Agama di Tiongkok
Agama di Tiongkok memiliki sejarah panjang dalam hal kepercayaan dan menjadi tempat dari asal muasal berbagai tradisi agama-filsafat di dunia. Konghucu dan Tao, ditambah Buddha, yang disebut "tiga pengajaran", memilki pengaruh siginifikan dalam pembentukan budaya Tionghoa.[1][2] Unsur-unsur dari tiga sistem kepercayaan tersebut masuk ke dalam agama tradisional atau populer.[3] Agama-agama Tionghoa berorientasi keluarga. Beberapa sarjana tidak menggunakan istilah "agama" untuk menyebut sistem kepercayaan di Tiongkok, dan menganggap sebutan "praktik kebudayaan", "sistem berpikir" atau "filsafat" sebagai istilah yang lebih cocok.[4] Terdapat perdebatan mengenai apa yang harus disebut agama dan yang harus disebut beragama di Tiongkok.[5] Kaisar-kaisar Tiongkok mengklaim Mandat Surga dan ikut dalam praktik-praktik keagamaan Tionghoa, Sejak 1949, Tiongkok diperintah oleh Partai Komunis Tiongkok, yang, dalam teori, merupakan sebuah institusi ateis dan melarang para anggota partai tersebut untuk masuk sebuah agama.[6] Pada masa pemerintahan Mao Zedong, gerakan keagamaan ditentang.
{{Pie chart|thumb=Right|color5=Green|label5=Muslim (Islam)|label4=Kristen (Protestan dan Katolik)|label3=[[TSekte Rakyat dan organisasi keagamaan lainnya||label2=Buddha|label1=Tidak beragama|caption=Agama di Republik Rakyat Tiongkok|color6=|color4=Blue|value1=73.56|color3=Red|color2=Yellow|color1=White|value6=|value5=1.7|value4=2.53|value3=7.6|value2=15.87|label6=}}
Secara demografi, sistem agama terbesar adalah "agama Tionghoa", yang tak hanya terdiri dari ajaran Konghucu dan Taois, unsur-unsur Buddha, namun juga berbagai tradisi lainnya, dan terdiri dari persekutuan dengan shen (神), sebuah karakter yang memadukkan berbagai dewa-dewa, yang dapat merupakan deitas lingkungan alam atau prinsip leluhur kelompok manusia, konsep sipilitas, pahlawan budaya, beberapa diantaranya menampilkan sejarah dan mitologi Tionghoa.[7] Beberapa dewa yang menyebarkan kultus adalah Mazu (dewi laut),[8] Huangdi (patriarkh ilahi seluruh Tiongkok, "Volksgeist" negara Tiongkok),[9][10] Guandi (dewa perang dan usaha), Caishen (dewa kemakmuran dan kekayaan), Pangu dan lain-lain. Tiongkok memiliki beberapa patung-patung tertinggi di dunia. Kebanyakan dari patung tersebut mewakili buddha-buddha dan dewa-dewa dan dibangun pada 2000an. Patung tertinggi di dunia adalah Wihara Musim Semi Buddha, yang terletak di Henan. Saat ini, pagoda tertinggi di dunia juga dibangun di negara tersebut di Wihara Tianning, dan stupa tertinggi di dunia di Wihara Famen. Buddha Tionghoa telah berkembang sejak abad ke-1, dan memberikan pengaruh besar di Tiongkok modern.
Para cendekiawan menyatakan bahwa di Tiongkok tidak ada batasan yang jelas antara agama-agama, khususnya Buddha, Tao dan praktik agama asli populer lokal.[11] Menurut analisis demografi paling terkini, sekitar 73,56% populasi di Tiongkok, yang tidak beragama/atheisme, 15,87% mempraktikan Taoisme, Sekte Rakyat dan organisasi keagamaan lainnya, 2,53% adalah Kristen, dan 1,7% adalah Islam Selain agama lokal dan tradisional suku Tionghoa Han, terdapat juga kelompok etnis minoritas yang memeluk agama yang dapat ditemukan dimana ia berada sebagai agama rancangan diri terkenal pada kalangan intelektual.
