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Slobodan Mickovski

Glasgow Caledonian University, School of Engineering and Built Environment, Faculty Member

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Experienced researcher with civil and environmental engineering background who has worked in sectors including erosion protection, agriculture, forestry, rail, highways, flood and landslide mitigation, marine and on-shore energy developments. Design experience includes preparation and appraisal of factual and interpretative reports, feasibility studies, Eurocode 7 design, ground investigation, design and analysis of foundations including piled foundations, retaining walls, ground anchorages, ground improvement, earthworks, slope stability and soil stabilisation. Construction experience includes piling, ground treatment, earthworks, soil nailing, deep excavations, reservoir engineering, and reinforced concrete structures. Specialist expertise in ground bio- and eco-engineering solutions and erosion protection through sustainable use of vegetation including vegetated natural or man-made slopes, green roofs and walls, and natural hazard remediation.

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Muhammad Hafeez Osman

Universiti Teknologi Mara

Queen's University Belfast

PROFESSOR Sr Ts DR ZULHABRI ISMAIL

Universiti Teknologi Mara

Kansas State University

Cees van Westen

University of Twente, Faculty of Geoinformation Science and Earth Observation (ITC)

University of East London

Apiniti Jotisankasa

Kasetsart University

Armando Marques-Guedes

UNL - New University of Lisbon

National University of Singapore

Swansea University

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Papers by Slobodan Mickovski

A Novel Integrated Design Methodology for Nature-Based Solutions and Soil and Water Bioengineering Interventions: The Tardio&Mickovski Methodology

Sustainability

A methodology for designing nature-based solutions (NBS) and soil and water bioengineering (SWB) ... more A methodology for designing nature-based solutions (NBS) and soil and water bioengineering (SWB) works is proposed which includes the main particularities of this type of intervention. The dynamic nature of NBS/SWB works, their most important changes and possible critical scenarios are reflected in the proposed methodology. A clear and practical time framework for design checks is also defined. Existing structural design routines and plant root reinforcement models are integrated into the proposed time staged scheme. Likewise, the connections with the monitoring stage and the possibilities of continuous improvement are incorporated as an essential characteristic of the approach of this type of intervention. The proposed methodology is validated by means of a practical case study example embracing the whole service life of an SWB/NBS intervention. The obtained results are in good agreement with both the accumulated experience within the European SWB sector and the existing data colle...

Considerations on the Design of Shellfish Reef Against Coastal Erosion

Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering, 2022

The Catterline Bay in Scotland (UK) is regularly subjected to storm surges during spring tide per... more The Catterline Bay in Scotland (UK) is regularly subjected to storm surges during spring tide periods which had led to coastal erosion and landslides. As a response to the local population whose material properties and lives are at risk, we have investigated the potential of design and construction of Nature-Based Solutions (NBS) against the geo-hydro-climatic hazards posed by a changing climate. This paper assesses theoretically the wave attenuation capacity of an off-shore shellfish reef, as an NBS, which could be implemented in Catterline. Although less rigid than a traditional, 'grey' solution, this strategy plays on the depth reduction created by its organic structure to break the wave before it reaches the shore. Through numerical modelling using R Studio, we calculated the wave breaking probability (Qb) and the distribution of the wave energy flux (P) from the sea to the shore. Then, we compared two possible scenarios: the current conditions without a shellfish reef and a scenario with a constructed shellfish reef at three different locations and with different dimensions. The modelled NBS showed high wave breaking probability for each wave height trend. Moreover, the reef was shown to be more effective when located furthest from the shore. For maximum wave breaking effectiveness, the reef was shown to require relatively short length when located the furthest from the shore. Finally, based on the design and construction requirements, we offer recommendations about the reefs dimensions, and the shellfish species to implement as well as its management throughout the design life.

The Effect of Willow (Salix sp.) on Soil Moisture and Matric Suction at a Slope Scale

Sustainability, 2020

The aim of this study is to provide new knowledge on the effect of willow on hillslope hydrology ... more The aim of this study is to provide new knowledge on the effect of willow on hillslope hydrology at a slope scale. Soil moisture and matric suction were monitored in situ under willow-vegetated and fallow ground covers on a small-scale hillslope in Northeast Scotland for 21 months. The retrieved time series were analysed statistically to evaluate whether the dynamics of soil moisture and matric suction changed with the hillslope zone (i.e., toe, middle, and crest) under the two ground covers. The effect of air temperature and rainfall on the dynamics of soil moisture and matric suction, as well as the relationship between the two soil-water variables, under both ground covers, were also investigated by analysing the cross-correlation between time series. The results of 21 months of monitoring showed that willow contributed substantially to reduce soil moisture and to increase matric suction with respect to fallow soil. Additionally, willow-vegetated soil exhibited higher water reten...

