Urban parks are progressing but are in chaos in the twenty-first century. Therefore the purposes ... more Urban parks are progressing but are in chaos in the twenty-first century. Therefore the purposes of this study are to consider critically and classify the new paradigm of urban parks. Urban parks are one of the space products, and progressing aspects can be divided into three parts; supply, demand and market aspects. In the abstract, urban parks' progress represents process, openness or voidness, general and cultural ecology, productivity, experience program, identity or sense of place, carriers of urban regeneration, urban infrastructure, community space, multi-layered activity, active space, communication with urban space, tool of low carbon strategy and consilience. But urban parks have come under increased criticism about the long period development on trees growth, covering open space, limitation of general and cultural ecology, production, activity programs, identity and community space, visible urban regeneration, economic validity, urban sprawl, not using as the low carbon strategy, and finally negative consilience with contiguous fields. We collected these critical consideration about progressing urban parks, and proposed urban agricultural park as one of the alternative urban parks. This is closely connected with sustainable region development, low-carbon society, local food, well-being, Lohas paradigm and amenity of urban life.
Form Approved OMB No. 0704-0188 Public reporting burden for this collection of information is est... more Form Approved OMB No. 0704-0188 Public reporting burden for this collection of information is estimated to average 1 hour per response, including the time for reviewing instruction, searching existing data sources, gathering and maintaining the data needed, and completing and reviewing the collection of information. Send comments regarding this burden estimate or any other aspect of this collection of information, including suggestions for reducing this burden, to
Cet ensemble d'articles s'interesse a la place du militaire dans la relation armee-societ... more Cet ensemble d'articles s'interesse a la place du militaire dans la relation armee-societe. Les AA. font part ici des nouvelles formes d'integration de la vie militaire a la societe civile et dressent un tableau de la situation de l'armee aux Etats-Unis et en Grande Bretagne, pour discuter de l'influence des sciences sociales sur l'orientation des decisions relatives au domaine militaire
cle manuscripts. International Security relies heavily on the evaluations and advice of external ... more cle manuscripts. International Security relies heavily on the evaluations and advice of external reviewers in making its editorial decisions. The editors thank the reviewers listed below for their invaluable assistance. As in previous years, we are recognizing outstanding reviewers for the exceptional quality, quantity, and timeliness of their reviews. Outstanding reviewers are denoted with an asterisk (*). Reviewers for Volume 36
International Security received 294 article manuscripts. International Security relies heavily on... more International Security received 294 article manuscripts. International Security relies heavily on the evaluations and advice of external reviewers in making its editorial decisions. The editors thank the reviewers listed below for their invaluable assistance. As in previous years, we are recognizing outstanding reviewers for the exceptional quality, quantity, and timeliness of their reviews. Outstanding reviewers are denoted with an asterisk (*).
Policymakers have long assumed, and scholars have long argued, that how a government raises milit... more Policymakers have long assumed, and scholars have long argued, that how a government raises military manpower affects public support for military action through two obvious mechanisms: the likelihood any given individual will be personally affected by the conflict, and the expected aggregate cost of the conflict. Increased costs are thought to cause the public to be more critical of the use of military force. But do they? We gain leverage on this question in the US context by employing a survey experiment that allows us both to compare reactions to a range of manpower policies—an all-volunteer standing force, conscription, and mobilization of the reserves—and to explicitly test multiple mechanisms—expectations of bearing personal cost, expectations of aggregate cost, and effects not explained by these cost expectations. Our results strongly suggest that manpower policies’ effects are not straightforward. Consistent with previous studies, we find that an expectation of conscription l...
The architecture of objective control has informed a great deal of the development of civil-milit... more The architecture of objective control has informed a great deal of the development of civil-military norms and the professional education of military officer corps, particularly in the democratic West. But while this idealized vision of civil-military relations has been influential, it is incomplete in its accounting of the moral, ethical, legal, and political structures surrounding the military service member. In practical terms, it is not a simple task to divide problems into purely military and purely political aspects, nor is it easy to determine how to reconcile conflicting imperatives. This chapter attempts to provide a comprehensive typology of the various loyalty structures within which military personnel are located and the various ways in which these structures can conflict. It discusses how democratic theory and classical principal-agent models may prescribe different outcomes for such conflicts and provide a granular understanding of the sources of civil-military friction.
