Portal is a game that consists of a series of puzzles that must be solved by teleporting the player's character and simple objects from one place to another.

In order to teleport, the player uses the Portal gun to shoot doors onto flat planes, like a floor or a wall, entering one of those doors teleports you to the other:

In this guide we will use the Elixir programming language to build portals by shooting doors of different colors and transferring data between them! We will even learn how we can distribute doors across different machines in our network:

Here is what we will learn:

• Elixir's interactive shell
• Creating new Elixir projects
• Pattern matching
• Using agents for state
• Using structs for custom data structures
• Extending the language with protocols
• Supervision trees and applications
• Distributed Elixir nodes

Let's get started!

Elixir's website explains how to get Elixir up and running. Just follow the steps described in the Interactive Elixir page.

Elixir developers spend a lot of time in their Operating System terminals; once installation is complete, you will have some new executables available. One of them is iex. Just type iex in your terminal to get it up and running:

$ iex
Interactive Elixir - press Ctrl+C to exit (type h() ENTER for help)

iex stands for Interactive Elixir. In iex you can type any expression and you will get a result back:

iex> 40 + 2
42
iex> "hello" <> " world"
"hello world"
iex> # This is a code comment
nil

Besides numbers and strings above, we also frequently use the following data types:

iex> :atom           # An identifier (known as Symbols in other languages)
:atom
iex> [1, 2, "three"] # Lists (can hold any item)
[1, 2, "three"]
iex> {:ok, "value"}  # Tuples (can hold any item)

Once we finish our portal application, we expect to be able to type the following code inside iex:

# Shoot two doors: one orange, another blue
iex(1)> Portal.shoot(:orange)
{:ok, #PID<0.72.0>}
iex(2)> Portal.shoot(:blue)
{:ok, #PID<0.74.0>}

# Start transferring the list [1, 2, 3, 4] from orange to blue
iex(3)> portal = Portal.transfer(:orange, :blue, [1, 2, 3, 4])
#Portal<
       :orange <=> :blue
  [1, 2, 3, 4] <=> []
>

# Now every time we call push_right, data goes to blue
iex(4)> Portal.push_right(portal)
#Portal<
    :orange <=> :blue
  [1, 2, 3] <=> [4]
>

It looks sweet, doesn't it?

Elixir ships with a tool called Mix. Mix is what Elixir developers use to create, compile and test new projects. Let's create a project named portal with mix. When creating the project, we will also pass the --sup option that will create a supervision tree. We will explore what the supervision tree does in later sections. For now, just type:

$ mix new portal --sup

The command above created a new directory named portal with some files in it. Change your working directory into portal and run mix test to run the project tests:

$ cd portal
$ mix test

Excellent, we already have a working project with a test suite set up.

Let's explore the generated project using a text editor. I personally don't pay much attention to text editors, I mostly use a stock Sublime Text 3, but you can find Elixir support for different text editors on the website under the "Code Editor Support" section.

With your editor open, explore the following directories:

• _build - where Mix stores compilation artifacts
• config - where we configure our project and its dependencies
• lib - where we put our code
• mix.exs - where we define our project name, version and dependencies
• test - where we define our tests

We can now start an iex session inside our project too. Just run:

$ iex -S mix

Before we implement our application, we need to talk about pattern matching. The = operator in Elixir is a bit different from the ones we see in other languages:

iex> x = 1
1
iex> x
1

So far so good, what happens if we invert the operands?

iex> 1 = x
1

It worked! That's because Elixir tries to match the right side against the left side. Since both are set to 1, it works. Let's try something else:

iex> 2 = x
** (MatchError) no match of right hand side value: 1

Now the sides did not match, so we got an error. We use pattern matching in Elixir to match data structures, too. For example, we can use [head|tail] to extract the head (the first element) and tail (the remaining ones) from a list:

iex> [head|tail] = [1, 2, 3]
[1, 2, 3]
iex> head
1
iex> tail
[2, 3]

Matching an empty list against [head|tail] causes a match error:

iex> [head|tail] = []
** (MatchError) no match of right hand side value: []

Finally, we can also use the [head|tail] expression to add elements to the head of a list:

iex> list = [1, 2, 3]
[1, 2, 3]
iex> [0|list]
[0, 1, 2, 3]

Elixir data structures are immutable. In the examples above, we never mutated the list. We can break a list apart or add new elements to the head, but the original list is never modified.

