Young children search for cues about gender-who should or should not do a particular activity, wh... more Young children search for cues about gender-who should or should not do a particular activity, who can play with whom, and why girls and boys are different. From a vast array of gendered cues in their social worlds, children quickly form an impressive constellation of gender cognitions, including gender self-conceptions (gender identity) and gender stereotypes. Cognitive perspectives on gender development (i.e., cognitive developmental theory and gender-schema theory) assume that children actively search for ways to make sense of the social world that surrounds them. Gender identity develops as children realize that they belong to one gender group, and the consequences include increased motivation to be similar to other members of their group, preferences for members of their own group, selective attention to and memory for information relevant to their own sex, and increased interest in activities relevant to their own sex. Cognitive perspectives have been influential in increasing understanding of how children develop and apply gender stereotypes, and in their focus on children's active role in gender socialization.
Introduction The present article describes two interrelated studies that examine gender typicalit... more Introduction The present article describes two interrelated studies that examine gender typicality in young adulthood using a new dual-identity approach. Methods Participants were recruited online from March 2020 to February 2021 and reported their perceived similarity to own- and other-gender peers as a way to assess their gender typicality. In study 1, the authors conducted an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to test and validate the Perceived Similarity to Gender Groups Scale in a sample of Italian young adults (n = 571; Mage = 23.9; SD = 3.60). The authors documented the configural, metric, scalar measurement invariance, and validity. In study 2, the Perceived Similarity to Gender Groups Scale adopted in study 1 was used to assess the distribution of different typologies of gender typicality in another sample of Italian young adults who vary in gender and sexual orientation (n = 1126; Mage = 24.3; SD = 3.51). Results Results confirmed th...
Pubertal suppression is standard of care for early pubertal transgender youth to prevent the deve... more Pubertal suppression is standard of care for early pubertal transgender youth to prevent the development of undesired and distressing secondary sex characteristics incongruent with gender identity. Preliminary evidence suggests pubertal suppression improves mental health functioning. Given the widespread changes in brain and cognition that occur during puberty, a critical question is whether this treatment impacts neurodevelopment. Methods: A Delphi consensus procedure engaged 24 international experts in neurodevelopment, gender development, puberty/adolescence, neuroendocrinology, and statistics/psychometrics to identify priority research methodologies to address the empirical question: is pubertal suppression treatment associated with real-world neurocognitive sequelae? Recommended study approaches reaching 80% consensus were included in the consensus parameter. Results: The Delphi procedure identified 160 initial expert recommendations, 44 of which ultimately achieved consensus. Consensus study design elements include the following: a minimum of three measurement time points, pubertal staging at baseline, statistical modeling of sex in analyses, use of analytic approaches that account for heterogeneity, and use of multiple comparison groups to minimize the limitations of any one group. Consensus study comparison groups include untreated transgender youth matched on pubertal stage, cisgender (i.e., gender congruent) youth matched on pubertal stage, and an independent sample from a large-scale youth development database. The consensus domains for assessment includes: mental health, executive function/cognitive control, and social awareness/functioning. Conclusion: An international interdisciplinary team of experts achieved consensus around primary methods and domains for assessing neurodevelopmental effects (i.e., benefits and/or difficulties) of pubertal suppression treatment in transgender youth.
Research Findings: Although children's temperament contributes to their academic success, little ... more Research Findings: Although children's temperament contributes to their academic success, little is known regarding the mechanisms through which temperament is associated withacademic achievement during the transition to elementary school. One such mechanism may be school engagement, but findings are inconsistent and limited. Across two waves of data at the transition to school, we examined the role of kindergarten emotional and behavioral engagement as links between preschool temperament (positive emotionality, anger, andeffortful control), and kindergartenacademic achievement, among a predominantlyMexican/Mexican-Americansample of 241children drawn from Head Start classrooms. Significant direct effects indicated that preschool anger was negatively,and positive emotionality and effortful control werepositively,associated withkindergarten behavioralengagement.Only preschool anger was significantly associatedwithkindergarten emotional engagement. In turn, kindergarten behavioral, but not emotional, engagement was directly, positively associated withkindergartenacademic achievement. All three preschool temperament measures were indirectly related to kindergarten achievement via kindergarten behavioral engagement, and anger was indirectly related to kindergarten achievement via emotional engagement. Practice or Polic: Findings highlight the importance of understanding the role of engagement as a mechanismthat can foster children'sacademic achievement at a key developmental transition.
