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Mike Howard

Hughes Research Laboratories, Information and Systems Sciences Lab, Senior Member of Research Staff

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Innovator in diverse technical fields including computational neuroscience, robotics, cyber-security, adversarial planning, and biophysical modeling. Experienced program manager with a record of accomplishment leading large teams on DARPA and IARPA programs. Skilled in program capture, leading or contributing to recent proposals winning over $90M. Proficient in helping university researchers to adapt to fast-paced government programs with challenging (and sometimes frustrating) requirements.

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Papers by Mike Howard

Closed-loop transcranial alternating current stimulation of slow oscillations

Current Directions in Biomedical Engineering, 2015

Transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) is an emerging non-invasive tool for modulati... more Transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) is an emerging non-invasive tool for modulating brain oscillations. There is evidence that weak oscillatory electrical stimulation during sleep can entrain cortical slow oscillations to improve the memory consolidation in rodents and humans. Using a novel method and a custom built stimulation device, automatic stimulation of slow oscillations in-phase with the endogenous activity in a real-time closed-loop setup is possible. Preliminary data from neuroplasticity experiments show a high detection performance of the proposed method, electrical measurements demonstrate the outstanding quality of the presented stimulation device.

Closed-Loop tACS Delivered during Slow-Wave Sleep Reduces Retroactive Interference on a Paired-Associates Learning Task

Brain Sciences

Previous studies have found a benefit of closed-loop transcranial alternating current stimulation... more Previous studies have found a benefit of closed-loop transcranial alternating current stimulation (CL-tACS) matched to ongoing slow-wave oscillations (SWO) during sleep on memory consolidation for words in a paired associates task (PAT). Here, we examined the effects of CL-tACS in a retroactive interference PAT (ri-PAT) paradigm, where additional stimuli were presented to increase interference and reduce memory performance. Thirty-one participants were tested on a PAT before sleep, and CL-tACS was applied over the right and left DLPFC (F3 and F4) vs. mastoids for five cycles after detection of the onset of each discrete event of SWO during sleep. Participants were awoken the following morning, learned a new PAT list, and then were tested on the original list. There was a significant effect of stimulation condition (p = 0.04297; Cohen’s d = 0.768), where verum stimulation resulted in reduced retroactive interference compared with sham and a significant interaction of encoding strengt...

Dose-Dependent Effects of Closed-Loop tACS Delivered During Slow-Wave Oscillations on Memory Consolidation

Frontiers in Neuroscience, 2018

Sleep is critically important to consolidate information learned throughout the day. Slow-wave sl... more Sleep is critically important to consolidate information learned throughout the day. Slow-wave sleep (SWS) serves to consolidate declarative memories, a process previously modulated with open-loop non-invasive electrical stimulation, though not always effectively. These failures to replicate could be explained by the fact that stimulation has only been performed in open-loop, as opposed to closed-loop where phase and frequency of the endogenous slow-wave oscillations (SWOs) are matched for optimal timing. The current study investigated the effects of closed-loop transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) targeting SWOs during sleep on memory consolidation. 21 participants took part in a three-night, counterbalanced, randomized, single-blind, within-subjects study, investigating performance changes (correct rate and F1 score) on images in a target detection task over 24 h. During sleep, 1.5 mA closed-loop tACS was delivered in phase over electrodes at F3 and F4 and 180 • out of phase over electrodes at bilateral mastoids at the frequency (range 0.5-1.2 Hz) and phase of ongoing SWOs for a duration of 5 cycles in each discrete event throughout the night. Data were analyzed in a repeated measures ANOVA framework, and results show that verum stimulation improved post-sleep performance specifically on generalized versions of images used in training at both morning and afternoon tests compared to sham, suggesting the facilitation of schematization of information, but not of rote, veridical recall. We also found a surprising inverted U-shaped dose effect of sleep tACS, which is interpreted in terms of tACS-induced faciliatory and subsequent refractory dynamics of SWO power in scalp EEG. This is the first study showing a selective modulation of long-term memory generalization using a novel closed-loop tACS approach, which holds great potential for both healthy and neuropsychiatric populations.

