Papers by Brent Patterson
Heredity, Feb 17, 2010
Distinguishing genetically differentiated populations within hybrid zones and determining the mec... more Distinguishing genetically differentiated populations within hybrid zones and determining the mechanisms by which introgression occurs are crucial for setting effective conservation policy. Extensive hybridization among grey wolves (Canis lupus), eastern wolves (C. lycaon) and coyotes (C. latrans) in eastern North America has blurred species distinctions, creating a Canis hybrid swarm. Using complementary genetic markers, we tested the hypotheses that eastern wolves have acted as a conduit of sex-biased gene flow between grey wolves and coyotes, and that eastern wolves in Algonquin Provincial Park (APP) have differentiated following a history of introgression. Mitochondrial, Y chromosome and autosomal microsatellite genetic data provided genotypes for 217 canids from three geographic regions in Ontario, Canada: northeastern Ontario, APP and southern Ontario. Coyote mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplotypes were common across regions but coyote-specific Y chromosome haplotypes were absent; grey wolf mtDNA was absent from southern regions, whereas grey wolf Y chromosome haplotypes were present in all three regions. Genetic structuring analyses revealed three distinct clusters within a genetic cline, suggesting some gene flow among species. In APP, however, 78.4% of all breeders and 11 of 15 known breeding pairs had assignment probability of QX0.8 to the Algonquin cluster, and the proportion of eastern wolf Y chromosome haplotypes in APP breeding males was higher than expected from random mating within the park (Po0.02). The data indicate that Algonquin wolves remain genetically distinct despite providing a sex-biased genetic bridge between coyotes and grey wolves. We speculate that ongoing hybridization within the park is limited by pre-mating reproductive barriers.
Canadian Journal of Zoology, Dec 1, 2017
There is limited knowledge of moose (Alces alces (L., 1758)) calving site selection at the southe... more There is limited knowledge of moose (Alces alces (L., 1758)) calving site selection at the southern limit of their range. Varying results from previous research on calving habitat selection make it challenging to extrapolate to other populations. We used a combination of global positioning system (GPS) data from collared cow moose and GPS locations of expelled vaginal implant transmitters and neonatal calf captures to identify calving sites in two areas of central Ontario, Canada (Algonquin Provincial Park and Wildlife Management Unit 49 (WMU49)), that differed in terms of moose and timber harvest management. We investigated selection and avoidance of habitat types, roads, topography (slope and elevation), and forest stands of varying successional age during the calving season at three spatiotemporal scalesannual home range, seasonal range, calving siteusing a combination of distance-based and classification-based variables. In both study areas, calving sites were on gentler slopes and closer to conifer stands than expected at the fine scale. Cows in WMU49 strongly selected rock-grass sites across all scales. This study also demonstrates the feasibility of using GPS collars to infer parturition and location of calving sites. We recommend ground-based microhabitat data be collected to better understand habitat selection of moose during calving.
Recently, Way and Lynn (hereafter “the authors”; 2016) conducted a thorough literature review (or... more Recently, Way and Lynn (hereafter “the authors”; 2016) conducted a thorough literature review (or “meta-analysis” in their words, although no formal meta-analysis [sensu Arnqvist and Wooster 1995] was actually conducted) on the taxonomy and admixture of “northeastern coyotes/coywolves”. The authors commendably synthesised the available literature on this complex and controversial topic, demonstrating agreement among researchers that these canids occupy a unique ecological niche and are the product of hybridisation between coyotes Canis latrans and both grey wolves C. lupus and domestic dogs C. l. familiaris. Also, the authors suggested terminology, including both a common name and a scientific classification, and provided rationale. Herein, we discuss issues concerning terminology, provide additional context for interpreting the reviewed literature, and offer alternative recommendations for naming the canid under consideration.