Kepercayaan-kepercayaan tertentu secara khusus terikat dengan kelompok etnis tertentu yang meliputi Buddha Tibet. Kekristenan di Tiongkok diperkenalkan dua kali pada abad ke-7 dan ke-15, namun tidak mengakar sampai diperkenalkan kembali pada abad ke-16 oleh para misionaris Yesuit.[12] Misi-Misi Protestan dan kemudian Misionaris-Misionaris Katolik menyebarkan agama Kristen, yang mempengaruhi Pemberontakan Taiping pada abad ke-19.[13] Di bawah Ketidakberagamaan/atheisme, para misionaris asing diusir, sebagian besar gereja ditutup dan sekolah-sekolah, rumah-rumah sakit dan panti-panti asuhan dirampas.[14] Dan pada masa Revolusi Kebudayaan, ada beberapa pendeta yang ditahan (dipenjara).[15]
Sejarah
suntingKuno dan pra-sejarah
suntingSebelum pembentukan sipilisasi Tiongkok dan persebaran agama-agama dunia di wikayah yang umumnya sekarang dikenal sebagai Asia Timur (yang meliputi perbatasan teritorial Tiongkok saat ini), suku-suku lokal disatukan oleh animistik, shamanik dan totemik, dan tokoh-tokoh pengajar seperti shaman yang dijadikan jalan dimana para pendoa, barang-barang keramat dan sesembahan terhubung dengan dunia spiritual. Warisan shamanik dan spiritual kuno tersaji pada masa sekarang dalam bentuk agama asli Tionghoa, termasuk Taoisme.[16][17]
Catatan
suntingReferensi
sunting- ^ Yao, 2011. p. 11
- ^ Miller, 2006. p. 57
- ^ Xie, 2006. p. 73
- ^ Rodney L. Taylor. Proposition and Praxis: The Dilemma of Neo-Confucian Syncretism. On: Philosophy East and West, Vol. 32, No. 2, April 1982. p. 187
- ^ Appropriation and Control: the Category of "Religion", and How China Defines It Diarsipkan 2015-09-24 di Wayback Machine.. Chapter Three in: Torri Gunn, Defining Religion with Chinese Characters: Interrogating the Criticism of the Freedom of Religion in China. (Master's thesis: University of Ottawa, 2011). pp. 17–50
- ^ Kuhn, 2011. p. 373
- ^ Steven F. Teiser. What is Popular Religion?. Part of: Living in the Chinese Cosmos, Asia for Educators, Columbia University. Extracts from: Stephen F. Teiser. The Spirits of Chinese Religion. In: Religions of China in Practice. Princeton University Press, 1996.
- ^ China Zentrum: Religions & Christianity in Today's China Diarsipkan 2014-05-02 di Wayback Machine.. Vol. IV, 2014, No. 1. ISSN 2192-9289. pp. 22-23
- ^ Laliberté (2011), hlm. 7.
- ^ Sautman (1997), hlm. 80-81.
- ^ Yao (2010), hlm. 9-10.
- ^ Bays (2012), hlm. 7-15, 18-21.
- ^ Bays (2012), hlm. 48-52 ff.
- ^ Geoffrey Blainey. A Short History of Christianity. Viking, 2011. p. 508
- ^ Geoffrey Blainey. A Short History of Christianity. Viking, 2011. p. 531
- ^ Wang (2004), hlm. 60-61.
- ^ Yang & Lang (2011), hlm. 112.
Sumber
sunting- Adler, Joseph A. Confucianism as a Religious Tradition: Linguistic and Methodological Problems. Kenyon College, 2014.
- Adler, Joseph A. (2011). "The Heritage of Non-Theistic Belief in China" (PDF). (Conference paper) Toward a Reasonable World: The Heritage of Western Humanism, Skepticism, and Freethought. San Diego, CA.
- Billioud, Sébastien. Carrying the Confucian Torch to the Masses: The Challenge of Structuring the Confucian Revival in the People's Republic of China. On: OE 49 (2010)
- Billioud, Sébastien; Joel Thoraval (2015). The Sage and the People: The Confucian Revival in China. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0190258144.
- Chan, Kim-Kwong. Religion in China in the Twenty-first Century: Some Scenarios. On: Religion, State & Society, Vol. 33, No. 2. Routledge, June 2005.
- Chen, Carolyn, Russell Jeung. Sustaining Faith Traditions: Race, Ethnicity, and Religion among the Latino and Asian American Second Generation. NYU Press, 2012. ASIN: B008F83N44
- Chen, Yong. Confucianism as Religion: Controversies and Consequences. Brill, 2012. ISBN 90-04-24373-9
- Clart, Philip. Conceptualizations of "Popular Religion" in Recent Research in the People's Republic of China. In: Wang Chien-chuan, Li Shiwei, Hong Yingfa; Yanjiu xin shijie: “Mazu yu Huaren minjian xinyang” guoji yantaohui lunwenji. Taipei: Boyang, 2014. pp. 391–412
- Clart, Philip. Confucius and the Mediums: Is There a "Popular Confucianism"?. On: T'uong Pao LXXXIX. Brill, Leiden, 2003.
