Previous studies on informal exchanges in the health care sector in post-socialist states have ex... more Previous studies on informal exchanges in the health care sector in post-socialist states have extensively discussed their complex and diverse nature, in particular the difficulty in distinguishing between gratuities and bribes given to health care providers. In examining this in Kazakhstan, I argue that the ongoing privatization of health care has blurred the boundary between official user fees and informal payments given as a reward for quality care. This has, in turn, sharpened the contrast between informal payments given in the expectation of proper treatment and money extorted by health practitioners. This paper also demonstrates that ordinary people often circumvent formal procedures by using money to obtain services to which they are not officially entitled or to gain access to public medical funding.
The vast territory of Kazakhstan is home to more than one hundred ethnic groups. This multi-ethni... more The vast territory of Kazakhstan is home to more than one hundred ethnic groups. This multi-ethnic population was formed by spontaneous migrations, yet often encouraged by the state, as well as by forced migrations and frequently rewritten borders that divided ethnic groups. Within the former Soviet republics, such borders became ‘real’ only after the collapse of the USSR. The Kazakhs, the titular nationality of Kazakhstan, are also dispersed beyond the territory of the republic. Trans-border ethnic groups are often regarded as a threat to the security of states in which they reside. In particular, if an ethnic minority in their state of residence (their ‘home state’) calls for help from an often, but not necessarily, neighbouring state in which their co-ethnics dominate (a ‘kin-state’), this, it is argued, might lead to conflict between the home state and the kin-state, as the latter tries to meddle in the internal affairs of the former to protect its co-ethnics. In fact, the relat...
This paper offers a brief analysis of the legal aspects of the ethnic return migration policy of ... more This paper offers a brief analysis of the legal aspects of the ethnic return migration policy of Kazakhstan, a post-Soviet Central Asian state that has been active in seeking ties with its diaspora since independence. This paper examines the definition of oralman (repatriates) and the establishment of a quota on the number of Kazakh immigrants who are eligible for government funds to show how the rationale and preferences in repatriation policy have changed over the years. By focusing on changes in migration-related legislation in the late 2000s and early 2010s, the paper notes that two key goals of Kazakhstan’s migration policy are not necessarily consistent with each other: the promotion of an ethnically based nation-building project by encouraging the "return" of co-ethnics living abroad, and building a workforce that is best suited for the development of the state’s economy.
Despite the ethnicisation of power since independence in 1991, Kazakhstan has managed tomaintain ... more Despite the ethnicisation of power since independence in 1991, Kazakhstan has managed tomaintain political stability without experiencing large-scale mobilisation to oppose Kazakhdomination. This paper examines government strategy to avoid ethnic voting in an attempt toexplain why ethnic divisions were rarely reflected in the struggle for power in the republic.While the arbitrary use of legal provisions considerably limited participation in elections byethnic leaders, powerful pro-president parties that exhibited a cross-ethnic character were createdto curtail ethnically based movements. The control strategy in elections aimed not simply atethnicising the parliament in favour of Kazakhs, but at having loyal Russians and otherminorities represented in the legislature through nomination by the president and catch-allpro-regime parties, or through the presidential consultative body—Assembly of the People ofKazakhstan. This well-controlled representation of minorities served not only to...
In Uyama, Tomohiko ed., Empire, Islam, and Politics in Central Eurasia, Sapporo, Japan: Slavic Re... more In Uyama, Tomohiko ed., Empire, Islam, and Politics in Central Eurasia, Sapporo, Japan: Slavic Research Center, Hokkaido University, 2007, pp.351-368.
In Soviet times, useful contacts had more value than money, and getting things done through unoff... more In Soviet times, useful contacts had more value than money, and getting things done through unofficial channels of personal relations was a socially accepted norm. What changes have market reforms brought to Kazakhstan in these areas? This article details the use of informal payments and connections in Almaty and examines why non-monetary exchange of favours is increasingly being replaced by the immediate exchange of cash for assistance. This article argues that urban residents are becoming more inclined to quickly return a favour through cash and evade the lengthy exchanges involved in building reciprocal relationships, a practice widely accepted during Soviet times. This article also focuses on the importance of personal contacts in monetized exchange and demonstrates that cash payment is not a least preferred strategy for those who lack necessary networks. Urban residents in Kazakhstan in fact actively mobilize their personal networks to effectively and securely exchange monetary rewards.