The purpose of this paper is to highlight the important role that gender plays in organizing and ... more The purpose of this paper is to highlight the important role that gender plays in organizing and affecting the quality of the classroom climate. We review research showing how students' peer relationships tend to be segregated by gender and discuss the consequences of children spending much of their time almost exclusively with same-gender peers, which perpetuates and exaggerates gender segregation. We suggest that a more beneficial pattern is enhancing students' exposure to other-gender peers-that is, promoting gender integration. We describe the theories that support the benefits of integrating across social groups. Next, we review methods and results of strategies we have used to promote integration. Finally, we draw attention to the issues about gender integration that require further consideration and argue for more research that can help guide the development of effective strategies that build more inclusive environments, practices, and policies for today's children and youth. GENDER INTEGRATION 3 Gender Integration and the Promotion of Inclusive Classroom Climates When the social climate of a classroom provides a foundation for students' relationships to be inclusive, cooperative, and positive, academic and social outcomes are significantly enhanced (National School Climate Council, 2015). In contrast, when the social climate of the classroom is segregated, exclusive, and harmful to peer relationships, academic interest, motivation, and performance can be undermined (Doll, Song, & Siemers, 2004; Glew, Fan, Katon, Rivara, & Kernic, 2005). Although there are many elements of the classroom and school that contribute to the inclusive nature of a classroom (e.g., teacher qualities, curricular activities, the physical environment, etc.), evidence suggests that the quality of the relationships a student has with her or his peers is a highly significant predictor of how children feel about school (Hanish et al., 2016). As such, it is surprising that there have been limited efforts to develop
International Journal of Behavioral Development, 2019
The current study examined emerging adults’ gender identity and its link with several gender-rela... more The current study examined emerging adults’ gender identity and its link with several gender-related and social outcomes, by using a novel dual-identity approach that was originally developed in children. Dutch emerging adults between 18 and 25 years old ( N = 318, Mage = 21.73, SD = 2.02; 51% female) indicated their similarity to the own-gender group and the other-gender group to assess gender identity. They completed questionnaires assessing gender-typed behavior (internalized sexualization, toughness, emotional stoicism) and attitudes (i.e., sexism); friendship efficacy and ability; and social-emotional adjustment. Cluster analysis on the gender-identity items revealed four gender-identity types: (a) feeling similar to one’s own gender, but not to the other gender (Own-GS); (b) feeling similar to both one’s own and the other gender (Both-GS); (c) feeling dissimilar to one’s own gender (Low-Own-GS); and (d) feeling similar to neither gender (Low-GS). Own-GS and Low-GS adults were ...
International Journal of Behavioral Development, 2019
The goal of the current study was to better understand the development of gender typicality in yo... more The goal of the current study was to better understand the development of gender typicality in young adulthood by applying the dual-identity approach to gender typicality, previously developed with children, to a university sample. Participants ( n = 215, Mage = 20.20 years; 62% female) were asked to rate their perceived similarity to both own- and other-gender peers. They also completed questionnaires assessing sexist attitudes, internalized sexualization (females), adherence to male-typed behaviors in the context of interpersonal relationships (males; adherence to physical toughness and restrictive emotional expressivity), gender-based relationship efficacy, friendships, self-esteem, social self-efficacy, and social anxiety. Results indicated that self-perceived gender typicality involves comparisons to both gender groups, and that meaningful typologies can be created based on similarity to own- and other-gender groups. As with children, results indicated that identifying with one...