Canadian Journal of Zoology, 2021
American black bears (Ursus americanus Pallas, 1780) are opportunistic foragers, and across most ... more American black bears (Ursus americanus Pallas, 1780) are opportunistic foragers, and across most of their range in North America, their diet is predominantly vegetation with limited consumption of vertebrates and invertebrates. However, they are also predators of ungulates, especially neonates, with regional variation in the amount of predation pressure they exert. We used scat analysis to examine the diet of black bears during the calving season in a moose (Alces alces (Linnaeus, 1758)) – woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou (Gmelin, 1788)) system in the Boreal forest of northern Ontario, Canada. Bears consumed herbaceous plants (46.5%), fruits and (or) seeds (20.0%), moose (3.3% adults; 4.3% calves), American beaver (Castor canadensis Kuhl, 1820; 8.5%), and insects (mostly ants; 4.2%). Bears had the highest consumption of moose and beaver in early spring, before switching to a more vegetation-dominated diet. We did not detect evidence of caribou consumption. Based on our re...
Genes, 2018
The threatened eastern wolf is found predominantly in protected areas of central Ontario and has ... more The threatened eastern wolf is found predominantly in protected areas of central Ontario and has an evolutionary history obscured by interbreeding with coyotes and gray wolves, which challenges its conservation status and subsequent management. Here, we used a population genomics approach to uncover spatial patterns of variation in 281 canids in central Ontario and the Great Lakes region. This represents the first genome-wide single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) dataset with substantial sample sizes of representative populations. Although they comprise their own genetic cluster, we found evidence of eastern wolf dispersal outside of the boundaries of protected areas, in that the frequency of eastern wolf genetic variation decreases with increasing distance from provincial parks. We detected eastern wolf alleles in admixed coyotes along the northeastern regions of Lake Huron and Lake Ontario. Our analyses confirm the unique genomic composition of eastern wolves, which are mostly rest...
Ecological applications : a publication of the Ecological Society of America, Jan 8, 2017
Understanding the ecological roles of species that influence ecosystem processes is a central goa... more Understanding the ecological roles of species that influence ecosystem processes is a central goal of ecology and conservation biology. Eastern coyotes (Canis latrans) have ascended to the role of apex predator across much of eastern North America since the extirpation of wolves (Canis spp.) and there has been considerable confusion regarding their ability to prey on ungulates and their ecological niche relative to wolves. Eastern wolves (C. lycaon) are thought to have been the historical top predator in eastern deciduous forests and have previously been characterized as deer specialists that are inefficient predators of moose because of their smaller size relative to gray wolves (C. lupus). We investigated intrinsic and extrinsic influences on per capita kill rates of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and moose (Alces alces) during winter by sympatric packs of eastern coyotes, eastern wolves, and admixed canids in Ontario, Canada to clarify the predatory ability and ecolog...
PloS one, 2016
Birth synchrony is well documented among ungulates and is hypothesised to maximize neonate surviv... more Birth synchrony is well documented among ungulates and is hypothesised to maximize neonate survival, either by minimizing the risk of predation through predator swamping or by synchronising birthing with increased seasonal food availability. We used encapsulated vaginal implant transmitters to locate and capture neonatal moose calves and document the seasonal and diel timing of parturition in two adjacent study areas with different predation pressure in central Ontario, Canada. We tested the hypothesis that predation promotes earlier and more synchronous birth of moose calves. Across both areas, proportionately more births occurred during the afternoon and fewer than expected occurred overnight. Mean date of calving averaged 1.5 days earlier and calving was also more synchronous in the study area with heavier predation pressure, despite average green-up date and peak Normalized Difference Vegetation Index date occurring 2 days later in this study area than in the area receiving ligh...
Oikos, 2015
Ecologists are increasingly documenting individual variation in resource selection across populat... more Ecologists are increasingly documenting individual variation in resource selection across populations in response to temporal or spatial environmental context. These behavioral patterns are assumed to be adaptive although previous studies have not linked them directly to survival and reproductive data to verify the assumed relationship between behavior and fitness. Recent work documented that higher density of secondary roads within home ranges of free‐ranging canids (wolves, coyotes and hybrids) increased mortality risk in the hybrid zone adjacent to Algonquin Park in Ontario, Canada. Here, we examine individual behavioral responses of canids to spatially varying levels of human‐disturbance and determine whether these responses to secondary roads resulted in differential mortality risk for canids across the hybrid zone. Specifically, we investigated resource selection within home ranges with GPS telemetry to determine whether canids selected roads more at night than during the day ...