Progress in Pheromone Robotics

In our Pheromone Robotics research, we are developing techniques for coordinating the actions of ... more In our Pheromone Robotics research, we are developing techniques for coordinating the actions of large numbers of small-scale robots to achieve useful large-scale results in surveillance, reconnaissance, hazard detection, and path finding. This paper describes progress in the areas of world- embedded computation and world-embedded displays that are enabled by our use of the biologically inspired notion of a "virtual pheromone." We describe the pheromone logic primitives that enable our robot collective to become a distributed computing mesh embedded within the environment, while simultaneously acting as a physical embodiment of the user interface.

The fire support automated test system (FSATS): an approach to distributed command and control simulation

Fifth Annual Conference on AI, and Planning in High Autonomy Systems

The Fire Support Automated Test System (FSATS) is being developed by the Program Manager, Instrum... more The Fire Support Automated Test System (FSATS) is being developed by the Program Manager, Instrumentation, Targets, and Threat Simulators (PM ITTS) to provide a full suite of instrumentation capabilities to support the technical and operational testing of United States Army Fire Support Command and Control (C/sup 2/) Systems. The keystone of FSATS is the capability to simulate the tactical messaging of selected C/sup 2/ nodes and to distribute this simulation over geographically dispersed hardware platforms to obtain a realistic distribution of tactical processes and communications. This simulation is based on a series of behavioral models specifically developed for use within this system. The FSATS simulation analyzes the content of tactical messages received and generates an appropriate tactical message in response. While principally developed for the test support role, the benefits and ease of extending this simulation technology into the training role is clear.<<ETX>>

Contingency planning system and method

Distributed design review in virtual environments

Proceedings of the third international conference on Collaborative virtual environments - CVE '00, 2000

0337 Effects of Slow Wave Sleep Augmentation on Subjective Sleep Quality

Sleep, Apr 1, 2018

preselected target phases during a single night of sleep. Data was filtered in the delta band ran... more preselected target phases during a single night of sleep. Data was filtered in the delta band range (0.5-4 Hz). Percent difference of the root mean square of the EEG amplitude between consecutive stimulation segments (lasting 5 PLL oscillations) and segments of sham data was calculated offline. We produced a circular diagram with each single block-pair (on and off) for each subject and the entire subject group as a function of EEG slow wave phase to study the function of phase in the stimulation procedure. Results: We found an optimal range of phases around the angle 340 (+-20 degrees) in the close-loop auditory stimulations of SW. Angles at 90 degree from this phase produce a slight decrease in SW amplitude. Interestingly, the order in which the phase changes were presented (clockwise vs anticlockwise) seems to produce different amplitude effects (larger in anticlockwise order by a factor of 2 for similar phase range). Conclusion: Slow wave enhancement via auditory stimulation is very sensitive to the phase of the SW oscillation. The order of presentation of the pulses is different in the (clock-wise vs anticlockwise direction) seems to affect the amplitude. This phenomenon needs to be explored further as it could elucidate important aspects of SW physiology. Support (If Any): The study was conducted with private fundings from Deep Knowledge Ventures.

Neurocognitive processing of a driver state

A driver condition module for coupling to a vehicle, with a surrounding vicinity of the vehicle a... more A driver condition module for coupling to a vehicle, with a surrounding vicinity of the vehicle and with a driver of the vehicle, the driver condition module comprises: (i) a frame memory for storing representations of behavior associated with a context; (Ii) an evaluation system for creating a sequence of frames on the basis of targets and consideration; (Iii) a memory that includes a front-part memory and a background portion of memory, wherein the memory is configured to hold frame and to sort in foreground and background frame, and (iv) a recognition processor for identifying distinct features for a frame in the foreground memory, which was rated highest by the evaluation system are relevant.

Mental State Assessment and Validation Using Personalized Physiological Biometrics

Frontiers in human neuroscience, 2018

Mental state monitoring is a critical component of current and future human-machine interfaces, i... more Mental state monitoring is a critical component of current and future human-machine interfaces, including semi-autonomous driving and flying, air traffic control, decision aids, training systems, and will soon be integrated into ubiquitous products like cell phones and laptops. Current mental state assessment approaches supply quantitative measures, but their only frame of reference is generic population-level ranges. What is needed are physiological biometrics that are validated in the context of task performance of individuals. Using curated intake experiments, we are able to generate personalized models of three key biometrics as useful indicators of mental state; namely, mental fatigue, stress, and attention. We demonstrate improvements to existing approaches through the introduction of new features. Furthermore, addressing the current limitations in assessing the efficacy of biometrics for individual subjects, we propose and employ a multi-level validation scheme for the biomet...