Transactional relations between children's positive social interaction skills, school engagement,... more Transactional relations between children's positive social interaction skills, school engagement, and academic achievement were examined using a longitudinal panel model across the transition from preschool to first grade. Participants were Head Start children (N = 241; 49% girls, M age = 53 months, range 45-60); 78% were Mexican/Mexican-American; 82% of families were of low socioeconomic status. Head Start children's positive social interaction skills and academic achievement in preschool were positively related to kindergarten school engagement, positive social interaction skills and school engagement influenced one another over time, and academic achievement was positively related to positive social interaction skills from preschool to kindergarten. A small, but significant, transactional effect of preschool academic achievement on first-grade school engagement through kindergarten positive social interaction skills was found. Findings from the current study provide support for previously undocumented longitudinal relations between positive social interaction skills, school engagement, and academic achievement for Head Start children.
Culturally prescribed social scripts for traditional masculinity that emphasize social dominance ... more Culturally prescribed social scripts for traditional masculinity that emphasize social dominance are frequently linked to diminished well-being for men across a variety of psychological domains. However, few studies have examined the role of traditional masculinity scripts in the lives of early adolescent boys and girls, despite their relevance during this period and their potential developmental implications. To address this need, we examined the development of early adolescents' conformity to traditional masculinity across the middle school transition, as well as its links with depressive symptoms and academic engagement. Using a diverse sample of 280 adolescents (M age = 11.13, SD = 0.51; 54.3 % Female; 44 % Latina/ o) assessed at the beginning (fall 2014) and end (spring 2015) of their first year of middle school, we found an increase in conformity to traditional masculinity scripts among boys, but not among girls. For boys and girls alike, conformity to traditional masculinity predicted greater depressive symptoms and decreased academic engagement. Depressive symptoms also mediated the association between traditional masculinity and academic engagement for boys and girls. This study is among the first to study conformity to traditional masculinity from a developmental lens. The findings suggest that traditional masculinity scripts are relevant for early adolescents (particularly boys) transitioning to middle school. However, for both boys and girls, conformity to these scripts can compromise psychological and academic well-being.
The goals of the present study were to investigate whether young children attending Head Start (N... more The goals of the present study were to investigate whether young children attending Head Start (N=292; M age =4.3 years) selected peers based on their preschool competency and whether children's levels of preschool competency were influenced by their peers' levels of preschool competency. Children's peer interaction partners were intensively observed several times a week over one academic year. Social network analyses revealed that children selected peer interaction partners with similar levels of preschool competency and were influenced over time by their partners' levels of preschool competency. These effects held even after controlling for several child (e.g., sex and language) and family factors (e.g., financial strain and parent education). Implications for promoting preschool competency among Head Start children are discussed.
The goal of this study was to investigate differences in the social context of peer victimization... more The goal of this study was to investigate differences in the social context of peer victimization for preschoolers and kindergarteners. Data were collected from 168 children. For preschoolers, neither social acceptance nor friendships were significantly related to peer victimization. Instead, playing with peers and exposure to aggressive peers were associated with higher rates of peer victimization. For kindergarteners, exposure to aggressive peers also contributed to the risk for peer victimization, but being liked by peers and having friends were inversely related to victimization, thereby providing a buffering effect. The developmental implications of these findings are discussed.
The late 1960s through the 1970s marked an important turning point in the field of gender researc... more The late 1960s through the 1970s marked an important turning point in the field of gender research, including theory and research in gender development. The establishment of Sex Roles in 1975 as a forum for this research represented an important milestone in the field. In this article, we celebrate the 35th anniversary of Sex Roles and, in particular, its contributions to the field of research on children's and adolescents' gender development. We examine the trends in research on gender development published in Sex Roles since its inception and use this analysis as a vehicle for exploring how the field has grown and evolved over the past few decades. We begin with a brief review of the history of this field of research since 1975. Then, we present a descriptive assessment of articles published on gender development in Sex Roles over time, and link this assessment to general trends that have occurred in the study of gender development over the past 35 years. We conclude with a discussion of future directions for the field of gender development. In particular, we highlight areas in which the journal could play a role in promoting more diversity in topics, methods, and ages employed in gender development research.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1988
Traditional conceptions of interpersonal flexibility emphasize two critical components: (a) a wid... more Traditional conceptions of interpersonal flexibility emphasize two critical components: (a) a wide range of interpersonal responses and (b) situational appropriateness. Most current measures are based on standard trait ratings, which cannot address situational adjustment. In place of trait ratings, we suggest the use of capability ratings, that is, self-reports of the ease of performing social behaviors when required by the situation. Our proposed index of flexibility, the Functional Flexibility Index (FFI), is the composite of 16 interpersonal capabilities. In Study 1, factor analyses indicated that the FFI is distinct from other widely used flexibility measures. Study 2 supported the validity of the FFT by showing substantial correlations with peer ratings of interpersonal flexibility. In Studies 3 and 4, the FFI outperformed other flexibility measures in predicting adjustment. Another form of interpersonal variability, situationality, is the tendency to view one's personality as being dependent on the situation. Situational individuals reported lower self-esteem than nonsituational individuals. Measures of functional flexibility and situationality were found to be orthogonal.