There is more to conscription than the presence or absence of conscripts in a military force. A b... more There is more to conscription than the presence or absence of conscripts in a military force. A brief survey of the history of military recruitment suggests that economics, threat, and political heritage go a long way toward explaining why and how states recruit manpower and prepare that manpower for war. Understanding the sources and implications of different types of military recruitment, and how trends in military recruitment change over time, is essential for understanding conscription now and in the future. The French Revolution is often regarded as a turning point in conscription, with the famed levée en masse, which coincided with dramatic changes in warfare and how states mobilized their polities for war. Less well known is how rarely conscripts were actually used in the wars that followed the French Revolution. Rather than being a turning point in the history of military recruitment, the levée en masse was just another moment in the ebb and flow of how states recruit milita...
I'm from the Government and I'm Here to Help: Public Perceptions of the Use of Coercive S... more I'm from the Government and I'm Here to Help: Public Perceptions of the Use of Coercive State Power
<p>This chapter summarizes the theoretical basis for the study of civil–military relations ... more <p>This chapter summarizes the theoretical basis for the study of civil–military relations and then discusses the military as a political actor in the United States, other consolidated democracies, post-communist and other formerly single-party states, and developing states. The maintenance of healthy civil–military relations depends strongly on the government's overall legitimacy, which can be threatened by changing technology, societal fragmentation, or government weakness and incompetence. The domestic civil–military relationship can affect international security dynamics through its effects on domestic regime stability and ability to reduce ungoverned spaces, foreign policy decision-making, and relative military capability.</p>
Since Kant, scholars have argued that democratic citizens will recoil from the human costs of war... more Since Kant, scholars have argued that democratic citizens will recoil from the human costs of war. However, the extent to which the public experiences such costs depends on the manpower policies used to recruit the force. Employing a survey experiment, we examine the influence of both conscription and the mobilization of the reserve component on public support for war. We also examine the mechanisms through which manpower policies affect public support for military action. Consistent with previous studies, we find that conscription decreases public support for war. Mobilization of the reserve, however, has little influence on support. While expectations of aggregate costs decrease mission support, we find no evidence that expectations of personal cost have a similar effect. Furthermore, cost perceptions only modestly mediate conscription’s negative influence on war support. This strong direct effect suggests that public aversion to conscription may arise from other psychological or ...
Militaries, like businesses, seem to operate under enormous pressure to converge on a “best pract... more Militaries, like businesses, seem to operate under enormous pressure to converge on a “best practice” model (Kester, 1996 ; Streeck, 1996). They compete with each other, cooperate with each other, learn from one another, and in many cases form a transnational and historical professional community, all of which tend to encourage convergence (Rosen, 1995, p.15 sq ; Farrell, 2002 ; Goldman, 2002 ; Stone, 2002, p.189). Since at least the early 20 th century, militaries in developed States have been organized deliberately along similar lines (Farrell, 2002 ; Stone, 2002, p.189). 1 Despite these factors encouraging convergence, certain differences in personnel practices appear to be remarkably tenacious even among militaries that engage in consistent and close cooperation (Moskos, Williams & Segal, 1999 ; Nolte, 2003 ; Gareis & vom Hagen, 2004 ; Gilroy & Williams, 2007). What explains this stubborn diversity, and what practical implications does it have ?