- Didier, John C. In and Outside the Square: The Sky and the Power of Belief in Ancient China and the World, c. 4500 BC – AD 200: Volume I: The Ancient Eurasian World and the Celestial Pivot, Volume II: Representations and Identities of High Powers in Neolithic and Bronze China, Volume III: Terrestrial and Celestial Transformations in Zhou and Early-Imperial China. On: Sino-Platonic Papers, n. 192, 2009. Victor H. Mair, University of Pennsylvania.
- Craig, Edward (1998), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Volume 7, Taylor & Francis, ISBN 978-0-415-07310-3
- Fan Lizhu, Chen Na. Revival of Confucianism and Reconstruction of Chinese Identity. Paper presented at: The Presence and Future of Humanity in the Cosmos, ICU, Tokyo, 18–23 March 2015. (a)
- Fan Lizhu, Chen Na. The Revival of Indigenous Religion in China. Published on China Watch, Fudan-UC Center for China Studies, Fudan University, 2013.
- Fan Lizhu, Chen Na. The Religiousness of "Confucianism" and the Revival of Confucian Religion in China Today. On: Cultural Diversity in China 1: 27-43. De Gruyter Open, 2015. ISSN 2353-7795, DOI: 10.1515/cdc-2015-0005
- Fowler, Jeaneane D. An Introduction to the Philosophy and Religion of Taoism: Pathways to Immortality. Sussex Academic Press, 2005. ISBN 1-84519-086-6
- Goossaert, Vincent, David Palmer. The Religious Question in Modern China. University of Chicago Press, 2011. ISBN 0-226-30416-7
- Jing, Jun. The Temple of Memories: History, Power, and Morality in a Chinese Village. Stanford University Press, 1996. ASIN: B004FPIAVW
- Kuhn, Robert Lawrence (2010). How China's Leaders Think: The inside Story of China's Reform and What This Means for the Future. Singapore: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9780470824450.
- Lagerway, John. China: A Religious State. Hong Kong, University of Hong Kong Press, 2010. ISBN 988-8028-04-9
- Libbrecht, Ulrich. Within the Four Seas...: Introduction to Comparative Philosophy. Peeters Publishers, 2007. ISBN 90-429-1812-8
- Littlejohn, Ronnie. Confucianism: An Introduction. I. B. Tauris, 2010. ISBN 1-84885-174-X
- Lü Daji, Gong Xuezeng. Marxism and Religion. Brill, 2014. ISBN 90-474-2802-1
- Miller, James. Chinese Religions in Contemporary Societies. ABC-CLIO, 2006. ISBN 1-85109-626-4
- Nadeau, Randal L. (2012). The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Chinese Religions. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
- Overmyer, Daniel L. (2009). Local Religion in North China in the Twentieth Century the Structure and Organization of Community Rituals and Beliefs (PDF). Leiden; Boston: Brill. ISBN 9789047429364. Diarsipkan dari versi asli (PDF) tanggal 2015-06-16. Diakses tanggal 2015-08-30.
- Overmyer, Daniel. Religion in China Today. Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-521-53823-8
- Palmer, David A., Glenn Landes Shive, Glenn Shive, Philip L. Wickeri. Chinese Religious Life. Oxford University Press, 2011. ISBN 0-19-973138-1
- Palmer, D. A. Chinese Redemptive Societies and Salvationist Religion: Historical Phenomenon or Sociological Category?. On: Journal of Chinese Ritual, Theatre and Folklore, V. 172, 2011, p. 21-72
- Pas, Julian F. Historical Dictionary of Taoism. Part of: Historical Dictionaries of Religions, Philosophies, and Movements Series. Scarecrow Press, 2014. ASIN: B00IZ9E7EI
- Ruokanen, Miikka, Paulos Zhanzhu Huang. Christianity and Chinese Culture. William B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2011. ISBN 0-8028-6556-9
- Sautman, Barry. Myths of Descent, Racial Nationalism and Ethnic Minorities in the People's Republic of China. In: Frank Dikötter. The Construction of Racial Identities in China and Japan: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives. Honolulu, University of Hawai'i Press, 1997, pp. 75–95. ISBN 962-209-443-0
- Shahar, Meir, Robert Paul Weller. Unruly Gods: Divinity and Society in China. University of Hawaii Press, 1996. ISBN 0-8248-1724-9
- Shen, Qingsong, Kwong-loi Shun. Confucian Ethics in Retrospect and Prospect. Council for Research in Values & Philosophy, 2007. ISBN 1-56518-245-6
- Shi, Yilong. The Spontaneous Religious Practices of Han Chinese Peoples — Shenxianism (中国汉人自发的宗教实践 — 神仙教). On: Journal of South-Central University for Nationalities (Humanities and Social Sciences) (中南民族大学学报 — 人文社会科学版), Vol. 28, No. 3, 2008.