Guided by a transactional model, we examined the predictors and effects of exposure to externaliz... more Guided by a transactional model, we examined the predictors and effects of exposure to externalizing peers in a low-risk sample of preschoolers and kindergarteners. On the basis of daily observations of peer interactions, we calculated measures of total exposure to externalizing peers and measures of exposure to same-and other-sex externalizing peers. Analyses of predictors of externalizing peer exposure supported a homophily hypothesis for girls. Tests of peer contagion effects varied by sex, and exposure to externalizing peers predicted multiple problem behaviors for girls but not for boys. Sex differences were a function of children's own sex, but not of peers' sex. The study provides evidence of externalizing peer exposure effects in a low-risk sample of young children, notably for girls.
The relations between young children's mutual (reciprocated) and overall positive emotion (PE) wi... more The relations between young children's mutual (reciprocated) and overall positive emotion (PE) with same-and other-gender peers and their social adjustment were explored. Children's PE and peers' PE were observed across the preschool year during peer interactions (N = 166; 46% girls; M age = 52 months). Results revealed that girls and boys had similar frequencies of overall PE and mutual PE when interacting with same-gender peers, but girls were marginally higher compared to boys in overall and mutual PE when interacting with other-gender peers. Girls and boys did not have greater rates of either type of PE after controlling for gender segregation during same-or other-gender interactions. Using structural equation modeling, children's mutual PE, regardless of their gender, positively predicted indicators of positive adjustment (e.g., prosocial behavior, cooperation) and negatively predicted indicators of negative adjustment (e.g., hyperactivity, disruption, exclusion by peers). Children's overall PE did not predict either type of adjustment. Findings support the importance of mutual PE for children's development.
Time-sampled observations of Head Start preschoolers' (N = 264; 51.5% boys; 76% Mexican American;... more Time-sampled observations of Head Start preschoolers' (N = 264; 51.5% boys; 76% Mexican American; M = 53.11 and SD = 6.15 months of age) peer play in the classroom were gathered during fall and spring semesters. One year later, kindergarten teachers rated these children's school competence. Latent growth models indicated that, on average, children's peer play was moderately frequent and increased over time during preschool. Children with higher initial levels or with higher slopes of peer play in Head Start had higher levels of kindergarten school competence. Results suggest that Head Start children's engagement with peers may foster development of skills that help their transition into formal schooling. These findings highlight the importance of peer play, and suggest that peer play in Head Start classrooms contributes to children's adaptation to the demands of formal schooling.
We examined the role of the teacher-child relationship quality (close, dependent, and conflictive... more We examined the role of the teacher-child relationship quality (close, dependent, and conflictive) on preschoolers' (N = 95) academic readiness for kindergarten, and we tested children's prosocial and aggressive behavior and peer group exclusion as mediators of this relation. A unique feature of this study is the ethnically and socioeconomically diverse preschool-aged sample. The association between close teacher-child relationships and academic readiness was partially mediated by prosocial behavior and peer group exclusion. There was also evidence of a transactional association between close teacher-child relationships and children's behavior. Additionally, children's behavior and peer group exclusion mediated the relation between negative teacher-child relationships (dependent and conflictive) and academic readiness. The findings suggest that teacher training, education, and support for establishing close teacher-child relationships may maximize preschoolers' academic readiness by promoting social adaptation.