Contemporary militaries depend on volunteer soldiers capable of dealing with advanced technology ... more Contemporary militaries depend on volunteer soldiers capable of dealing with advanced technology and complex missions. An important factor in the successful recruiting, retention, and employment of quality personnel is the set of personnel policies which a military has in place. It might be assumed that military policies on personnel derive solely from the functional necessities of the organization's mission, given that the stakes of military effectiveness are generally very high. Unless the survival of the state is in jeopardy, however, it will seek to limit defense costs, which may entail cutting into effectiveness. How a state chooses to make the tradeoffs between effectiveness and economy will be subject to influences other than military necessity. In this study, I argue that military personnel management policies ought to be a function of the interaction between the internal pressures of military mission and the external pressures of the national economic infrastructure surrounding the military. The pressures of military mission should not vary significantly across advanced democratic states, but the national market economic type will. Using written policy and expert interview data from five countries, this study analyzes how military selection, accessions, occupational specialty assignment, and separations policies are related to the country's educational and training system, the significance of skills certification on the labor market, and labor flexibility. I evaluate both officers and enlisted personnel, and I compare them across countries and within countries over time. I find that market v economic type is a significant explanatory variable for the key military personnel policies under consideration, although other factors such as the size of the military and the stakes of military effectiveness probably also influence the results.
Recent debates in the United States have pitted the fiscal imperative of rationalizing the budget... more Recent debates in the United States have pitted the fiscal imperative of rationalizing the budget against the social narrative that society has an obligation to take care of its service members and veterans. This civil-military disconnect is a result of the structural necessity in so-called liberal market economies (LME) to focus significant portions of their military compensation on benefits, in addition to pay. These benefitsfor example, health care, childcare, education, and retirement-are not broadly provided to all citizens in LMEs and constitute attractive recruiting incentives. However, it is difficult to control their costs and difficult to limit or remove them once implemented. Thus, the United States is caught in a benefits trap with challenging civil-military and policy implications. Report Documentation Page Form Approved OMB No. 0704-0188 Public reporting burden for the collection of information is estimated to average 1 hour per response, including the time for reviewing instructions, searching existing data sources, gathering and maintaining the data needed, and completing and reviewing the collection of information. Send comments regarding this burden estimate or any other aspect of this collection of information, including suggestions for reducing this burden, to Washington Headquarters Services, Directorate for Information Operations and Reports, 1215 Jefferson Davis Highway, Suite 1204, Arlington VA 22202-4302. Respondents should be aware that notwithstanding any other provision of law, no person shall be subject to a penalty for failing to comply with a collection of information if it does not display a currently valid OMB control number.
Urban parks are progressing but are in chaos in the twenty-first century. Therefore the purposes ... more Urban parks are progressing but are in chaos in the twenty-first century. Therefore the purposes of this study are to consider critically and classify the new paradigm of urban parks. Urban parks are one of the space products, and progressing aspects can be divided into three parts; supply, demand and market aspects. In the abstract, urban parks' progress represents process, openness or voidness, general and cultural ecology, productivity, experience program, identity or sense of place, carriers of urban regeneration, urban infrastructure, community space, multi-layered activity, active space, communication with urban space, tool of low carbon strategy and consilience. But urban parks have come under increased criticism about the long period development on trees growth, covering open space, limitation of general and cultural ecology, production, activity programs, identity and community space, visible urban regeneration, economic validity, urban sprawl, not using as the low carbon strategy, and finally negative consilience with contiguous fields. We collected these critical consideration about progressing urban parks, and proposed urban agricultural park as one of the alternative urban parks. This is closely connected with sustainable region development, low-carbon society, local food, well-being, Lohas paradigm and amenity of urban life.
Form Approved OMB No. 0704-0188 Public reporting burden for this collection of information is est... more Form Approved OMB No. 0704-0188 Public reporting burden for this collection of information is estimated to average 1 hour per response, including the time for reviewing instruction, searching existing data sources, gathering and maintaining the data needed, and completing and reviewing the collection of information. Send comments regarding this burden estimate or any other aspect of this collection of information, including suggestions for reducing this burden, to
Cet ensemble d'articles s'interesse a la place du militaire dans la relation armee-societ... more Cet ensemble d'articles s'interesse a la place du militaire dans la relation armee-societe. Les AA. font part ici des nouvelles formes d'integration de la vie militaire a la societe civile et dressent un tableau de la situation de l'armee aux Etats-Unis et en Grande Bretagne, pour discuter de l'influence des sciences sociales sur l'orientation des decisions relatives au domaine militaire
cle manuscripts. International Security relies heavily on the evaluations and advice of external ... more cle manuscripts. International Security relies heavily on the evaluations and advice of external reviewers in making its editorial decisions. The editors thank the reviewers listed below for their invaluable assistance. As in previous years, we are recognizing outstanding reviewers for the exceptional quality, quantity, and timeliness of their reviews. Outstanding reviewers are denoted with an asterisk (*). Reviewers for Volume 36
International Security received 294 article manuscripts. International Security relies heavily on... more International Security received 294 article manuscripts. International Security relies heavily on the evaluations and advice of external reviewers in making its editorial decisions. The editors thank the reviewers listed below for their invaluable assistance. As in previous years, we are recognizing outstanding reviewers for the exceptional quality, quantity, and timeliness of their reviews. Outstanding reviewers are denoted with an asterisk (*).