Biological Conservation, 2015
Eastern wolves (Canis lycaon) are a species of special concern in Canada and their geographic ran... more Eastern wolves (Canis lycaon) are a species of special concern in Canada and their geographic range appears to be restricted mainly to Algonquin Provincial Park (APP) in Ontario, Canada. Previous work showed pup survival was relatively low throughout portions of APP which may limit the extent to which this protected area can act as a source of dispersing individuals to adjacent areas. We modeled resource selection by wolves at dens and rendezvous sites to identify environmental variables that were selected and avoided in APP during pup-rearing. We also quantified differences in resource selection between den and rendezvous sites and investigated links between home-site selection and pup survival. Wolves selected dens closer to wetlands and water, farther from secondary roads, and on steeper slopes relative to rendezvous sites. When we modeled den and rendezvous sites separately, wolves selected wetlands, water, conifer forests and tertiary roads at dens, whereas they selected wetlands and conifer forests at rendezvous sites. Packs that lost pups to starvation and intraspecific strife avoided water and selected wetlands and mixed forests at home-sites more than packs that did not lose pups to these mortality agents. Previous research showed that pup starvation occurred for packs in APP with lower beaver density in their territories, and our results indicate that these packs selected habitats at dens and rendezvous sites associated with alternative prey (moose). Moose are likely more difficult prey than beavers to kill during summer which may contribute to the higher nutrition-related mortality of pups in packs with decreased access to beavers. Our results inform eastern wolf conservation efforts and should be considered during forest management and park planning activities in APP. More broadly, our research provides novel insight into temporal differences in home-site selection across the pup-rearing season and the relationship between resource selection and pup mortality.
Wildlife Society Bulletin, 2014
ABSTRACTPacks are the basic social and breeding groups of wolf (Canis spp.) populations and are o... more ABSTRACTPacks are the basic social and breeding groups of wolf (Canis spp.) populations and are often the sampling unit for wolf research. Researchers commonly assume, either explicitly or implicitly, that telemetry data from ≥1 individual wolf can be used to represent the space use, distribution, presence, and resource selection of the pack. We tested these critical assumptions using Global Positioning System telemetry by directly comparing home range size, probability of spatial overlap, seasonal proximity, and habitat use of individuals within wolf packs in central and northern Ontario, Canada, 2006–2010. Space use was similar and probability of overlap was high for wolves within packs for individual 95% home‐range contours. Variation was greater for 50% contours, indicating that individual wolves may use space differently within territories. Wolves within packs spent more time <100 m and <1 km from each other during winter ( = 66 and 75%, respectively) than during other se...
Ecology and Evolution, 2011
Despite ethical arguments against lethal control of wildlife populations, culling is routinely us... more Despite ethical arguments against lethal control of wildlife populations, culling is routinely used for the management of predators, invasive or pest species, and infectious diseases. Here, we demonstrate that culling of wildlife can have unforeseen impacts that can be detrimental to future conservation efforts. Specifically, we analyzed genetic data from eastern wolves (Canis lycaon) sampled in Algonquin Provincial Park (APP), Ontario, Canada from 1964 to 2007. Research culls in 1964 and 1965 killed the majority of wolves within a study region of APP, accounting for approximately 36% of the park's wolf population at a time when coyotes were colonizing the region. The culls were followed by a significant decrease in an eastern wolf mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplotype (C1) in the Park's wolf population, as well as an increase in coyote mitochondrial and nuclear DNA. The introgression of nuclear DNA from coyotes, however, appears to have been curtailed by legislation that exte...
Ecology and Evolution, 2013
Hybridization has played an important role in the evolutionary history of Canis species in easter... more Hybridization has played an important role in the evolutionary history of Canis species in eastern North America. Genetic evidence of coyote-dog hybridization based on mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is lacking compared to that based on autosomal markers. This discordance suggests dog introgression into coyotes has potentially been male biased, but this hypothesis has not been formally tested. Therefore, we investigated biparentally, maternally, and paternally inherited genetic markers in a sample of coyotes and dogs from southeastern Ontario to assess potential asymmetric dog introgression into coyotes. Analysis of autosomal microsatellite genotypes revealed minimal historical and contemporary admixture between coyotes and dogs. We observed only mutually exclusive mtDNA haplotypes in coyotes and dogs, but we observed Y-chromosome haplotypes (Y-haplotypes) in both historical and contemporary coyotes that were also common in dogs. Species-specific Zfy intron sequences of Y-haplotypes shared between coyotes and dogs confirmed their homology and indicated a putative origin from dogs. We compared Y-haplotypes observed in coyotes, wolves, and dogs profiled in multiple studies, and observed that the Y-haplotypes shared between coyotes and dogs were either absent or rare in North American wolves, present in eastern coyotes, but absent in western coyotes. We suggest the eastern coyote has experienced asymmetric genetic introgression from dogs, resulting from predominantly historical hybridization with male dogs and subsequent backcrossing of hybrid offspring with coyotes. We discuss the temporal and spatial dynamics of coyote-dog hybridization and the conditions that may have facilitated the introgression of dog Y-chromosomes into coyotes. Our findings clarify the evolutionary history of the eastern coyote.