That said, when we need to keep some sort of state, like the data transfering through a portal, we must use an abstraction that stores this state for us. One such abstraction in Elixir is called an agent:

iex> {:ok, agent} = Agent.start_link(fn -> [] end)
{:ok, #PID<0.61.0>}
iex> Agent.get(agent, fn list -> list end)
[]
iex> Agent.update(agent, fn list -> [0|list] end)
:ok
iex> Agent.get(agent, fn list -> list end)
[0]

Note: you will likely get different #PID<...> values than the ones we show throughout the tutorial. Don't worry, this is expected!

In the example above, we created a new agent, passing a function that returns the initial state of an empty list. The agent returns {:ok, #PID<0.61.0>}.

Curly brackets in Elixir specify a tuple; the tuple above contains the atom :ok and a process identifier (PID). We use atoms in Elixir as tags. In the example above, we are tagging the agents as successfully started.

The #PID<...> is a process identifier for the agent. When we say processes in Elixir, we don't mean Operating System processes, but rather Elixir Processes, which are light-weight and isolated, allowing us to run hundreds of thousands of them on the same machine.

We store the agent's PID in the agent variable, which allows us to send messages to get and update the agent's state.

We will use agents to implement our portal doors. Create a new file named lib/portal/door.ex with the following contents:

defmodule Portal.Door do
  @doc """
  Starts a door with the given `color`.

  The color is given as a name so we can identify
  the door by color name instead of using a PID.
  """
  def start_link(color) do
    Agent.start_link(fn -> [] end, name: color)
  end

  @doc """
  Get the data currently in the `door`.
  """
  def get(door) do
    Agent.get(door, fn list -> list end)
  end

  @doc """
  Pushes `value` into the door.
  """
  def push(door, value) do
    Agent.update(door, fn list -> [value|list] end)
  end

  @doc """
  Pops a value from the `door`.

  Returns `{:ok, value}` if there is a value
  or `:error` if the hole is currently empty.
  """
  def pop(door) do
    Agent.get_and_update(door, fn
      []    -> {:error, []}
      [h|t] -> {{:ok, h}, t}
    end)
  end
end

In Elixir we define code inside modules, which are basically a group of functions. We have defined four functions above, all properly documented.

Let's give our implementation a try. Start a new shell with iex -S mix. When starting the shell, our new file will be automatically compiled, so we can use it directly:

iex> Portal.Door.start_link(:pink)
{:ok, #PID<0.68.0>}
iex> Portal.Door.get(:pink)
[]
iex> Portal.Door.push(:pink, 1)
:ok
iex> Portal.Door.get(:pink)
[1]
iex> Portal.Door.pop(:pink)
{:ok, 1}
iex> Portal.Door.get(:pink)
[]
iex> Portal.Door.pop(:pink)
:error

Excellent!

One interesting aspect of Elixir is that documentation is treated as a first-class citizen. Since we have documented our Portal.Door code, we can now easily access its documentation from the terminal. Try it out:

iex> h Portal.Door.start_link

Our portal doors are ready so it is time to start working on portal transfers! In order to store the portal data, we are going to create a struct named Portal. Let's give structs a try on IEx before going ahead:

iex> defmodule User do
...>   defstruct [:name, :age]
...> end
iex> user = %User{name: "john doe", age: 27}
%User{name: "john doe", age: 27}
iex> user.name
"john doe"
iex> %User{age: age} = user
%User{name: "john doe", age: 27}
iex> age
27

A struct is defined inside a module and takes the same name as the module. After the struct is defined, we can use the %User{...} syntax to define new structs or match on them.