Coalitions for distributed sensor fusion

Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Information Fusion. FUSION 2002. (IEEE Cat.No.02EX5997)

Methods and Apparatus to Incorporate User Feedback During Planning

Methods and Apparatus for Heuristic Search to Optimize Metrics in Generating a Plan Having a Series of Actions

Decentralized Cooperative Search

We describe a mechanism for decentralized cooperative control of a robot team for a geographic se... more We describe a mechanism for decentralized cooperative control of a robot team for a geographic search task. The approach is behavior-based: robots are attracted to discrete probability distributions in the form of virtual particles of probability that represent hypotheses about the existence and identity of objects of interest in a geographic area. Reliance on dependable, high-bandwidth communication is reduced by modeling the movements of other team members and the objects of interest between periodic update messages. We combine ideas from multi-hypothesis tracking, behavior-based control, and decentralized task allocation.

Possible worlds risk assessment system and method

<title>POPS: parallel opportunistic photointerpretation system</title>

Automatic Object Recognition, 1991

Photointerpretation is a computationally expensive process. An opportunistic knowledge-based appr... more Photointerpretation is a computationally expensive process. An opportunistic knowledge-based approach to the problem has been developed and proven effective for target recognition on the ground and in the air. The system hypothesizes about the identity of regions in an image based on their geometric and intensity properties. Each region looks for support for its interpretation based on its spatial relationships with other hypotheses. In this paper parallel implementation using a supporting spatial representation on an eight node Hypercube (a coarse-grained, local memory, message passing machine) is described. The algorithm would be equally suitable for a local area network of workstations. A quadtree data structure representing each image region can be compactly and efficiently coded into a few integers; hence, passing regions between computer nodes becomes a reasonable algorithmic device.

Adaptive Recall in Hippocampus

Complementary learning systems (CLS) theory describes how the hippocampal and cortical contributi... more Complementary learning systems (CLS) theory describes how the hippocampal and cortical contributions to recognition memory are a direct result of their architectural and computational specializations. In this paper we model a further refinement of CLS that features separate handling of inputs from the dorsal and ventral posterior cortices, and present a possible mechanism for adaptive recall in hippocampus based on several research findings that have not previously been related to each other. This model suggests how we are able to recognize familiar objects in unfamiliar settings.

A model of bidirectional interactions between complementary learning systems for memory consolidation of sequential experiences

ABSTRACTThe standard theory of memory consolidation posits a dual-store memory system: a fast-lea... more ABSTRACTThe standard theory of memory consolidation posits a dual-store memory system: a fast-learning fast-decaying hippocampus that transfers memories to slow-learning long-term cortical storage. Hippocampal lesions interrupt this transfer, so recent memories are more likely to be lost than more remote memories. Existing models of memory consolidation that simulate this temporally graded retrograde amnesia operate only on static patterns or unitary variables as memories. However, the mechanisms underlying the consolidation of episodes, which are sequential in nature and comprise multiple events, are not well understood. There is currently no computational theory for how memory replays of sequential experiences emerge dynamically during offline periods and how they are coordinated between the hippocampus and cortex to facilitate the stabilization of episodic memories. Further, there is evidence for a bi-directional interaction between the two memory systems during offline periods (...

One-shot tagging during wake and cueing during sleep with spatiotemporal patterns of transcranial electrical stimulation can boost long-term metamemory of individual episodes in humans

Targeted memory reactivation (TMR) during slow-wave oscillations (SWOs) in non-rapid eye movement... more Targeted memory reactivation (TMR) during slow-wave oscillations (SWOs) in non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep has been demonstrated with sensory cues to achieve about 5-12% improvement in post-nap memory performance on simple laboratory tasks. But prior work has neither addressed the one-shot aspect of episodic memory acquisition, nor dealt with the presence of interference from ambient environmental cues in real-world settings for the sensory cues. Moreover, TMR with sensory cues may not be scalable to the multitude of experiences over one’s lifetime. We designed a novel non-invasive paradigm that tags one-shot experiences of minute-long naturalistic episodes within immersive virtual reality (VR) with unique spatiotemporal amplitude-modulated patterns (STAMPs) of transcranial electrical stimulation (tES) and cues them during SWOs. In particular, we demonstrate that these STAMPs can be re-applied as brief pulses to temporally coincide with UP states of SWOs (0.4167 – 1 s) on two co...