Ecology and Evolution, 2012
There has been considerable discussion on the origin of the red wolf and eastern wolf and their e... more There has been considerable discussion on the origin of the red wolf and eastern wolf and their evolution independent of the gray wolf. We analyzed mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and a Y‐chromosome intron sequence in combination with Y‐chromosome microsatellites from wolves and coyotes within the range of extensive wolf–coyote hybridization, that is, eastern North America. The detection of divergent Y‐chromosome haplotypes in the historic range of the eastern wolf is concordant with earlier mtDNA findings, and the absence of these haplotypes in western coyotes supports the existence of the North American evolved eastern wolf (Canis lycaon). Having haplotypes observed exclusively in eastern North America as a result of insufficient sampling in the historic range of the coyote or that these lineages subsequently went extinct in western geographies is unlikely given that eastern‐specific mtDNA and Y‐chromosome haplotypes represent lineages divergent from those observed in extant western coy...
Oecologia, 2013
in the Ontario hybrid zone relative to areas where wolves and coyotes are reproductively isolated... more in the Ontario hybrid zone relative to areas where wolves and coyotes are reproductively isolated. territoriality among Canis may increase the likelihood of eastern wolves joining coyote and hybrid packs, facilitate hybridization, and could play a role in limiting expansion of the genetically distinct aPP eastern wolf population.
The Journal of Wildlife Management, 2009
Sampling of feces for genetic studies of wild populations can be problematic because of the low q... more Sampling of feces for genetic studies of wild populations can be problematic because of the low quality and quantity of template DNA obtained. We used cotton swabs in the field to isolate the mucous layer on the surface of fresh wolf (Canis lupus, C. lycaon, and their hybrids) scats followed by immediate preservation, and compared microsatellite genotyping of DNA from these fresh field swabs (FS) to that of previously frozen laboratory swabs (LS). In single polymerase chain reactions (PCRs) of 2 multiplexes, amplification at 8 loci was higher in the FS samples (FS = 50%, LS = 15%; P = 0.02) because proportion, quantity, and quality of large fragment wolf nuclear DNA from these samples was greater (2.5–25%, 6.25–62.5 ng/swab, 35% amplified at 1,000 base pairs [bp]) than from the LS samples (1.9%–10%, 4.7–25 ng/swab, 10% amplified at 1,000 bp). Paired blood and fresh field‐swabbed samples had identical genotypes. In 84 multiplex PCRs we found no evidence of allelic dropout associated ...
Ecology, 2014
It is widely recognized that protected areas can strongly influence ecological systems and that h... more It is widely recognized that protected areas can strongly influence ecological systems and that hybridization is an important conservation issue. However, previous studies have not explicitly considered the influence of protected areas on hybridization dynamics. Eastern wolves are a species of special concern and their distribution is largely restricted to a protected population in Algonquin Provincial Park (APP), Ontario, Canada, where they are the numerically dominant canid. We studied intrinsic and extrinsic factors influencing survival and cause‐specific mortality of hybrid and parental canids in the three‐species hybrid zone between eastern wolves, eastern coyotes, and gray wolves in and adjacent to APP. Mortality risk for eastern wolves in areas adjacent to APP was significantly higher than for other sympatric Canis types outside of APP, and for eastern wolves and other canids within APP. Outside of APP, the annual mortality rate of all canids by harvest (24%) was higher than ...
