consider the winter population to be composed of a high proportion of visitors. Breeding Song Thrushes showed proportionally longer tails for given wing lengths, even though wing length did not vary between the two periods. Moreover, winter visitors showed narrower and less deep bills than breeding Song Thrushes. Potential explanations for these results are discussed.
The white stork Ciconia ciconia is one of the most emblematic birds in rural habitats of Europe. ... more The white stork Ciconia ciconia is one of the most emblematic birds in rural habitats of Europe. Its populations showed a drastic decline during the 20th century, followed by a rapid recovery in the last decades. The population increase has led to a relaxation in the specie’s monitoring effort, the last Spanish national official census having been conducted more than 15 years ago. In order to update this knowledge, this study shows the results of a breeding population census conducted in Navarre during the spring of 2018, describing the preferences in nest location, and comparing the current breeding population size with that described in the literature published since 1960. Our results show a breeding population of 739 pairs, which is the highest value ever recorded. However, this increase in the number of pairs has not been associated with a significant expansion of the specie’s distribution area, which is still limited to the southern half of Navarre. The only relevant colonisati...
The Fossorial Water Vole (Arvicola scherman) is a species of great interest, both because of its ... more The Fossorial Water Vole (Arvicola scherman) is a species of great interest, both because of its role as prey for a wide variety of predators, and the damages on agriculture. The variation in its population abundance and the factors that modulate it have been widely studied in northern Europe, but they are rather unknown for Pyrenean populations. Here we show the results obtained in the monitoring plan for the species in Navarra from 2016 to 2020, describing both the inter- and intra-annual changes in population abundance, as well as the effect of environmental factors and agricultural management. We found intra-annual variation in its abundance, with significantly higher values in spring than in summer. Interannually, there was a significantly higher abundance both in 2016 and 2020. The accumulated rainfall in the three months prior to sampling and grazing with sheep were the two most important factors that explain variation in population abundance. Both factors had a positive effe...
Efectividad de los tratamientos antiparasitarios como método para prevenir la introducción de nem... more Efectividad de los tratamientos antiparasitarios como método para prevenir la introducción de nematodos en el campo. How effective is pre-release nematode control in farm reared red-legged partridges (Alectoris rufa)?.
This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative... more This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY
This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative... more This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY
Resumen del trabajo presentado al XIII Congreso de la Sociedad Española para la Conservación y Es... more Resumen del trabajo presentado al XIII Congreso de la Sociedad Española para la Conservación y Estudio de los Mamíferos, celebrado en Guadalajara del 6 al 9 de diciembre de 2017.Para la gestión y conservación de la fauna silvestre es necesario poder estimar con cierta precisión y exactitud la densidad poblacional. A lo largo de los años los gestores han buscado métodos con los que monitorizar la fauna silvestre, siempre con la intención de identificar aquel con un mejor balance costerendimiento en cada ambiente. En este contexto, nos planteamos evaluar la capacidad de tres métodos comúnmente aplicados en monitorización (fototrampeo, recorridos nocturnos e índices indirectos, basados estos últimos en conteos de huellas y excrementos) para detectar un amplio rango de especies, de manera que se pueda optimizar la relación coste-rendimiento si fueran usados en programas de monitorización. Para ello durante un año monitorizamos, comparativamente con los tres métodos, a diecisiete especies de mamíferos silvestres en un ambiente agrario español (UTM 10x10km - 30TWN91). Los datos han mostrado que con el conteo de indicios de presencia se puede detectar un mayor número de especies y, por tanto, este método presenta el mejor balance coste- rendimiento. La detectabilidad de las especies varió entre estaciones, registrando mayores riquezas en invierno y verano, ex aqueo. Actualmente los estudios que valoran la eficacia de los diferentes métodos para monitorizar la fauna silvestre son muy demandados en Europa. Se están promoviendo experiencias que permitan estandarizar protocolos, reducir el esfuerzo de muestreo, y por tanto favorecer optimizar la recogida de datos estandarizados a gran escala espacial. En este sentido nuestro trabajo contribuye en: i) la búsqueda de un método efectivo con el que registrar la comunidad de mamíferos silvestres, y ii) la descripción de un protocolo de campo estandarizado que podrá ser aplicado en ambientes agrarios de la cuenca Mediterránea.Peer reviewe
Resumen del Workshop celebrado en el XXXth International Union of Game Biologists and Perdix XIII... more Resumen del Workshop celebrado en el XXXth International Union of Game Biologists and Perdix XIII, celebrados en Barcelona (Espana) del 5 al 9 de septiembre de 2011.