Young children search for cues about gender-who should or should not do a particular activity, wh... more Young children search for cues about gender-who should or should not do a particular activity, who can play with whom, and why girls and boys are different. From a vast array of gendered cues in their social worlds, children quickly form an impressive constellation of gender cognitions, including gender self-conceptions (gender identity) and gender stereotypes. Cognitive perspectives on gender development (i.e., cognitive developmental theory and gender-schema theory) assume that children actively search for ways to make sense of the social world that surrounds them. Gender identity develops as children realize that they belong to one gender group, and the consequences include increased motivation to be similar to other members of their group, preferences for members of their own group, selective attention to and memory for information relevant to their own sex, and increased interest in activities relevant to their own sex. Cognitive perspectives have been influential in increasing understanding of how children develop and apply gender stereotypes, and in their focus on children's active role in gender socialization.
Introduction The present article describes two interrelated studies that examine gender typicalit... more Introduction The present article describes two interrelated studies that examine gender typicality in young adulthood using a new dual-identity approach. Methods Participants were recruited online from March 2020 to February 2021 and reported their perceived similarity to own- and other-gender peers as a way to assess their gender typicality. In study 1, the authors conducted an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to test and validate the Perceived Similarity to Gender Groups Scale in a sample of Italian young adults (n = 571; Mage = 23.9; SD = 3.60). The authors documented the configural, metric, scalar measurement invariance, and validity. In study 2, the Perceived Similarity to Gender Groups Scale adopted in study 1 was used to assess the distribution of different typologies of gender typicality in another sample of Italian young adults who vary in gender and sexual orientation (n = 1126; Mage = 24.3; SD = 3.51). Results Results confirmed th...
Pubertal suppression is standard of care for early pubertal transgender youth to prevent the deve... more Pubertal suppression is standard of care for early pubertal transgender youth to prevent the development of undesired and distressing secondary sex characteristics incongruent with gender identity. Preliminary evidence suggests pubertal suppression improves mental health functioning. Given the widespread changes in brain and cognition that occur during puberty, a critical question is whether this treatment impacts neurodevelopment. Methods: A Delphi consensus procedure engaged 24 international experts in neurodevelopment, gender development, puberty/adolescence, neuroendocrinology, and statistics/psychometrics to identify priority research methodologies to address the empirical question: is pubertal suppression treatment associated with real-world neurocognitive sequelae? Recommended study approaches reaching 80% consensus were included in the consensus parameter. Results: The Delphi procedure identified 160 initial expert recommendations, 44 of which ultimately achieved consensus. Consensus study design elements include the following: a minimum of three measurement time points, pubertal staging at baseline, statistical modeling of sex in analyses, use of analytic approaches that account for heterogeneity, and use of multiple comparison groups to minimize the limitations of any one group. Consensus study comparison groups include untreated transgender youth matched on pubertal stage, cisgender (i.e., gender congruent) youth matched on pubertal stage, and an independent sample from a large-scale youth development database. The consensus domains for assessment includes: mental health, executive function/cognitive control, and social awareness/functioning. Conclusion: An international interdisciplinary team of experts achieved consensus around primary methods and domains for assessing neurodevelopmental effects (i.e., benefits and/or difficulties) of pubertal suppression treatment in transgender youth.
Research Findings: Although children's temperament contributes to their academic success, little ... more Research Findings: Although children's temperament contributes to their academic success, little is known regarding the mechanisms through which temperament is associated withacademic achievement during the transition to elementary school. One such mechanism may be school engagement, but findings are inconsistent and limited. Across two waves of data at the transition to school, we examined the role of kindergarten emotional and behavioral engagement as links between preschool temperament (positive emotionality, anger, andeffortful control), and kindergartenacademic achievement, among a predominantlyMexican/Mexican-Americansample of 241children drawn from Head Start classrooms. Significant direct effects indicated that preschool anger was negatively,and positive emotionality and effortful control werepositively,associated withkindergarten behavioralengagement.Only preschool anger was significantly associatedwithkindergarten emotional engagement. In turn, kindergarten behavioral, but not emotional, engagement was directly, positively associated withkindergartenacademic achievement. All three preschool temperament measures were indirectly related to kindergarten achievement via kindergarten behavioral engagement, and anger was indirectly related to kindergarten achievement via emotional engagement. Practice or Polic: Findings highlight the importance of understanding the role of engagement as a mechanismthat can foster children'sacademic achievement at a key developmental transition.