A Simple GIS-Based Tool for the Detection of Landslide-Prone Zones on a Coastal Slope in Scotland

Land, 2021

Effective landslide detection is crucial to mitigate the negative impacts derived from the occurr... more Effective landslide detection is crucial to mitigate the negative impacts derived from the occurrence of these natural hazards. Research on landslide detection methods has been extensively undertaken. However, simplified methods for landslide detection requiring a minimum amount of data inputs are still lacking. Simple approaches for landslide detection should be particularly interesting for geographical areas with limited information or resources availability. The aim of this paper is to present a refined, simple, GIS-based tool for the detection of landslide-prone and slope restoration zones. The tool only requires a digital elevation model (DEM) dataset as input, it is interoperable at multiple spatial scales, and it can be implemented on any GIS platform. The tool was applied on a coastal slope prone to instability, located in Scotland, in order to verify the functionality of the tool. The results indicated that the proposed tool is able to detect both shallow and deeper landsli...

Describing the vertical root distribution of alpine plants with simple climate, soil, and plant attributes

CATENA, 2021

The vertical root distribution (VRD) in the soil remains unknown for most plant species, as study... more The vertical root distribution (VRD) in the soil remains unknown for most plant species, as studying root systems in different pedo-climatic settings is time-consuming and methodologically challenging. Yet, information on the VRD of different vegetation types is essential to understand better the biogeochemical processes occurring at the soil-plantatmosphere continuum. The aim of this study was to describe the (VRD) of three dominant alpine, herbaceous plants (i.e. Euphrasia minima Jacq., Leucanthemopsis alpina L., and Poa alpina L.) on the basis of simple and easy-to-measure climate, soil, and plant attributes in order to test the validity of existing descriptive protocols and parametric ecohydrological models. The results showed that the VRD decreased with soil depth for the three plants and that it can be effectively described with a negative exponential equation. Key VRD parameters, such as the mean rooting depth, cross-sectional area at the root collar, and root biomass, were both site and species-specific but they were chiefly influenced by the attributes regulating the soil's water mass balance. The existing parametric ecohydrological models were not able to portray successfully the VRD of the studied alpine plants but we found a strong correlation between empirical and parametric VRD models that establish a clear direction for future research. Future work should address the influence of the snowpack characteristics and the length of the snow-free and frozen ground periods on the soil's ecohydrology and VRD in alpine ecosystems.

Observations on different post-fire bio-engineering interventions and vegetation response in a Pinus canariensis C. Sm. forest

On the Canary Islands, during the 2007 (30 July - 2 August) wildfire, about 18.000 hectares of fo... more On the Canary Islands, during the 2007 (30 July - 2 August) wildfire, about 18.000 hectares of forest were destroyed. After the event, to avoid erosion, a series of mixed check dams (wooden elements and stones with a core filled with forest residues) were built in the gullies created by the surface runoff. This first study aims to investigate the different responses of vegetation and its recovery after fire, with three different types of structures. We analyzed the performance and evolution of the mixed check dams nine years after their construction and the post-fire response of vegetation with the different types of bio-engineering techniques applied. The effects of the mixed check dams are expressed in terms of plant density, frequency, and cover both in absolute and in relative terms and the same effects were compared with those of the rocks, check dams, wattle fences, and structure in the surrounding areas. Our observations show that fire adaptation in the Canary Islands vegetat...

Novel approaches to quantification of the vegetation effects on soil strength

Vegetation has the potential to reinforce the soil through the mechanical and hydrological effect... more Vegetation has the potential to reinforce the soil through the mechanical and hydrological effects of the roots. Increased soil strength would contribute towards reducing the risks of mass wasting on slopes in terms of erosion and shallow landslides. The investigations of the vegetation effects in the past have been usually restricted to either mechanical or hydrological and have usually been carried out at a micro, meso or macro scale. However, for full understanding of the effects of vegetation on and slope stability soil strength in general, a holistic approach should be used that will include investigations of the combined effects and at different scales. For this study we outline a number of novel methods and approaches that can be used to enhance the understanding of the mechanisms of soil root reinforcement. These methods range from micro scale assessment of suction stress induced by the vegetation, through meso scale assessment of root growth on slopes, to the macro scale as...