While thousands of in vitro-produced (IVP) bovine embryos have been transferred commercially with... more While thousands of in vitro-produced (IVP) bovine embryos have been transferred commercially with no reports of disease transmission, such risks must be considered. Due to differences in their zonae pellucidae, the disease risks with IVP embryos are known to be higher than with in vivo-derived embryos. Possible sources of infection include the oocytes, spermatozoa, serum, and co-culture cells. The Terrestrial Animal Health Code of the Office International des Epizooties (OIE, 2003) stipulates that disease risk management should meet standards set by the World Trade Organization. These standards include subjecting the IVP procedures to quantitative risk assessment to evaluate disease transmission risk. The purpose of the present work was to measure the risks of transmitting disease with IVP embryos obtained from abattoir-derived tissues. A simulation model was developed using Microsoft Excel spreadsheets with the Palisade @RISK (London, UK) software program. The model incorporates probability distributions, the shapes of which reflect the random nature of some of the data (e.g. fluid volumes in cultures and washes) and the conjectural nature of some of the scientific information (e.g. on disease agents). The model is adaptable so that, when accurate data or information become available, variability estimates and degrees of uncertainty can be replaced with fixed values. The model assumes: (1) the IVP method is as described in the IETS Manual (1998); (2) there are five possible sources of infection; donor cow, donor bull, fetal calf serum, bovine serum albumin, and co-culture cells; (3) the disease agents can survive and/or proliferate during in vitro maturation, fertilization and culture; (4) fluid volumes in cultures and washes follow "known" normal distributions; (5) uncertainties in current knowledge of IVP embryos and disease agents can be taken into account by use of appropriate probability distributions; (6) different methods of in vitro fertilization do not affect the level of risk; and (7) different methods of in vitro culture can affect the level of risk. The model as constructed fits comfortably into a single workbook with one worksheet allocated for the model itself and another serving to store data on diseases of interest. Data on oocytes, blastocyst numbers, etc., and on media and wash fluid volumes are held within the model while information relating to particular diseases can be selected from a drop-down list at the top of the first worksheet. The relevant data stored in the database are then retrieved and used for modelling, using Monte Carlo simulation. The model estimates the final titer of the disease agent in IVP embryos and the probability of at least one infective transmission to a recipient, expressed as distributions.
We analyzed changes in the composition of the community of birds of prey and corvids in a rainfed... more We analyzed changes in the composition of the community of birds of prey and corvids in a rainfed agrosystem after the transformation of 37.2 % of the sampled area into irrigated land between 2005 and 2020. We sampled 57 transects (372 km per year) and fitted generalized linear mixed models (GLMM) to study changes in species occurrence. Our results showed that specific richness and the Shannon index did not vary significantly between rainfed and irrigated transects, but there was a certain positive trend when comparing the years 2005 and 2020. Regarding the differences detected for each species, the occurrence of Montagu’s harrier Circus pygargus, hen harrier Circus cyaneus, Eurasian short-toed eagle Circaetus gallicus, griffon vulture Gyps fulvus and carrion crow Corvus corone was significantly lower in irrigated land than in rainfed land, while magpie Pica pica, Western marsh harrier Circus aeruginosus, common kestrel Falco tinnunculus and black kite Milvus migrans showed a signif...
We have compiled the information available for the White-Backed Woodpecker (Dendrocopos leucotos ... more We have compiled the information available for the White-Backed Woodpecker (Dendrocopos leucotos lilfordi) on the south-facing slopes of the Pyrenees since its detection in 1968 until 2016 and we have added the results of specific censuses carried out between 2017 and 2021 and the results of the GPS marking of reproductive specimens, both within the known range, as in other beech forests beyond its borders. An expansion towards the West and North has been verified. The nests are always located in F. sylvatica, except in the extreme western territories where they use Q. rubra too. The breeders in the traditional range are always individuals of more than two years old (euring 6), although a number of breeding juveniles have appeared in the extreme west (euring 5). Beech occupies more than 70% of the surface of all the territories, but this percentage is significantly lower in the newly detected territories than in those within the traditional distribution area. These latest results su...
The Bonelli's eagle is one of the rarest and most threatened birds of prey in Europe, which m... more The Bonelli's eagle is one of the rarest and most threatened birds of prey in Europe, which means that great efforts are being made to guarantee its conservation. One of the lines of work is the reintroduction of specimens in areas where the species has recently become extinct and those in which the factors that caused its disappearance have been corrected. The present study presents the results of one of these reintroduction projects carried out in Navarra, Northern Spain, between 2011 and 2021. Forty-seven individuals (36 born in captivity and 11 from wild nests) were released in five places close to historical territories. After those 11 years of work, the occupation of two of the historical and the creation of a new one has been achieved. 44.68 % of the birds died in the first year after their release and 19.14%, during the first month in the field. No significant differences were found associated with the sex or the origin of the specimens in survival during the first month...