Let's open up lib/portal.ex and add some code to the Portal module. Note the current Portal module already has a function named start/2. Do not remove this function, we will talk about it in the next sections, for now just add the new contents below inside the Portal module:

defstruct [:left, :right]

@doc """
Starts transfering `data` from `left` to `right`.
"""
def transfer(left, right, data) do
  # First add all data to the portal on the left
  for item <- data do
    Portal.Door.push(left, item)
  end

  # Returns a portal struct we will use next
  %Portal{left: left, right: right}
end

@doc """
Pushes data to the right in the given `portal`.
"""
def push_right(portal) do
  # See if we can pop data from left. If so, push the
  # popped data to the right. Otherwise, do nothing.
  case Portal.Door.pop(portal.left) do
    :error   -> :ok
    {:ok, h} -> Portal.Door.push(portal.right, h)
  end

  # Let's return the portal itself
  portal
end

We have defined our Portal struct and a Portal.transfer/3 function (the /3 indicates it expects three arguments). Let's give this transfer a try. Start another shell with iex -S mix so our changes are compiled and type:

# Start doors
iex> Portal.Door.start_link(:orange)
{:ok, #PID<0.59.0>}
iex> Portal.Door.start_link(:blue)
{:ok, #PID<0.61.0>}

# Start transfer
iex> portal = Portal.transfer(:orange, :blue, [1, 2, 3])
%Portal{left: :orange, right: :blue}

# Check there is data on the orange/left door
iex> Portal.Door.get(:orange)
[3, 2, 1]

# Push right once
iex> Portal.push_right(portal)
%Portal{left: :orange, right: :blue}

# See changes
iex> Portal.Door.get(:orange)
[2, 1]
iex> Portal.Door.get(:blue)
[3]

Our portal transfer seems to work as expected. Note that the data is in reverse order in the left/orange door in the example above. That is expected because we want the end of the list (in this case the number 3) to be the first data pushed into the right/blue door.

One difference in the snippet above, compared to the one we saw earlier, is that our portal is currently being printed as a struct: %Portal{left: :orange, right: blue}. It would be nice if we actually had a printed representation of the portal transfer, allowing us to see the portal process as we push data.

That's what we will do next.

We already know that data can be printed in iex. After all, when we type 1 + 2 in iex, we do get 3 back. However, can we customize how our own types are printed?

Yes, we can! Elixir provides protocols, which allows behaviour to be extended and implemented for any data type, like our Portal struct, at any time.

For example, every time something is printed on our iex terminal, Elixir uses something called the Inspect protocol. Since protocols can be extended at any time, by any data type, it means we can implement it for Portal too. Open up lib/portal.ex and, at the end of the file, outside the Portal module, add the following:

defimpl Inspect, for: Portal do
  def inspect(%Portal{left: left, right: right}, _) do
    left_door  = inspect(left)
    right_door = inspect(right)

    left_data  = inspect(Enum.reverse(Portal.Door.get(left)))
    right_data = inspect(Portal.Door.get(right))

    max = max(String.length(left_door), String.length(left_data))

    """
    #Portal<
      #{String.rjust(left_door, max)} <=> #{right_door}
      #{String.rjust(left_data, max)} <=> #{right_data}
    >
    """
  end
end

In the snippet above, we have implemented the Inspect protocol for the Portal struct. The protocol expects just one function named inspect to be implemented. The function expects two arguments, the first is the Portal struct itself and the second is a set of options, which we don't care about for now.

Then we call inspect multiple times, to get a text representation of both left and right doors, as well as to get a representation of the data inside the doors. Finally, we return a string containing the portal presentation properly aligned.

Start another iex session with iex -S mix to see our new representation being used:

iex> Portal.Door.start_link(:orange)
{:ok, #PID<0.59.0>}
iex> Portal.Door.start_link(:blue)
{:ok, #PID<0.61.0>}
iex> portal = Portal.transfer(:orange, :blue, [1, 2, 3])
#Portal<
    :orange <=> :blue
  [1, 2, 3] <=> []
>

We often hear that the Erlang VM, the virtual machine Elixir runs on, alongside the Erlang ecosystem are great for building fault-tolerant applications. One of the reasons for such are the so-called supervision trees.