The struggle against corruption in Kazakhstan is a serious challenge facing the government and so... more The struggle against corruption in Kazakhstan is a serious challenge facing the government and society at large, as it is in many transition economy countries. The gravity of corruption in this Central Asian republic is revealed by the fact that informal practices of circumventing official procedures such as bribery and the use of connections have so widely and strongly permeated into the life of common people that they have de facto become social norms. Based on fieldwork in Almaty, this paper analyzes the basic features of everyday corruption in Kazakhstan, and examines the mechanisms and background against which corruption is reproduced. The paper also discusses the impact that the transformation from a socialist economy to a market economy has had on corruption, and the ways in which informal networks are being used to find a way around official rules changed from the Soviet era.
This paper offers a brief analysis of the legal aspects of the ethnic return migration policy of ... more This paper offers a brief analysis of the legal aspects of the ethnic return migration policy of Kazakhstan, a post-Soviet Central Asian state that has been active in seeking ties with its diaspora since independence. This paper examines the definition of oralman (repatriates) and the establishment of a quota on the number of Kazakh immigrants who are eligible for government funds to show how the rationale and preferences in repatriation policy have changed over the years. By focusing on changes in migration-related legislation in the late 2000s and early 2010s, the paper notes that two key goals of Kazakhstan's migration policy are not necessarily consistent with each other: the promotion of an ethnically based nation-building project by encouraging the "return" of co-ethnics living abroad, and building a workforce that is best suited for the development of the state's economy.
Despite the ethnicisation of power since independence in 1991, Kazakhstan has managed to maintain... more Despite the ethnicisation of power since independence in 1991, Kazakhstan has managed to maintain political stability without experiencing large-scale mobilisation to oppose Kazakh domination. This paper examines government strategy to avoid ethnic voting in an attempt to explain why ethnic divisions were rarely reflected in the struggle for power in the republic.
The June 2010 conflict between the Kyrgyz and Uzbek communities in southern Kyrgyzstan once again... more The June 2010 conflict between the Kyrgyz and Uzbek communities in southern Kyrgyzstan once again demonstrated the complexity of the ethnic question in Central Asia. Little is known, however, about the Uzbeks in Kazakhstan, whose settlements are concentrated in the south of the republic, in areas adjacent to Uzbekistan. What problems did the Kazakhstani Uzbeks face after the collapse of the Soviet Union and how did they seek to address these issues? This paper examines the attempts of Uzbek leaders to secure their share of power in their compact settlements and how they were co-opted or marginalized under the Nazarbaev administration. This paper shows that loyalty to the regime, not migration to the ethnic homeland or political mobilization, is an option available, and also preferable, for this ethnic minority in Kazakhstan.
Previous studies on informal exchanges in the health care sector in post-socialist states have ex... more Previous studies on informal exchanges in the health care sector in post-socialist states have extensively discussed their complex and diverse nature, in particular the difficulty in distinguishing between gratuities and bribes given to health care providers. In examining this in Kazakhstan, I argue that the ongoing privatization of health care has blurred the boundary between official user fees and informal payments given as a reward for quality care. This has, in turn, sharpened the contrast between informal payments given in the expectation of proper treatment and money extorted by health practitioners. This paper also demonstrates that ordinary people often circumvent formal procedures by using money to obtain services to which they are not officially entitled or to gain access to public medical funding.
The vast territory of Kazakhstan is home to more than one hundred ethnic groups. This multi-ethni... more The vast territory of Kazakhstan is home to more than one hundred ethnic groups. This multi-ethnic population was formed by spontaneous migrations, yet often encouraged by the state, as well as by forced migrations and frequently rewritten borders that divided ethnic groups. Within the former Soviet republics, such borders became ‘real’ only after the collapse of the USSR. The Kazakhs, the titular nationality of Kazakhstan, are also dispersed beyond the territory of the republic. Trans-border ethnic groups are often regarded as a threat to the security of states in which they reside. In particular, if an ethnic minority in their state of residence (their ‘home state’) calls for help from an often, but not necessarily, neighbouring state in which their co-ethnics dominate (a ‘kin-state’), this, it is argued, might lead to conflict between the home state and the kin-state, as the latter tries to meddle in the internal affairs of the former to protect its co-ethnics. In fact, the relat...
This paper offers a brief analysis of the legal aspects of the ethnic return migration policy of ... more This paper offers a brief analysis of the legal aspects of the ethnic return migration policy of Kazakhstan, a post-Soviet Central Asian state that has been active in seeking ties with its diaspora since independence. This paper examines the definition of oralman (repatriates) and the establishment of a quota on the number of Kazakh immigrants who are eligible for government funds to show how the rationale and preferences in repatriation policy have changed over the years. By focusing on changes in migration-related legislation in the late 2000s and early 2010s, the paper notes that two key goals of Kazakhstan’s migration policy are not necessarily consistent with each other: the promotion of an ethnically based nation-building project by encouraging the "return" of co-ethnics living abroad, and building a workforce that is best suited for the development of the state’s economy.