Variation in winter thrush abundance during the hunting season in southern Europe: the importance... more Variation in winter thrush abundance during the hunting season in southern Europe: the importance of hunting–free reserves. We analysed variations in the abundance of the song thrush (Turdus philomelos) and the blackbird (T. merula) in the hunting season in hunting areas and hunting–free reserves. After controlling for habitat, we found that the abundance of song thrushes (hunted species) was lower in hunting areas than in reserves during the hunting season. This effect was not found for the blackbird (non–hunted species). This finding indicates hunting–free reserves have a positive effect on song thrush conservation. Further research is crucial to determine the traits that should be promoted in this type of reserve in order to improve their efficiency.
Hunting statistics can be suitable to determine wild boar density estimates if a calibration with... more Hunting statistics can be suitable to determine wild boar density estimates if a calibration with an accepted rigorous method is performed. Here, densities calculated from drive counts during collective drive hunting activities are compared against density values calculated by camera trapping using the random encounter method. For this purpose, we selected 10 study sites in Spain, from North to South representing a diversity of habitats, management and hunting traditions without artificial feeding, plus one study site in Czech Republic where artificial feeding was practiced. Density values estimated from both drive counts and camera trapping were strongly positively correlated (R 2 =0.84 and 0.87 for linear and non-linear models, respectively) and showed a good agreement. Drive counts data might be therefore used as a density estimate to calibrate models for estimating density in large areas and potentially, to compare densities among areas. For these purposes, there is still the need to harmonise hunting data collection across Europe to make them usable at a large scale. Our results need to be confirmed across a wider number of European populations to provide valid geographical wild boar density predictions across Europe.
Open landfills seem to be playing an increasing role as target feeding areas for several species,... more Open landfills seem to be playing an increasing role as target feeding areas for several species, not only in their breeding areas or during the winter, but also during the migration period. Evaluating the extent to which landfill sites are used by migrants is crucial to understanding their role in driving stopover decisions during migration, and in the potential health risks linked to feeding on refuse. The aim of this study was to evaluate the role of two open landfills located just before (France) and after (Spain) the East‐Atlantic flyway enters Iberia through the western Pyrenees as potentially important stopover sites for the White Stork populations moving along this route. Overall, we detected that these sites were used by storks that had been ringed from many western European breeding populations, mainly during the migration period, but also in winter. The mean distance between the stork breeding/ringing origin and the landfill sites increased from summer to winter, suggesti...
The migratory behaviour of European Song Thrush (Turdus philomelos) populations ranges from resid... more The migratory behaviour of European Song Thrush (Turdus philomelos) populations ranges from resident in the south and west to partly or totally migratory in northern, central and eastern Europe. This varied migratory behaviour could be reflected in morphological adaptations, with migrants having a proportionally longer wing, lower tail:wing ratio, and, if foraging more on fruits, deeper and wider bills. We used data from Song Thrushes captured during the breeding season and in winter in northern Iberia to test for morphological variations between these two periods. In three consecutive years (2014-16), Song Thrushes were captured with mist nests in a region of southern Navarra (Spain) during the breeding season (from May to July) or in the winter period (October to February), during a period of four hours starting at dawn per sampling day. We consider the winter population to be composed of a high proportion of visitors. Breeding Song Thrushes showed proportionally longer tails for given wing lengths, even though wing length did not vary between the two periods. Moreover, winter visitors showed narrower and less deep bills than breeding Song Thrushes. Potential explanations for these results are discussed.
The white stork Ciconia ciconia is one of the most emblematic birds in rural habitats of Europe. ... more The white stork Ciconia ciconia is one of the most emblematic birds in rural habitats of Europe. Its populations showed a drastic decline during the 20th century, followed by a rapid recovery in the last decades. The population increase has led to a relaxation in the specie’s monitoring effort, the last Spanish national official census having been conducted more than 15 years ago. In order to update this knowledge, this study shows the results of a breeding population census conducted in Navarre during the spring of 2018, describing the preferences in nest location, and comparing the current breeding population size with that described in the literature published since 1960. Our results show a breeding population of 739 pairs, which is the highest value ever recorded. However, this increase in the number of pairs has not been associated with a significant expansion of the specie’s distribution area, which is still limited to the southern half of Navarre. The only relevant colonisati...
The Fossorial Water Vole (Arvicola scherman) is a species of great interest, both because of its ... more The Fossorial Water Vole (Arvicola scherman) is a species of great interest, both because of its role as prey for a wide variety of predators, and the damages on agriculture. The variation in its population abundance and the factors that modulate it have been widely studied in northern Europe, but they are rather unknown for Pyrenean populations. Here we show the results obtained in the monitoring plan for the species in Navarra from 2016 to 2020, describing both the inter- and intra-annual changes in population abundance, as well as the effect of environmental factors and agricultural management. We found intra-annual variation in its abundance, with significantly higher values in spring than in summer. Interannually, there was a significantly higher abundance both in 2016 and 2020. The accumulated rainfall in the three months prior to sampling and grazing with sheep were the two most important factors that explain variation in population abundance. Both factors had a positive effe...
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