Specialization Process for the Bioengineering Sector in the Mediterranean Environment. Ecomed Project Part 1. Training Modules

According to the EFIB (European Federation of Soil Bioengineering) soil bioengineering is a disci... more According to the EFIB (European Federation of Soil Bioengineering) soil bioengineering is a discipline that combines technology biology, and sociology making use of plants and plant communities to help protect and develop land uses and infrastructures, and contribute to landscape development, particular in the domain of slope stability and erosion control. The promotion and greater adoption of soil bioengineering in the Mediterranean ecoregion is the main aim of the Erasmus + ECOMED project. This aim is being achieved by generating sector-specific theoretical and practical materials and tools essential for the specialization process and enhancement of this sector in the region of interest which is at the core of the ECOMED project strategy and approach. The lack of specialized training, a collection of analysed case studies and shortage of specialized staff in soil bioengineering in most of the Mediterranean countries makes it a necessity to develop training courses and a handbook on soil and fluvial soil bioengineering implementation, along with hazard assessment methods and effective selection of soil bioengineering methods specific to the Mediterranean environment. Book Topics:  Introduction to soil and water bioengineering.  Soil and water bioengineering and geological engineering.  Hydrology, Hydraulics and water bioengineering techniques.  Geographic Information Systems (GIS) for soil and water.  Environmental Impact Assessment and Planning.

The ‘Rocket Framework’: A Novel Framework to Define Key Performance Indicators for Nature-based Solutions Against Shallow Landslides and Erosion

Frontiers in Earth Science, 2021

The idea of nature providing solutions to societal challenges is relatively easy to understand by... more The idea of nature providing solutions to societal challenges is relatively easy to understand by the layperson. Nature-based solutions (NBS) against landslides and erosion mostly comprise plant-based interventions in which the reinforcement of slopes provided by vegetation plays a crucial role in natural hazard prevention and mitigation, and in the provision of multiple socio-ecological benefits. However, the full potential of NBS against landslides and erosion is not realised yet because a strong evidence base on their multi-functional performance is lacking, hindering the operational rigour of NBS practice and science. This knowledge gap can be addressed through the definition of repositories of key performance indicators (KPIs) and metrics, which should stem from holistic frameworks facilitating the multi-functional assessment of NBS. Herein, we propose the ‘rocket framework’ to promote the uptake of NBS against landslides and erosion through the provision of a comprehensive set...

Waste to Land (W2L): A novel tool to show and predict the spatial effect of applying biosolids on the environment

Agricultural Systems, 2020

A holistic tool that combines spatial data analysis methods, multi-criteria analysis, and numeric... more A holistic tool that combines spatial data analysis methods, multi-criteria analysis, and numerical models was created to predict the spatial effect of applying biosolids to land. A robust framework was developed first to chart the effects of applied biosolids on the environment and, potentially, on the human food chain. Selecting cadmium as a prototype contaminant, a conceptual model was designed as the basis to define the workflow for the tool. Using open source and freely available data the operation and outputs form the tools are demonstrated at a national scale.

Nature-based solutions efficiency evaluation against natural hazards: Modelling methods, advantages and limitations

Science of The Total Environment, 2021

climates in urban environments and assess the effects of atmosphere, vegetation, architecture and... more climates in urban environments and assess the effects of atmosphere, vegetation, architecture and materials; FEFLOW, Finite Element subsurface FLOW system; Flood Modeller, simulates the flow of water through river channels, urban drainage networks and across floodplains using a range of 1D and 2D hydraulic solvers.

The Use of Bamboo for Erosion Control and Slope Stabilization: Soil Bioengineering Works

Bamboo - Current and Future Prospects, 2018

The potential of bamboo in erosion control and slope stabilization has been proven worldwide. Bam... more The potential of bamboo in erosion control and slope stabilization has been proven worldwide. Bamboos are being used as living plants as well as construction material in different soil bioengineering techniques in many countries. The soil and water bioengineering approach is combined with bamboo traits and mechanical properties. The existing accumulated experiences of using bamboo in soil and water bioengineering works, along with the existing standards and design guidelines, make bamboo species an essential and cost-effective material for erosion control and slope stabilization works. In this chapter, all the necessary aspects to be taken into account for an appropriate use of bamboo in soil bioengineering works are addressed, and the design approaches for soil bioengineering works using bamboos are presented.