Despite the ethnicisation of power since independence in 1991, Kazakhstan has managed tomaintain ... more Despite the ethnicisation of power since independence in 1991, Kazakhstan has managed tomaintain political stability without experiencing large-scale mobilisation to oppose Kazakhdomination. This paper examines government strategy to avoid ethnic voting in an attempt toexplain why ethnic divisions were rarely reflected in the struggle for power in the republic.While the arbitrary use of legal provisions considerably limited participation in elections byethnic leaders, powerful pro-president parties that exhibited a cross-ethnic character were createdto curtail ethnically based movements. The control strategy in elections aimed not simply atethnicising the parliament in favour of Kazakhs, but at having loyal Russians and otherminorities represented in the legislature through nomination by the president and catch-allpro-regime parties, or through the presidential consultative body—Assembly of the People ofKazakhstan. This well-controlled representation of minorities served not only to...
In Uyama, Tomohiko ed., Empire, Islam, and Politics in Central Eurasia, Sapporo, Japan: Slavic Re... more In Uyama, Tomohiko ed., Empire, Islam, and Politics in Central Eurasia, Sapporo, Japan: Slavic Research Center, Hokkaido University, 2007, pp.351-368.
In Soviet times, useful contacts had more value than money, and getting things done through unoff... more In Soviet times, useful contacts had more value than money, and getting things done through unofficial channels of personal relations was a socially accepted norm. What changes have market reforms brought to Kazakhstan in these areas? This article details the use of informal payments and connections in Almaty and examines why non-monetary exchange of favours is increasingly being replaced by the immediate exchange of cash for assistance. This article argues that urban residents are becoming more inclined to quickly return a favour through cash and evade the lengthy exchanges involved in building reciprocal relationships, a practice widely accepted during Soviet times. This article also focuses on the importance of personal contacts in monetized exchange and demonstrates that cash payment is not a least preferred strategy for those who lack necessary networks. Urban residents in Kazakhstan in fact actively mobilize their personal networks to effectively and securely exchange monetary rewards.
The struggle against corruption in Kazakhstan is a serious challenge facing the government and so... more The struggle against corruption in Kazakhstan is a serious challenge facing the government and society at large, as it is in many transition economy countries. The gravity of corruption in this Central Asian republic is revealed by the fact that informal practices of circumventing official procedures such as bribery and the use of connections have so widely and strongly permeated into the life of common people that they have de facto become social norms. Based on fieldwork in Almaty, this paper analyzes the basic features of everyday corruption in Kazakhstan, and examines the mechanisms and background against which corruption is reproduced. The paper also discusses the impact that the transformation from a socialist economy to a market economy has had on corruption, and the ways in which informal networks are being used to find a way around official rules changed from the Soviet era.
This paper offers a brief analysis of the legal aspects of the ethnic return migration policy of ... more This paper offers a brief analysis of the legal aspects of the ethnic return migration policy of Kazakhstan, a post-Soviet Central Asian state that has been active in seeking ties with its diaspora since independence. This paper examines the definition of oralman (repatriates) and the establishment of a quota on the number of Kazakh immigrants who are eligible for government funds to show how the rationale and preferences in repatriation policy have changed over the years. By focusing on changes in migration-related legislation in the late 2000s and early 2010s, the paper notes that two key goals of Kazakhstan's migration policy are not necessarily consistent with each other: the promotion of an ethnically based nation-building project by encouraging the "return" of co-ethnics living abroad, and building a workforce that is best suited for the development of the state's economy.
Despite the ethnicisation of power since independence in 1991, Kazakhstan has managed to maintain... more Despite the ethnicisation of power since independence in 1991, Kazakhstan has managed to maintain political stability without experiencing large-scale mobilisation to oppose Kazakh domination. This paper examines government strategy to avoid ethnic voting in an attempt to explain why ethnic divisions were rarely reflected in the struggle for power in the republic.
The June 2010 conflict between the Kyrgyz and Uzbek communities in southern Kyrgyzstan once again... more The June 2010 conflict between the Kyrgyz and Uzbek communities in southern Kyrgyzstan once again demonstrated the complexity of the ethnic question in Central Asia. Little is known, however, about the Uzbeks in Kazakhstan, whose settlements are concentrated in the south of the republic, in areas adjacent to Uzbekistan. What problems did the Kazakhstani Uzbeks face after the collapse of the Soviet Union and how did they seek to address these issues? This paper examines the attempts of Uzbek leaders to secure their share of power in their compact settlements and how they were co-opted or marginalized under the Nazarbaev administration. This paper shows that loyalty to the regime, not migration to the ethnic homeland or political mobilization, is an option available, and also preferable, for this ethnic minority in Kazakhstan.
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