Our code so far is not supervised. Let's see what happens when we explicitly shutdown one of the door agents:

# Start doors and transfer
iex> Portal.Door.start_link(:orange)
{:ok, #PID<0.59.0>}
iex> Portal.Door.start_link(:blue)
{:ok, #PID<0.61.0>}
iex> portal = Portal.transfer(:orange, :blue, [1, 2, 3])

# Send a shutdown exit signal to the blue agent
iex> Process.exit(Process.whereis(:blue), :shutdown)
true

# Try to move data
iex> Portal.push_right(portal)
** (exit) exited in: :gen_server.call(:blue, ..., 5000)
    ** (EXIT) no process
    (stdlib) gen_server.erl:190: :gen_server.call/3
    (portal) lib/portal.ex:25: Portal.push_right/1

We got an exit error because there is no :blue door. You can see there is an ** (EXIT) no process message following our function call. To fix the situation we are going to setup a supervisor that will be responsible for restarting a portal door whenever it crashes.

Remember when we passed the --sup flag when creating our portal project? We passed that flag because supervisors typically run inside supervision trees and supervision trees are usually started as part of application. All the --sup flag does is to create a supervised structure by default which we can see in our Portal module:

defmodule Portal do
  use Application

  # See http://elixir-lang.org/docs/stable/elixir/Application.html
  # for more information on OTP Applications
  def start(_type, _args) do
    import Supervisor.Spec, warn: false

    children = [
      # Define workers and child supervisors to be supervised
      # worker(<%= @mod %>.Worker, [arg1, arg2, arg3])
    ]

    # See http://elixir-lang.org/docs/stable/elixir/Supervisor.html
    # for other strategies and supported options
    opts = [strategy: :one_for_one, name: Portal.Supervisor]
    Supervisor.start_link(children, opts)
  end

  # ... functions we have added ...
end

The code above makes the Portal module an application callback. The application callback must provide a function named start/2, which we see above, and this function must start a supervisor representing the root of our supervision tree. Currently our supervisor has no children and that is exactly what we will change next.

Replace the start/2 function above by:

def start(_type, _args) do
  import Supervisor.Spec

  children = [
    worker(Portal.Door, [])
  ]

  opts = [strategy: :simple_one_for_one, name: Portal.Supervisor]
  Supervisor.start_link(children, opts)
end

We have done two changes:

• We have added a child specification to the supervisor, of type worker, and the child is represented by the module Portal.Door. We pass no arguments to the worker, just an empty list [], as the door color will be specified later on.

• We have changed the strategy from :one_for_one to :simple_one_for_one. Supervisors provide different strategies and :simple_one_for_one is useful when we want to dynamically create children, often with different arguments. This is exactly the case for our portal doors, where we want to spawn multiple doors with different colors.

The last step is to add a function named shoot/1 to the Portal module that receives a color and spawns a new door as part of the supervision tree:

@doc """
Shoots a new door with the given `color`.
"""
def shoot(color) do
  Supervisor.start_child(Portal.Supervisor, [color])
end

The function above reaches the supervisor named Portal.Supervisor and asks for a new child to be started. Portal.Supervisor is the name of the supervisor we have defined in start/2 and the child is going to be a Portal.Door which was specified as a worker of that supervisor.

Internally, to start the child, the supervisor will invoke Portal.Door.start_link(color), where color is the value passed on the start_child/2 call above. If we had invoked Supervisor.start_child(Portal.Supervisor, [foo, bar, baz]), the supervisor would have attempted to start a child with Portal.Door.start_link(foo, bar, baz).