Providing ecosystem services in a challenging environment by dealing with bundles, trade-offs, and synergies

Ecosystem Services, 2017

The provision of ecosystem services (ES) relies upon the adequate functioning of multifunctional ... more The provision of ecosystem services (ES) relies upon the adequate functioning of multifunctional ecosystems and landscapes. Multifunctional ecosystems are prone to the emergence of ES bundles, trade-offs, and synergies due to various ecological and socio-ecological drivers. Dealing effectively with ES bundles, in general, and the interactions between ES, in particular, is crucial to achieve high degrees of sustainability and resilience by human societies. Yet, ES associations and interactions are difficult to assess, posing important challenges to ecologists, decision-makers, environmental planners, and managers. For this Special Section, we selected eight original contributions that were presented during the 5 th International EcoSummit held in Montpellier (France) in the summer of 2016. Together, the studies presented herein, cover novel research, tools, and approaches focusing on overcoming the multiple challenges associated with the quantification and analysis of ES bundles, trade-offs, and synergies. These will certainly contribute to develop a better understanding and more comprehensive studies focusing on ES interactions within multifunctional ecosystems in the future.

The Effect of Vegetation on Soil Polluted with Galligu: Phytostabilisation and Novel Approaches to Evaluate Soil Galligu Concentration

Environmental Geotechnics, 2020

The Sightill area, situated north of river Clyde in Glasgow, is polluted with the waste product g... more The Sightill area, situated north of river Clyde in Glasgow, is polluted with the waste product galligu as a consequence of past activities associated with the alkali industry. As this area is planned for re-development, it is necessary to explore feasible ways of polluted soil decontamination. An experimental laboratory survey was conducted to assess whether phytostabilisation could be a suitable strategy to limit the mobilisation of galligu within contaminated soil. For this purpose, two different types of vegetation were tested -i.e. a male dwarf fern (Dryopteris Affinis (Lowe) Fraser-Jenk) and alfalfa (Medicago Sativa L.). Laboratory experiments were conducted using readily available materials to study both the axial and vertical movement of galligu in the soil as a result of heavy rainfall events. In addition to this research, original and simple methods were tested to assess whether it was possible to estimate galligu content within a soil volume. The results showed that sediment loss was reduced by 84% and 94% under fern and alfalfa covers, respectively, compared to fallow soil. The concentration of galligu in the sediments from fern and grass treated soil was 59% and 62% lower, respectively, than under fallow soil conditions. Furthermore, alfalfa was observed to be more effective in containing galligu, since the fern root systems may have allowed the contaminant to percolate towards the bottom of the soil. Turbidity and colour-based analyses were able to give an estimation of the concentration of galligu in the soil effectively. The results of this research are directly applicable to phytoremediation actions on polluted soils and to the assessment of synthetic soil pollutants using simple and inexpensive methods.

A novel framework to study the effect of tree architectural traits on stemflow yield and its consequences for soil-water dynamics

Journal of Hydrology, 2020

A novel experimental approach and numerical framework are proposed to study the effect of tree ar... more A novel experimental approach and numerical framework are proposed to study the effect of tree architectural traits on stemflow yield and its effects on soil-water dynamics. The framework includes a data mining workflow employing information from two experimental steps: (i) evaluation of the effect of tree aboveground architecture on stemflow yield and (ii) quantification of specific parameters for soil-water dynamics with and without stemflow. We studied double-funnelling (stemflow and root-induced preferential flow) under three sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus L.) trees growing on a slope in Scotland during the summer season and measured architectural traits. Stemflow yield ranged from 1.3 to 3.8 % of the incident rainfall, with funnelling ratios of between 2.22.1 and 5.23.9. Double-funnelling to a depth of up to 400 mm beneath the soil surface occurred as matrix flow and was significantly and positively correlated with the vertical root distribution. Soil-water dynamics were distinctly different with and without stemflow. Our framework revealed that the number of tree branches, their insertion angle, leaf number, and stem basal diameter influenced stemflow yield within rainfall thresholds of 1.1 and 3.5 mm d -1 . The framework also showed that stemflow yield had a negative impact on soil matric suction, while air temperature was the most influential covariate affecting soil-water dynamics, likely due to its strong correlation to evapotranspiration during the summer season. In spite of the study limitations, such as small sample size and differences between individuals, we show that the proposed framework and experimental approach can contribute to our knowledge of how stemflow generated aboveground triggers major responses in soil-water dynamics belowground.