The purpose of this paper is to highlight the important role that gender plays in organizing and ... more The purpose of this paper is to highlight the important role that gender plays in organizing and affecting the quality of the classroom climate. We review research showing how students' peer relationships tend to be segregated by gender and discuss the consequences of children spending much of their time almost exclusively with same-gender peers, which perpetuates and exaggerates gender segregation. We suggest that a more beneficial pattern is enhancing students' exposure to other-gender peers-that is, promoting gender integration. We describe the theories that support the benefits of integrating across social groups. Next, we review methods and results of strategies we have used to promote integration. Finally, we draw attention to the issues about gender integration that require further consideration and argue for more research that can help guide the development of effective strategies that build more inclusive environments, practices, and policies for today's children and youth. GENDER INTEGRATION 3 Gender Integration and the Promotion of Inclusive Classroom Climates When the social climate of a classroom provides a foundation for students' relationships to be inclusive, cooperative, and positive, academic and social outcomes are significantly enhanced (National School Climate Council, 2015). In contrast, when the social climate of the classroom is segregated, exclusive, and harmful to peer relationships, academic interest, motivation, and performance can be undermined (Doll, Song, & Siemers, 2004; Glew, Fan, Katon, Rivara, & Kernic, 2005). Although there are many elements of the classroom and school that contribute to the inclusive nature of a classroom (e.g., teacher qualities, curricular activities, the physical environment, etc.), evidence suggests that the quality of the relationships a student has with her or his peers is a highly significant predictor of how children feel about school (Hanish et al., 2016). As such, it is surprising that there have been limited efforts to develop
International Journal of Behavioral Development, 2019
The current study examined emerging adults’ gender identity and its link with several gender-rela... more The current study examined emerging adults’ gender identity and its link with several gender-related and social outcomes, by using a novel dual-identity approach that was originally developed in children. Dutch emerging adults between 18 and 25 years old ( N = 318, Mage = 21.73, SD = 2.02; 51% female) indicated their similarity to the own-gender group and the other-gender group to assess gender identity. They completed questionnaires assessing gender-typed behavior (internalized sexualization, toughness, emotional stoicism) and attitudes (i.e., sexism); friendship efficacy and ability; and social-emotional adjustment. Cluster analysis on the gender-identity items revealed four gender-identity types: (a) feeling similar to one’s own gender, but not to the other gender (Own-GS); (b) feeling similar to both one’s own and the other gender (Both-GS); (c) feeling dissimilar to one’s own gender (Low-Own-GS); and (d) feeling similar to neither gender (Low-GS). Own-GS and Low-GS adults were ...
International Journal of Behavioral Development, 2019
The goal of the current study was to better understand the development of gender typicality in yo... more The goal of the current study was to better understand the development of gender typicality in young adulthood by applying the dual-identity approach to gender typicality, previously developed with children, to a university sample. Participants ( n = 215, Mage = 20.20 years; 62% female) were asked to rate their perceived similarity to both own- and other-gender peers. They also completed questionnaires assessing sexist attitudes, internalized sexualization (females), adherence to male-typed behaviors in the context of interpersonal relationships (males; adherence to physical toughness and restrictive emotional expressivity), gender-based relationship efficacy, friendships, self-esteem, social self-efficacy, and social anxiety. Results indicated that self-perceived gender typicality involves comparisons to both gender groups, and that meaningful typologies can be created based on similarity to own- and other-gender groups. As with children, results indicated that identifying with one...