Modeling Contextual Modulation of Memory Associations in the Hippocampus

Frontiers in Human Neuroscience

Closed-loop transcranial alternating current stimulation of slow oscillations

Current Directions in Biomedical Engineering, 2015

Transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) is an emerging non-invasive tool for modulati... more Transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) is an emerging non-invasive tool for modulating brain oscillations. There is evidence that weak oscillatory electrical stimulation during sleep can entrain cortical slow oscillations to improve the memory consolidation in rodents and humans. Using a novel method and a custom built stimulation device, automatic stimulation of slow oscillations in-phase with the endogenous activity in a real-time closed-loop setup is possible. Preliminary data from neuroplasticity experiments show a high detection performance of the proposed method, electrical measurements demonstrate the outstanding quality of the presented stimulation device.

Closed-Loop tACS Delivered during Slow-Wave Sleep Reduces Retroactive Interference on a Paired-Associates Learning Task

Brain Sciences

Previous studies have found a benefit of closed-loop transcranial alternating current stimulation... more Previous studies have found a benefit of closed-loop transcranial alternating current stimulation (CL-tACS) matched to ongoing slow-wave oscillations (SWO) during sleep on memory consolidation for words in a paired associates task (PAT). Here, we examined the effects of CL-tACS in a retroactive interference PAT (ri-PAT) paradigm, where additional stimuli were presented to increase interference and reduce memory performance. Thirty-one participants were tested on a PAT before sleep, and CL-tACS was applied over the right and left DLPFC (F3 and F4) vs. mastoids for five cycles after detection of the onset of each discrete event of SWO during sleep. Participants were awoken the following morning, learned a new PAT list, and then were tested on the original list. There was a significant effect of stimulation condition (p = 0.04297; Cohen’s d = 0.768), where verum stimulation resulted in reduced retroactive interference compared with sham and a significant interaction of encoding strengt...

Dose-Dependent Effects of Closed-Loop tACS Delivered During Slow-Wave Oscillations on Memory Consolidation

Frontiers in Neuroscience, 2018

Sleep is critically important to consolidate information learned throughout the day. Slow-wave sl... more Sleep is critically important to consolidate information learned throughout the day. Slow-wave sleep (SWS) serves to consolidate declarative memories, a process previously modulated with open-loop non-invasive electrical stimulation, though not always effectively. These failures to replicate could be explained by the fact that stimulation has only been performed in open-loop, as opposed to closed-loop where phase and frequency of the endogenous slow-wave oscillations (SWOs) are matched for optimal timing. The current study investigated the effects of closed-loop transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) targeting SWOs during sleep on memory consolidation. 21 participants took part in a three-night, counterbalanced, randomized, single-blind, within-subjects study, investigating performance changes (correct rate and F1 score) on images in a target detection task over 24 h. During sleep, 1.5 mA closed-loop tACS was delivered in phase over electrodes at F3 and F4 and 180 • out of phase over electrodes at bilateral mastoids at the frequency (range 0.5-1.2 Hz) and phase of ongoing SWOs for a duration of 5 cycles in each discrete event throughout the night. Data were analyzed in a repeated measures ANOVA framework, and results show that verum stimulation improved post-sleep performance specifically on generalized versions of images used in training at both morning and afternoon tests compared to sham, suggesting the facilitation of schematization of information, but not of rote, veridical recall. We also found a surprising inverted U-shaped dose effect of sleep tACS, which is interpreted in terms of tACS-induced faciliatory and subsequent refractory dynamics of SWO power in scalp EEG. This is the first study showing a selective modulation of long-term memory generalization using a novel closed-loop tACS approach, which holds great potential for both healthy and neuropsychiatric populations.

Progress in Pheromone Robotics

In our Pheromone Robotics research, we are developing techniques for coordinating the actions of ... more In our Pheromone Robotics research, we are developing techniques for coordinating the actions of large numbers of small-scale robots to achieve useful large-scale results in surveillance, reconnaissance, hazard detection, and path finding. This paper describes progress in the areas of world- embedded computation and world-embedded displays that are enabled by our use of the biologically inspired notion of a "virtual pheromone." We describe the pheromone logic primitives that enable our robot collective to become a distributed computing mesh embedded within the environment, while simultaneously acting as a physical embodiment of the user interface.