Let's give our shooting function a try. Start a new iex -S mix session and:

iex> Portal.shoot(:orange)
{:ok, #PID<0.72.0>}
iex> Portal.shoot(:blue)
{:ok, #PID<0.74.0>}
iex> portal = Portal.transfer(:orange, :blue, [1, 2, 3, 4])
#Portal<
       :orange <=> :blue
  [1, 2, 3, 4] <=> []
>

iex> Portal.push_right(portal)
#Portal<
    :orange <=> :blue
  [1, 2, 3] <=> [4]
>

And what happens if we stop the :blue agent now?

iex> Process.exit(Process.whereis(:blue), :shutdown)
true
iex> Portal.push_right(portal)
#Portal<
  :orange <=> :blue
   [1, 2] <=> [3]
>

Notice this time the following push_right/1 operation worked because the supervisor automatically started another :blue portal. Unfortunately the data that was in the blue door before the crash was lost but our system did recover from the crash.

In practice there are different supervision strategies to choose from as well as mechanisms to persist data in case something goes wrong, allowing you to choose the best option for your applications.

Outstanding!

With our portals working, we are ready to give distributed transfers a try. This can be extra awesome if you launch the code on two different machines on the same network. However, if you don't have another machine handy, it will work just fine.

We can start an iex session as node inside of a network by passing the --sname option. Let's give it a try:

$ iex --sname room1 --cookie secret -S mix
Interactive Elixir - press Ctrl+C to exit (type h() ENTER for help)
iex(room1@jv)1>

You can see this iex terminal is different from the previous ones. Now, we can see room1@jv in the prompt. room1 is the name we gave to the node and jv is the network name of the computer the node is started. In my case, my machine is named jv, but you will get a different result. From now on, we will use room1@COMPUTER-NAME and room2@COMPUTER-NAME and you must replace COMPUTER-NAME by your respective computer names.

In the iex session named room1, let's shoot a :blue door:

iex> Portal.shoot(:blue)
{:ok, #PID<0.65.0>}

Let's start another iex session named room2:

$ iex --sname room2 --cookie secret -S mix

Note: the cookie has to be the same on both computers in order for the two Elixir nodes to be able to communicate with each other.

The Agent API out of the box allows us to do cross-node requests. All we need to do is to pass the node name where the named agent we want to reach is running when invoking the Portal.Door functions. For example, let's reach the blue door in room1:

iex> Portal.Door.get({:blue, :"room1@COMPUTER-NAME"})
[]

Excellent! This means we can have distributed transfer by simply using node names. Still on room2, let's try:

iex> Portal.shoot(:orange)
{:ok, #PID<0.71.0>}
iex> orange = {:orange, :"room2@COMPUTER-NAME"}
{:orange, :"room2@COMPUTER-NAME"}
iex> blue = {:blue, :"room1@COMPUTER-NAME"}
{:blue, :"room1@COMPUTER-NAME"}
iex> portal = Portal.transfer(orange, blue, [1, 2, 3, 4])
#Portal<
  {:orange, :room2@COMPUTER-NAME} <=> {:blue, :room1@COMPUTER-NAME}
          [1, 2, 3, 4] <=> []
>
iex> Portal.push_right(portal)
#Portal<
  {:orange, :room2@COMPUTER-NAME} <=> {:blue, :room1@COMPUTER-NAME}
             [1, 2, 3] <=> [4]
>

Awesome. We have distributed transfers working on our code base without changing a single line of code!

So we have reached the end of this guide on how to get started with Elixir! It was a fun ride and we quickly went from manually starting doors processes to shooting fault-tolerant doors for distributed portal transfers!

We challenge you to continue learning and exploring more of Elixir by taking your portal application to the next level:

• Add a Portal.push_left/1 function that transfers the data in the other direction. How can you avoid the code duplication existing between the push_left/1 and push_right/1 functions?

• Learn more about ExUnit, Elixir's testing framework, and write tests for the functionality we have built so far. Remember we already have a default structure laid out in the test directory.

• Generate HTML documentation for your project with ExDoc.

• Push your project to an external source, like Github, and publish a package using the Hex package manager.

Finally, we welcome you to explore our website and read our Getting Started guide or many of the available resources to learn more about Elixir and our vibrant community.

See you around!