Transactional relations between children's positive social interaction skills, school engagement,... more Transactional relations between children's positive social interaction skills, school engagement, and academic achievement were examined using a longitudinal panel model across the transition from preschool to first grade. Participants were Head Start children (N = 241; 49% girls, M age = 53 months, range 45-60); 78% were Mexican/Mexican-American; 82% of families were of low socioeconomic status. Head Start children's positive social interaction skills and academic achievement in preschool were positively related to kindergarten school engagement, positive social interaction skills and school engagement influenced one another over time, and academic achievement was positively related to positive social interaction skills from preschool to kindergarten. A small, but significant, transactional effect of preschool academic achievement on first-grade school engagement through kindergarten positive social interaction skills was found. Findings from the current study provide support for previously undocumented longitudinal relations between positive social interaction skills, school engagement, and academic achievement for Head Start children.
Culturally prescribed social scripts for traditional masculinity that emphasize social dominance ... more Culturally prescribed social scripts for traditional masculinity that emphasize social dominance are frequently linked to diminished well-being for men across a variety of psychological domains. However, few studies have examined the role of traditional masculinity scripts in the lives of early adolescent boys and girls, despite their relevance during this period and their potential developmental implications. To address this need, we examined the development of early adolescents' conformity to traditional masculinity across the middle school transition, as well as its links with depressive symptoms and academic engagement. Using a diverse sample of 280 adolescents (M age = 11.13, SD = 0.51; 54.3 % Female; 44 % Latina/ o) assessed at the beginning (fall 2014) and end (spring 2015) of their first year of middle school, we found an increase in conformity to traditional masculinity scripts among boys, but not among girls. For boys and girls alike, conformity to traditional masculinity predicted greater depressive symptoms and decreased academic engagement. Depressive symptoms also mediated the association between traditional masculinity and academic engagement for boys and girls. This study is among the first to study conformity to traditional masculinity from a developmental lens. The findings suggest that traditional masculinity scripts are relevant for early adolescents (particularly boys) transitioning to middle school. However, for both boys and girls, conformity to these scripts can compromise psychological and academic well-being.
The goals of the present study were to investigate whether young children attending Head Start (N... more The goals of the present study were to investigate whether young children attending Head Start (N=292; M age =4.3 years) selected peers based on their preschool competency and whether children's levels of preschool competency were influenced by their peers' levels of preschool competency. Children's peer interaction partners were intensively observed several times a week over one academic year. Social network analyses revealed that children selected peer interaction partners with similar levels of preschool competency and were influenced over time by their partners' levels of preschool competency. These effects held even after controlling for several child (e.g., sex and language) and family factors (e.g., financial strain and parent education). Implications for promoting preschool competency among Head Start children are discussed.
The goal of this study was to investigate differences in the social context of peer victimization... more The goal of this study was to investigate differences in the social context of peer victimization for preschoolers and kindergarteners. Data were collected from 168 children. For preschoolers, neither social acceptance nor friendships were significantly related to peer victimization. Instead, playing with peers and exposure to aggressive peers were associated with higher rates of peer victimization. For kindergarteners, exposure to aggressive peers also contributed to the risk for peer victimization, but being liked by peers and having friends were inversely related to victimization, thereby providing a buffering effect. The developmental implications of these findings are discussed.
The late 1960s through the 1970s marked an important turning point in the field of gender researc... more The late 1960s through the 1970s marked an important turning point in the field of gender research, including theory and research in gender development. The establishment of Sex Roles in 1975 as a forum for this research represented an important milestone in the field. In this article, we celebrate the 35th anniversary of Sex Roles and, in particular, its contributions to the field of research on children's and adolescents' gender development. We examine the trends in research on gender development published in Sex Roles since its inception and use this analysis as a vehicle for exploring how the field has grown and evolved over the past few decades. We begin with a brief review of the history of this field of research since 1975. Then, we present a descriptive assessment of articles published on gender development in Sex Roles over time, and link this assessment to general trends that have occurred in the study of gender development over the past 35 years. We conclude with a discussion of future directions for the field of gender development. In particular, we highlight areas in which the journal could play a role in promoting more diversity in topics, methods, and ages employed in gender development research.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1988
Traditional conceptions of interpersonal flexibility emphasize two critical components: (a) a wid... more Traditional conceptions of interpersonal flexibility emphasize two critical components: (a) a wide range of interpersonal responses and (b) situational appropriateness. Most current measures are based on standard trait ratings, which cannot address situational adjustment. In place of trait ratings, we suggest the use of capability ratings, that is, self-reports of the ease of performing social behaviors when required by the situation. Our proposed index of flexibility, the Functional Flexibility Index (FFI), is the composite of 16 interpersonal capabilities. In Study 1, factor analyses indicated that the FFI is distinct from other widely used flexibility measures. Study 2 supported the validity of the FFT by showing substantial correlations with peer ratings of interpersonal flexibility. In Studies 3 and 4, the FFI outperformed other flexibility measures in predicting adjustment. Another form of interpersonal variability, situationality, is the tendency to view one's personality as being dependent on the situation. Situational individuals reported lower self-esteem than nonsituational individuals. Measures of functional flexibility and situationality were found to be orthogonal.