The fire support automated test system (FSATS): an approach to distributed command and control simulation

Fifth Annual Conference on AI, and Planning in High Autonomy Systems

The Fire Support Automated Test System (FSATS) is being developed by the Program Manager, Instrum... more The Fire Support Automated Test System (FSATS) is being developed by the Program Manager, Instrumentation, Targets, and Threat Simulators (PM ITTS) to provide a full suite of instrumentation capabilities to support the technical and operational testing of United States Army Fire Support Command and Control (C/sup 2/) Systems. The keystone of FSATS is the capability to simulate the tactical messaging of selected C/sup 2/ nodes and to distribute this simulation over geographically dispersed hardware platforms to obtain a realistic distribution of tactical processes and communications. This simulation is based on a series of behavioral models specifically developed for use within this system. The FSATS simulation analyzes the content of tactical messages received and generates an appropriate tactical message in response. While principally developed for the test support role, the benefits and ease of extending this simulation technology into the training role is clear.<<ETX>>

Contingency planning system and method

Distributed design review in virtual environments

Proceedings of the third international conference on Collaborative virtual environments - CVE '00, 2000

0337 Effects of Slow Wave Sleep Augmentation on Subjective Sleep Quality

Sleep, Apr 1, 2018

preselected target phases during a single night of sleep. Data was filtered in the delta band ran... more preselected target phases during a single night of sleep. Data was filtered in the delta band range (0.5-4 Hz). Percent difference of the root mean square of the EEG amplitude between consecutive stimulation segments (lasting 5 PLL oscillations) and segments of sham data was calculated offline. We produced a circular diagram with each single block-pair (on and off) for each subject and the entire subject group as a function of EEG slow wave phase to study the function of phase in the stimulation procedure. Results: We found an optimal range of phases around the angle 340 (+-20 degrees) in the close-loop auditory stimulations of SW. Angles at 90 degree from this phase produce a slight decrease in SW amplitude. Interestingly, the order in which the phase changes were presented (clockwise vs anticlockwise) seems to produce different amplitude effects (larger in anticlockwise order by a factor of 2 for similar phase range). Conclusion: Slow wave enhancement via auditory stimulation is very sensitive to the phase of the SW oscillation. The order of presentation of the pulses is different in the (clock-wise vs anticlockwise direction) seems to affect the amplitude. This phenomenon needs to be explored further as it could elucidate important aspects of SW physiology. Support (If Any): The study was conducted with private fundings from Deep Knowledge Ventures.

Neurocognitive processing of a driver state

A driver condition module for coupling to a vehicle, with a surrounding vicinity of the vehicle a... more A driver condition module for coupling to a vehicle, with a surrounding vicinity of the vehicle and with a driver of the vehicle, the driver condition module comprises: (i) a frame memory for storing representations of behavior associated with a context; (Ii) an evaluation system for creating a sequence of frames on the basis of targets and consideration; (Iii) a memory that includes a front-part memory and a background portion of memory, wherein the memory is configured to hold frame and to sort in foreground and background frame, and (iv) a recognition processor for identifying distinct features for a frame in the foreground memory, which was rated highest by the evaluation system are relevant.

Mental State Assessment and Validation Using Personalized Physiological Biometrics

Frontiers in human neuroscience, 2018

Mental state monitoring is a critical component of current and future human-machine interfaces, i... more Mental state monitoring is a critical component of current and future human-machine interfaces, including semi-autonomous driving and flying, air traffic control, decision aids, training systems, and will soon be integrated into ubiquitous products like cell phones and laptops. Current mental state assessment approaches supply quantitative measures, but their only frame of reference is generic population-level ranges. What is needed are physiological biometrics that are validated in the context of task performance of individuals. Using curated intake experiments, we are able to generate personalized models of three key biometrics as useful indicators of mental state; namely, mental fatigue, stress, and attention. We demonstrate improvements to existing approaches through the introduction of new features. Furthermore, addressing the current limitations in assessing the efficacy of biometrics for individual subjects, we propose and employ a multi-level validation scheme for the biomet...