Conservation Genetics, 2006
Eastern North American wolves have long been recognized as morphologically distinct from both coy... more Eastern North American wolves have long been recognized as morphologically distinct from both coyotes and gray wolves. This has led to questions regarding their origins and taxonomic status. Eastern wolves are mainly viewed as: (1) a smaller subspecies of gray wolf (Canis lupus lycaon), potentially the result of historical hybridization between gray wolves (C. lupus) and red wolves (C. rufus), (2) a hybrid, the result of gray wolf (C. lupus) and coyote (C. latrans) interbreeding, or (3) a distinct species, C. lycaon, closely related to the red wolf (C. rufus). Although debate persists, recent molecular studies suggest that the eastern wolf is not a gray wolf subspecies, nor the result of gray wolf/coyote hybridization. Eastern wolves were more likely a distinct species, C. lycaon, prior to the eastward spread of coyotes in the late 1800s. However, contemporary interbreeding exits between C. lycaon to both C. lupus and C. latrans over much of its present range complicating its present taxonomic characterization. While hybridization may be reducing the taxonomic distinctiveness of C. lycaon, it should not necessarily be viewed as negative influence. Hybridization may be enhancing the adaptive potential of eastern wolves, allowing them to more effectively exploit available resources in rapidly changing environments.
Canadian Journal of Zoology, 2013
It has been widely assumed that coyotes (Canis latrans Say, 1823) are incapable of killing adult ... more It has been widely assumed that coyotes (Canis latrans Say, 1823) are incapable of killing adult moose (Alces alces (L., 1758)) and previous studies of coyote predation support this assumption. However, eastern coyotes and eastern coyote × eastern wolf (Canis lycaon Schreber, 1775) are larger than western coyotes and appear to rely on larger prey in some areas. We used a combination of GPS telemetry, genetic analysis, and field investigation to test the hypothesis that eastern coyotes and coyote × wolf hybrids are capable of preying on adult moose in central Ontario. Our hypothesis was supported, as we documented four definitive cases of eastern coyotes and (or) eastern coyote × eastern wolf hybrids killing moose ≥1.5 years old. Predation by coyotes and coyote × wolf hybrids probably does not represent a threat to moose population viability in central Ontario, but our results suggest that researchers and managers in other areas with declining moose populations that are sympatric wit...
Biology Letters, 2010
Recently Kays et al. (2010) reported on mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequence data and skull measure... more Recently Kays et al. (2010) reported on mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequence data and skull measurements to demonstrate a hybrid origin for northeastern coyotes. They suggested that, as western coyotes (Canis latrans) expanded their range in the last century, they colonized Ontario from Minnesota and hybridized with wolves, and subsequently colonized the northeastern United States via movement across the Saint-Lawrence River. We support the
Biological Conservation, 2013
Eastern wolves (Canis lycaon) are a species of special concern federally in Canada that have hybr... more Eastern wolves (Canis lycaon) are a species of special concern federally in Canada that have hybridized extensively with coyotes (Canis latrans) and gray wolves (Canis lupus) in and adjacent to Algonquin Provincial Park (APP), Ontario. A comprehensive understanding of eastern wolf demography and wolf-coyote hybridization dynamics is needed for informed management, yet no studies have investigated the influence of genetic ancestry and environmental heterogeneity on survival of wolf, coyote, and hybrid pups. We used telemetry, genetic, and environmental data to model and estimate genotype-specific survival and cause-specific mortality of Canis pups (n = 159) in eastern and western APP (2002-2011) and the adjacent Wildlife Management Unit 49 (WMU49; 2008-2011). Pup survival was higher in eastern APP (ŝ = 0.75) and WMU49 (ŝ = 0.61) than in western APP (ŝ = 0.25). In APP, mortality risk of pups was primarily influenced by prey availability as lower beaver density in western APP negatively influenced survival and increased starvation risk. Genetic ancestry only influenced pup mortality risk outside of APP with eastern wolf  coyote hybrids surviving poorly relative to other Canis types in WMU49. Poor survival of pups in western APP reduces dispersal from the protected area and decreases the likelihood of expansion of this genetically distinct eastern wolf population beyond APP. Our results advance understanding of wolf and coyote demography as no previous studies have investigated genetic and environmental factors influencing mortality of wolf and coyote pups <4-5 months of age with telemetry data.
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Papers by Brent Patterson