Policymakers have long assumed, and scholars have long argued, that how a government raises milit... more Policymakers have long assumed, and scholars have long argued, that how a government raises military manpower affects public support for military action through two obvious mechanisms: the likelihood any given individual will be personally affected by the conflict, and the expected aggregate cost of the conflict. Increased costs are thought to cause the public to be more critical of the use of military force. But do they? We gain leverage on this question in the US context by employing a survey experiment that allows us both to compare reactions to a range of manpower policies—an all-volunteer standing force, conscription, and mobilization of the reserves—and to explicitly test multiple mechanisms—expectations of bearing personal cost, expectations of aggregate cost, and effects not explained by these cost expectations. Our results strongly suggest that manpower policies’ effects are not straightforward. Consistent with previous studies, we find that an expectation of conscription l...
The architecture of objective control has informed a great deal of the development of civil-milit... more The architecture of objective control has informed a great deal of the development of civil-military norms and the professional education of military officer corps, particularly in the democratic West. But while this idealized vision of civil-military relations has been influential, it is incomplete in its accounting of the moral, ethical, legal, and political structures surrounding the military service member. In practical terms, it is not a simple task to divide problems into purely military and purely political aspects, nor is it easy to determine how to reconcile conflicting imperatives. This chapter attempts to provide a comprehensive typology of the various loyalty structures within which military personnel are located and the various ways in which these structures can conflict. It discusses how democratic theory and classical principal-agent models may prescribe different outcomes for such conflicts and provide a granular understanding of the sources of civil-military friction.
There is more to conscription than the presence or absence of conscripts in a military force. A b... more There is more to conscription than the presence or absence of conscripts in a military force. A brief survey of the history of military recruitment suggests that economics, threat, and political heritage go a long way toward explaining why and how states recruit manpower and prepare that manpower for war. Understanding the sources and implications of different types of military recruitment, and how trends in military recruitment change over time, is essential for understanding conscription now and in the future. The French Revolution is often regarded as a turning point in conscription, with the famed levée en masse, which coincided with dramatic changes in warfare and how states mobilized their polities for war. Less well known is how rarely conscripts were actually used in the wars that followed the French Revolution. Rather than being a turning point in the history of military recruitment, the levée en masse was just another moment in the ebb and flow of how states recruit milita...
I'm from the Government and I'm Here to Help: Public Perceptions of the Use of Coercive S... more I'm from the Government and I'm Here to Help: Public Perceptions of the Use of Coercive State Power
<p>This chapter summarizes the theoretical basis for the study of civil–military relations ... more <p>This chapter summarizes the theoretical basis for the study of civil–military relations and then discusses the military as a political actor in the United States, other consolidated democracies, post-communist and other formerly single-party states, and developing states. The maintenance of healthy civil–military relations depends strongly on the government's overall legitimacy, which can be threatened by changing technology, societal fragmentation, or government weakness and incompetence. The domestic civil–military relationship can affect international security dynamics through its effects on domestic regime stability and ability to reduce ungoverned spaces, foreign policy decision-making, and relative military capability.</p>
Since Kant, scholars have argued that democratic citizens will recoil from the human costs of war... more Since Kant, scholars have argued that democratic citizens will recoil from the human costs of war. However, the extent to which the public experiences such costs depends on the manpower policies used to recruit the force. Employing a survey experiment, we examine the influence of both conscription and the mobilization of the reserve component on public support for war. We also examine the mechanisms through which manpower policies affect public support for military action. Consistent with previous studies, we find that conscription decreases public support for war. Mobilization of the reserve, however, has little influence on support. While expectations of aggregate costs decrease mission support, we find no evidence that expectations of personal cost have a similar effect. Furthermore, cost perceptions only modestly mediate conscription’s negative influence on war support. This strong direct effect suggests that public aversion to conscription may arise from other psychological or ...
