Papers by Anna Cunningham
Nothing is more important in education than ensuring that every child can read well' (DfE, 2015 p... more Nothing is more important in education than ensuring that every child can read well' (DfE, 2015 p7). Yet, the U.K. ranks 22nd in the world for reading achievement at 15 years (OECD, 2016) and 15% of adults lack functional literacy . Clearly, we need to do more to ensure that all children learn to read and write effectively. Literacy includes the word-level skills of word reading and spelling and the text-level skills of reading comprehension and writing composition. These skills are involved in virtually all everyday activities. As a result, poor literacy impacts on every aspect of life. Word reading, spelling, reading comprehension, and writing composition are supported by similar language and cognitive skills as well as affective and environment factors. Learning to be literate builds upon existing knowledge of the language from speech. Becoming literate then enables children to learn more about language. However, literacy is unlikely to be achieved without explicit and prolonged instruction. This review provides an evidence base for decision-making during literacy education. We identify key skills that must be in place to enable children to reach their optimum potential and highlight where weakness can suggest a need for extra support. We begin by discussing models of literacy development as these models provide a framework within which to present the evidence base for the rest of the review. We then consider the underlying skills in greater depth, beginning first with the proximal factors that underpin word-level and text-level reading and writing. Then we consider distal child-based and wider environmental factors that indirectly impact on literacy development.
DOI O conteúdo dos artigos e seus dados em sua forma, correção e confiabilidade são de responsabi... more DOI O conteúdo dos artigos e seus dados em sua forma, correção e confiabilidade são de responsabilidade exclusiva dos autores. 2019 Permitido o download da obra e o compartilhamento desde que sejam atribuídos créditos aos autores, mas sem a possibilidade de alterá-la de nenhuma forma ou utilizá-la para fins comerciais.
We are a national charity dedicated to raising literacy levels in the UK. Our research and analys... more We are a national charity dedicated to raising literacy levels in the UK. Our research and analysis make us the leading authority on literacy. We run projects in the poorest communities, campaign to make literacy a priority for politicians and parents, and support schools. Visit www.literacytrust.org.uk to find out more, donate or sign up for a free email newsletter. You can also find us on Facebook and follow us on Twitter.
European Journal of Sport Science, 2021
This study examined the role of fundamental movement skills (FMS) and perceived competence in the... more This study examined the role of fundamental movement skills (FMS) and perceived competence in the relationship between physical fitness and technical soccer skills in children. Seventy boys aged 7-12 years of age (Mean ± SD = 9 ± 2 years) who were regularly engaged in grassroots soccer participated in the present study. The Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (Ulrich, 2001) was used to assess FMS and the Perceived Physical Ability Scale for Children (Colella, et al., 2008) was used to assess perceived competence. Technical skill was determined from three tests reflecting dribbling, passing and shooting. Z-scores of each measure were summed, creating a composite measure of technical skill. Three measures of physical fitness were employed; 15m sprint time, standing long jump, and seated medicine ball (1kg) throw. Z-scores for each measure were summed creating a composite measure of physical fitness. The relationship between technical skill and FMS, fitness, perceived competence and age was examined via path analysis. Results indicated two significant mediated pathways: from physical fitness to technical skills via FMS, and from physical fitness to technical skills via perceived competence. Once these mediators had been accounted for, there was no direct link from physical fitness to technical skills. Coaches should therefore seek to avoid one-sided delivery of practice by not solely focusing on football type drills, and focusing on a range of activities which enhance a broad foundation of FMS and promote strategies to positively influence a child's perception of their own competence.
Developmental Science, 2020
There is increasing awareness of the benefits of literacy for fundamental cognitive skills (Kolin... more There is increasing awareness of the benefits of literacy for fundamental cognitive skills (Kolinsky, 2015). Yet, traditionally, the focus has been in the opposite direction-on how cognitive skills shape and predict literacy development (Hulme & Snowling, 2013; Melby-Lervåg, Lyster, & Hulme, 2012a). Three cognitive skills have been identified as the most robust predictors of word reading (Wagner & Torgesen, 1987): phoneme awareness (the manipulation of sounds in spoken words), phonological memory (otherwise known as verbal short-term memory; the temporary and limited-capacity storage of verbal information) and rapid automatized naming (RAN; timed retrieval and articulation of phonological representations from longterm memory). Children with reading impairment typically show deficits in one or more of these skills (Peterson & Pennington, 2012), and all three have been shown to predict reading accuracy longitudinally
European Physical Education Review, 2017
This study examined the effect of a six week combined movement and story-telling intervention on ... more This study examined the effect of a six week combined movement and story-telling intervention on motor competence and naming vocabulary in British pre-schoolers. Using a cluster randomised design, three pre-school classes were allocated to one of a combined movement and story-telling intervention ( n = 22), or a movement only ( n = 25) or story-telling only ( n = 27) intervention. Motor competence and language ability were assessed pre, post and eight weeks post intervention. Results from repeated measures ANOVA indicated significantly greater improvement in both motor competence and language ability pre to post intervention for the combined movement and story-telling group compared to the movement only or story-telling only groups. However, for the period post intervention to eight weeks post intervention the magnitude of change for motor competence and language ability was significant for all groups and similar in magnitude. The results of this study demonstrate the efficacy of co...