Guided by a transactional model, we examined the predictors and effects of exposure to externaliz... more Guided by a transactional model, we examined the predictors and effects of exposure to externalizing peers in a low-risk sample of preschoolers and kindergarteners. On the basis of daily observations of peer interactions, we calculated measures of total exposure to externalizing peers and measures of exposure to same-and other-sex externalizing peers. Analyses of predictors of externalizing peer exposure supported a homophily hypothesis for girls. Tests of peer contagion effects varied by sex, and exposure to externalizing peers predicted multiple problem behaviors for girls but not for boys. Sex differences were a function of children's own sex, but not of peers' sex. The study provides evidence of externalizing peer exposure effects in a low-risk sample of young children, notably for girls.
The relations between young children's mutual (reciprocated) and overall positive emotion (PE) wi... more The relations between young children's mutual (reciprocated) and overall positive emotion (PE) with same-and other-gender peers and their social adjustment were explored. Children's PE and peers' PE were observed across the preschool year during peer interactions (N = 166; 46% girls; M age = 52 months). Results revealed that girls and boys had similar frequencies of overall PE and mutual PE when interacting with same-gender peers, but girls were marginally higher compared to boys in overall and mutual PE when interacting with other-gender peers. Girls and boys did not have greater rates of either type of PE after controlling for gender segregation during same-or other-gender interactions. Using structural equation modeling, children's mutual PE, regardless of their gender, positively predicted indicators of positive adjustment (e.g., prosocial behavior, cooperation) and negatively predicted indicators of negative adjustment (e.g., hyperactivity, disruption, exclusion by peers). Children's overall PE did not predict either type of adjustment. Findings support the importance of mutual PE for children's development.
Time-sampled observations of Head Start preschoolers' (N = 264; 51.5% boys; 76% Mexican American;... more Time-sampled observations of Head Start preschoolers' (N = 264; 51.5% boys; 76% Mexican American; M = 53.11 and SD = 6.15 months of age) peer play in the classroom were gathered during fall and spring semesters. One year later, kindergarten teachers rated these children's school competence. Latent growth models indicated that, on average, children's peer play was moderately frequent and increased over time during preschool. Children with higher initial levels or with higher slopes of peer play in Head Start had higher levels of kindergarten school competence. Results suggest that Head Start children's engagement with peers may foster development of skills that help their transition into formal schooling. These findings highlight the importance of peer play, and suggest that peer play in Head Start classrooms contributes to children's adaptation to the demands of formal schooling.
We examined the role of the teacher-child relationship quality (close, dependent, and conflictive... more We examined the role of the teacher-child relationship quality (close, dependent, and conflictive) on preschoolers' (N = 95) academic readiness for kindergarten, and we tested children's prosocial and aggressive behavior and peer group exclusion as mediators of this relation. A unique feature of this study is the ethnically and socioeconomically diverse preschool-aged sample. The association between close teacher-child relationships and academic readiness was partially mediated by prosocial behavior and peer group exclusion. There was also evidence of a transactional association between close teacher-child relationships and children's behavior. Additionally, children's behavior and peer group exclusion mediated the relation between negative teacher-child relationships (dependent and conflictive) and academic readiness. The findings suggest that teacher training, education, and support for establishing close teacher-child relationships may maximize preschoolers' academic readiness by promoting social adaptation.
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Papers by Carol Martin