Militaries, like businesses, seem to operate under enormous pressure to converge on a “best pract... more Militaries, like businesses, seem to operate under enormous pressure to converge on a “best practice” model (Kester, 1996 ; Streeck, 1996). They compete with each other, cooperate with each other, learn from one another, and in many cases form a transnational and historical professional community, all of which tend to encourage convergence (Rosen, 1995, p.15 sq ; Farrell, 2002 ; Goldman, 2002 ; Stone, 2002, p.189). Since at least the early 20 th century, militaries in developed States have been organized deliberately along similar lines (Farrell, 2002 ; Stone, 2002, p.189). 1 Despite these factors encouraging convergence, certain differences in personnel practices appear to be remarkably tenacious even among militaries that engage in consistent and close cooperation (Moskos, Williams & Segal, 1999 ; Nolte, 2003 ; Gareis & vom Hagen, 2004 ; Gilroy & Williams, 2007). What explains this stubborn diversity, and what practical implications does it have ?
Contemporary militaries depend on volunteer soldiers capable of dealing with advanced technology ... more Contemporary militaries depend on volunteer soldiers capable of dealing with advanced technology and complex missions. An important factor in the successful recruiting, retention, and employment of quality personnel is the set of personnel policies which a military has in place. It might be assumed that military policies on personnel derive solely from the functional necessities of the organization's mission, given that the stakes of military effectiveness are generally very high. Unless the survival of the state is in jeopardy, however, it will seek to limit defense costs, which may entail cutting into effectiveness. How a state chooses to make the tradeoffs between effectiveness and economy will be subject to influences other than military necessity. In this study, I argue that military personnel management policies ought to be a function of the interaction between the internal pressures of military mission and the external pressures of the national economic infrastructure surrounding the military. The pressures of military mission should not vary significantly across advanced democratic states, but the national market economic type will. Using written policy and expert interview data from five countries, this study analyzes how military selection, accessions, occupational specialty assignment, and separations policies are related to the country's educational and training system, the significance of skills certification on the labor market, and labor flexibility. I evaluate both officers and enlisted personnel, and I compare them across countries and within countries over time. I find that market v economic type is a significant explanatory variable for the key military personnel policies under consideration, although other factors such as the size of the military and the stakes of military effectiveness probably also influence the results.
Recent debates in the United States have pitted the fiscal imperative of rationalizing the budget... more Recent debates in the United States have pitted the fiscal imperative of rationalizing the budget against the social narrative that society has an obligation to take care of its service members and veterans. This civil-military disconnect is a result of the structural necessity in so-called liberal market economies (LME) to focus significant portions of their military compensation on benefits, in addition to pay. These benefitsfor example, health care, childcare, education, and retirement-are not broadly provided to all citizens in LMEs and constitute attractive recruiting incentives. However, it is difficult to control their costs and difficult to limit or remove them once implemented. Thus, the United States is caught in a benefits trap with challenging civil-military and policy implications. Report Documentation Page Form Approved OMB No. 0704-0188 Public reporting burden for the collection of information is estimated to average 1 hour per response, including the time for reviewing instructions, searching existing data sources, gathering and maintaining the data needed, and completing and reviewing the collection of information. Send comments regarding this burden estimate or any other aspect of this collection of information, including suggestions for reducing this burden, to Washington Headquarters Services, Directorate for Information Operations and Reports, 1215 Jefferson Davis Highway, Suite 1204, Arlington VA 22202-4302. Respondents should be aware that notwithstanding any other provision of law, no person shall be subject to a penalty for failing to comply with a collection of information if it does not display a currently valid OMB control number.
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