Coalitions for distributed sensor fusion

Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Information Fusion. FUSION 2002. (IEEE Cat.No.02EX5997)

Methods and Apparatus to Incorporate User Feedback During Planning

Methods and Apparatus for Heuristic Search to Optimize Metrics in Generating a Plan Having a Series of Actions

Decentralized Cooperative Search

We describe a mechanism for decentralized cooperative control of a robot team for a geographic se... more We describe a mechanism for decentralized cooperative control of a robot team for a geographic search task. The approach is behavior-based: robots are attracted to discrete probability distributions in the form of virtual particles of probability that represent hypotheses about the existence and identity of objects of interest in a geographic area. Reliance on dependable, high-bandwidth communication is reduced by modeling the movements of other team members and the objects of interest between periodic update messages. We combine ideas from multi-hypothesis tracking, behavior-based control, and decentralized task allocation.

Possible worlds risk assessment system and method

<title>POPS: parallel opportunistic photointerpretation system</title>

Automatic Object Recognition, 1991

Photointerpretation is a computationally expensive process. An opportunistic knowledge-based appr... more Photointerpretation is a computationally expensive process. An opportunistic knowledge-based approach to the problem has been developed and proven effective for target recognition on the ground and in the air. The system hypothesizes about the identity of regions in an image based on their geometric and intensity properties. Each region looks for support for its interpretation based on its spatial relationships with other hypotheses. In this paper parallel implementation using a supporting spatial representation on an eight node Hypercube (a coarse-grained, local memory, message passing machine) is described. The algorithm would be equally suitable for a local area network of workstations. A quadtree data structure representing each image region can be compactly and efficiently coded into a few integers; hence, passing regions between computer nodes becomes a reasonable algorithmic device.

Adaptive Recall in Hippocampus

Complementary learning systems (CLS) theory describes how the hippocampal and cortical contributi... more Complementary learning systems (CLS) theory describes how the hippocampal and cortical contributions to recognition memory are a direct result of their architectural and computational specializations. In this paper we model a further refinement of CLS that features separate handling of inputs from the dorsal and ventral posterior cortices, and present a possible mechanism for adaptive recall in hippocampus based on several research findings that have not previously been related to each other. This model suggests how we are able to recognize familiar objects in unfamiliar settings.

A model of bidirectional interactions between complementary learning systems for memory consolidation of sequential experiences

ABSTRACTThe standard theory of memory consolidation posits a dual-store memory system: a fast-lea... more ABSTRACTThe standard theory of memory consolidation posits a dual-store memory system: a fast-learning fast-decaying hippocampus that transfers memories to slow-learning long-term cortical storage. Hippocampal lesions interrupt this transfer, so recent memories are more likely to be lost than more remote memories. Existing models of memory consolidation that simulate this temporally graded retrograde amnesia operate only on static patterns or unitary variables as memories. However, the mechanisms underlying the consolidation of episodes, which are sequential in nature and comprise multiple events, are not well understood. There is currently no computational theory for how memory replays of sequential experiences emerge dynamically during offline periods and how they are coordinated between the hippocampus and cortex to facilitate the stabilization of episodic memories. Further, there is evidence for a bi-directional interaction between the two memory systems during offline periods (...

One-shot tagging during wake and cueing during sleep with spatiotemporal patterns of transcranial electrical stimulation can boost long-term metamemory of individual episodes in humans

Targeted memory reactivation (TMR) during slow-wave oscillations (SWOs) in non-rapid eye movement... more Targeted memory reactivation (TMR) during slow-wave oscillations (SWOs) in non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep has been demonstrated with sensory cues to achieve about 5-12% improvement in post-nap memory performance on simple laboratory tasks. But prior work has neither addressed the one-shot aspect of episodic memory acquisition, nor dealt with the presence of interference from ambient environmental cues in real-world settings for the sensory cues. Moreover, TMR with sensory cues may not be scalable to the multitude of experiences over one’s lifetime. We designed a novel non-invasive paradigm that tags one-shot experiences of minute-long naturalistic episodes within immersive virtual reality (VR) with unique spatiotemporal amplitude-modulated patterns (STAMPs) of transcranial electrical stimulation (tES) and cues them during SWOs. In particular, we demonstrate that these STAMPs can be re-applied as brief pulses to temporally coincide with UP states of SWOs (0.4167 – 1 s) on two co...

Modeling Contextual Modulation of Memory Associations in the Hippocampus

Frontiers in Human Neuroscience