Cognition, 2015
Phonological tasks are highly predictive of reading development but their complexity obscures the... more Phonological tasks are highly predictive of reading development but their complexity obscures the underlying mechanisms driving this association. There are three key components hypothesised to drive the relationship between phonological tasks and reading; (a) the linguistic nature of the stimuli, (b) the phonological complexity of the stimuli, and (c) the production of a verbal response. We isolated the contribution of the stimulus and response components separately through the creation of latent variables to represent specially designed tasks that were matched for procedure. These tasks were administered to 570 6 to 7-year-old children along with standardised tests of regular word and non-word reading. A structural equation model, where tasks were grouped according to stimulus, revealed that the linguistic nature and the phonological complexity of the stimulus predicted unique variance in decoding, over and above matched comparison tasks without these components. An alternative model, grouped according to response mode, showed that the production of a verbal response was a unique predictor of decoding beyond matched tasks without a verbal response. In summary, we found that multiple factors contributed to reading development, supporting multivariate models over those that prioritize single factors. More broadly, we demonstrate the value of combining matched task designs with latent variable modelling to deconstruct the components of complex tasks.
Well-established link between speech (phonological) skills and early reading • But … is this link... more Well-established link between speech (phonological) skills and early reading • But … is this link due to the nature of the stimuli or the nature of the task? • Current study systematically varies processing demands and response type across speech and non-speech tasks The tasks Stimuli: Non-speech = tones, Speech = phonemes and nonwords Non-speech, non-verbal response Speech (phonemes), non-verbal response Speech (phonemes), verbal response Speech (nonwords), verbal response
Purpose: Both phonological (speech) and auditory (non-speech) stimuli have been shown to predict ... more Purpose: Both phonological (speech) and auditory (non-speech) stimuli have been shown to predict early reading skills. However, previous studies have failed to control for the level of processing required by tasks administered across the two levels of stimuli. For example, phonological tasks typically tap explicit awareness e.g., phoneme deletion, while auditory tasks usually measure implicit awareness e.g., frequency discrimination. Therefore, the stronger predictive power of speech tasks may be due to their higher processing demands, rather than the nature of the stimuli. Method: The present study uses novel tasks that control for level of processing (isolation, repetition and deletion) across speech (phonemes and nonwords) and non-speech (tones) stimuli. 800 beginning readers at the onset of literacy tuition (mean age 4 years and 7 months) were assessed on the above tasks as well as word reading and letter-knowledge in the first part of a three time-point longitudinal study. Results: Time 1 results reveal a significantly higher association between letter-sound knowledge and all of the speech compared to non-speech tasks. Performance was better for phoneme than tone stimuli, and worse for deletion than isolation and repetition across all stimuli. Conclusions: Results are consistent with phonological accounts of reading and suggest that level of processing required by the task is less important than stimuli type in predicting the earliest stage of reading.
Purpose: Phonological accounts of reading implicate three aspects of phonological awareness tasks... more Purpose: Phonological accounts of reading implicate three aspects of phonological awareness tasks that underlie the relationship with reading; a) the language-based nature of the stimuli (words or nonwords), b) the verbal nature of the response, and c) the complexity of the stimuli (words can be segmented into units of speech). Yet, it is uncertain which task characteristics are most important as they are typically confounded. By systematically varying response-type and stimulus complexity across speech and non-speech stimuli, the current study seeks to isolate the characteristics of phonological awareness tasks that drive the prediction of early reading. Method: Four sets of tasks were created; tone stimuli (simple non-speech) requiring a non-verbal response, phonemes (simple speech) requiring a non-verbal response, phonemes requiring a verbal response, and nonwords (complex speech) requiring a verbal response. Tasks were administered to 570 2nd grade children along with standardized tests of reading and non-verbal IQ. Results: Three structural equation models comparing matched sets of tasks were built. Each model consisted of two 'task' factors with a direct link to a reading factor. The following factors predicted unique variance in reading: a) simple speech and non-speech stimuli, b) simple speech requiring a verbal response but not simple speech requiring a non-verbal-response, and c) complex and simple speech stimuli. Conclusions: Results suggest that the prediction of reading by phonological tasks is driven by the verbal nature of the response and not the complexity or 'speechness' of the stimuli. Findings highlight the importance of phonological output processes to early reading.
Scientific Studies of Reading, 2011
We investigate the effects of age-related factors and formal instruction on the development of re... more We investigate the effects of age-related factors and formal instruction on the development of reading-related skills in children aged four and seven years. Age effects were determined by comparing two groups of children at the onset of formal schooling; one aged seven (laterschooled) and one aged four (earlier-schooled). Schooling effects were measured by comparing the later-schooled group with earlier-schooled age-matched controls. There were significant effects of age and schooling on phonological awareness and visual-verbal learning, and an effect of age, but not schooling, on vocabulary and short-term verbal memory. We conclude that age-related factors and reading instruction contribute to the development of phoneme awareness and that vocabulary and verbal memory improve with age.
Developmental Science, 2014
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Papers by Anna Cunningham