- Teiser, Stephen F.The Chinese Cosmos: Basic Concepts, extracts from: Stephen F. Teiser. The Spirits of Chinese Religion. In: Religions of China in Practice. Princeton University Press, 1996.
- Thien Do. Vietnamese Supernaturalism: Views from the Southern Region. Series: Anthropology of Asia. Routledge, 2003. ISBN 0-415-30799-6
- Wang, Robin R. Chinese Philosophy in an Era of Globalization. State University of New York Press, 2004. ISBN 0-7914-6006-1
- Yang, Fenggang, Graeme Lang. Social Scientific Studies of Religion in China. Brill, 2012. ISBN 90-04-18246-2
- Yao, Xinzhong. Chinese Religion: A Contextual Approach. Bloomsbury Academic, 2011. ISBN 1-84706-476-0
- Payette, Alex. Shenzhen's Kongshengtang: Religious Confucianism and Local Moral Governance Diarsipkan 2017-10-23 di Wayback Machine.. Part of: Role of Religion in Political Life, Panel RC43, 23rd World Congress of Political Science, 19–24 July 2014.
- Pregadio, Fabrizio. The Encyclopedia of Taoism, 2 vol. Routledge, 2008. ISBN 978-0-7007-1200-7
- Tay, Wei Leong. Kang Youwei: The Martin Luther of Confucianism and His Vision of Confucian Modernity and Nation. In: Haneda Masashi, Secularization, Religion and the State, University of Tokyo Center for Philosophy, 2010.
- Xie, Zhibin. Religious Diversity and Public Religion in China. Ashgate Publishing, 2006. ISBN 978-0-7546-5648-7
- Zhou, Jixu. Old Chinese “*tees” and Proto-Indo-European “*deus”: Similarity in Religious Ideas and a Common Source in Linguistics. On: Sino-Platonic Papers, n. 167, 2005. Victor H. Mair, University of Pennsylvania.
Bacaan tambahan
sunting- Bays, Daniel H. Christianity in China from the Eighteenth Century to the Present. (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996). ISBN 0-8047-2609-4.
- Ch'en, Kenneth K. S. Buddhism in China, a Historical Survey. (Princeton, N.J.,: Princeton University Press, The Virginia and Richard Stewart Memorial Lectures, 1961, 1964).
- De Groot, J.J.M. (Jan Jakob Maria) Diarsipkan 2012-11-22 di Wayback Machine., The Religious System of China: Its Ancient Forms, Evolution, History and Present Aspect, Manners, Customs and Social Institutions Connected Therewith, Brill, Leiden, The Netherlands, 1892–1910. 6 volumes.
- Overmyer, Daniel L. Religions of China: The World as a Living System. (New York: Harper & Row, Religious Traditions of the World, 1986).
- Paper, Jordan D. (1995). The Spirits are Drunk: Comparative Approaches to Chinese Religion. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-2315-8.
- Wright, Arthur F.. Buddhism in Chinese History. (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1959; various reprints and translations).
- Yang, CK., Religion in Chinese Society (California U. Press, 1970)
- Xinzhong Yao and Yanxia Zhao, Chinese Religion (Continuum, 2010)
Pranala luar
sunting- Buddhist Association of China
- Confucian Network of China Diarsipkan 2017-09-12 di Wayback Machine.
- Chinese Confucianism Diarsipkan 2015-08-14 di Wayback Machine.
- China Confucian Temples
- Chinese Taoist Association
- China Ancestral Temples Network Diarsipkan 2014-05-02 di Archive.is
- China Temples Network Diarsipkan 2016-03-03 di Wayback Machine.
- Akademik
- Living in the Chinese Cosmos, Asia for Educators, Columbia University.
Media
sunting- Euraxess Science Slam: Meihuaquan and Community Life in North China
- eRenlai Ricci: The boundary between religion and the state in China by Prof. Lagerwey
- GBTimes: THE DEBATE: Insight into religion in modern China (part 1)—Part 2
- Berkeley Center: Ritual Economy and Religious Revivial in Rural Southeast China
- Berkeley Center: Secularization Theory and the Study of Chinese Religions
- Berkeley Center: Understanding Contemporary Religious Pluralism in China