Nature-Based Solutions for hydro-meteorological risk reduction: A state-of-the-art review of the research area

Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences Discussions, 2019

Natural hazards such as severe floods, storm surges, landslides, avalanches, hail, windstorms, dr... more Natural hazards such as severe floods, storm surges, landslides, avalanches, hail, windstorms, droughts, heat waves and forest fires occur almost daily. This situation is likely to become worse given the projected changes in climate, degradation of ecosystems, population growth and urbanisation. The new concepts such as Ecosystem-based Adaptation, Green Infrastructure and/or Nature-Based Solutions have emerged as effective means to respond to such challenges. The present paper provides a critical review of the literature and identifies current knowledge gaps and future research prospects. There has been an explosion of scientific publications on this topic with a more significant rise taking place from 2007 onwards. Hence, the review process started by sourcing 1381 articles from Scopus which were also cross-referenced with the articles sourced from Web of Science and Google Scholar. The full analysis was performed on 159 closely related articles. The analysis confirmed that numerous advancements have been achieved to date. These solutions have already proven to be valuable in providing sustainable, cost-effective, multi-purpose and flexible means for hydro-meteorological risk reduction. However, there are still many areas where further research and demonstration is needed in order to promote their upscaling and replication and to make them become mainstream solutions. related to the increased frequency of extreme events (Maragno et al., 2018). Since biodiversity and ecosystem services can play important role in responding to climate-related challenges, both mitigation and adaptation strategies should take into consideration a variety of Green Infrastructure (GI) and Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) as effective means to respond to present and future disaster risk (see also EEA, 2015). Such approaches are already well accepted within multilateral frameworks such as the international United Nations (UN) Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk reduction (SFDRR). As such, they are recognized as effective means for climate change adaptation (CCA) and disaster risk reduction (DRR), and for the implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). In view of the above, many countries are nowadays developing adaptation and mitigation strategies based on GI and EbA to reduce their vulnerability to hydro-meteorological hazards . Nature-Based Solutions (NBS) have been introduced relatively recently. The reason behind is that NBS offer the possibility to work closely with nature to adapt with the future changes and to reduce the impact of climate change as well as to improve human well-being . NBS have been in the focus for reseach in several EU Horizon2020 funded projects. The Horizon2020 offers new opportunities in the focus area of 'Smart and Sustainable Cities with Nature based solutions' (Faivre et al., 2017). Some of these important projects are: Nature4Cites, Naturvation, NAIAD, BiodiverEsA, Inspiration, URBAN GreenUP, UNaLaB, URBINAT, CLEVER Cities, proGIreg, EdiCINET, RECONECT, OPERANDUM, ThinkNature, EKLIPSE and PHUSICOS (nature4cities, 2019). NBS are typically implemented through both structural (green-blue infrastructure, e.g. wetlands, green roofs) and nonstructural measures (e.g. improving the local knowledge of NBS) . They are associated with multiple benefits such as improving water quality, increasing the opportunities for recreation, improving human well-being and health, enhancing vegetation growth and connecting habitat and biodiversity

Soil and water bioengineering: Practice and research needs for reconciling natural hazard control and ecological restoration

Science of The Total Environment, 2019

Soil and water bioengineering is an ecological engineering solution providing several benefits to... more Soil and water bioengineering is an ecological engineering solution providing several benefits to both humans and nature. • There is an emphasis on the necessity to reconcile both natural hazard control and ecological restoration. • Applied research in geosciences and ecology can be used in an interactive process with practitioners to reach this aim. • Sound soil and water bioengineering methods that reconcile both objectives are proposed.

Plant-Best: A novel plant selection tool for slope protection

Ecological Engineering, 2017

Plant-Best is a novel tool for the selection of the most suitable plant cover against rainfall-in... more Plant-Best is a novel tool for the selection of the most suitable plant cover against rainfall-induced shallow landslides. It explores the plant-derived likelihood of slope failure reduction under wetting and drying events, respectively. Plant-Best comprises five comprehensive open-source modules built in the freeware R. The modules' objectives range from the spatial detection of landslide-prone zones to the integrated evaluation of plant-derived hydro-mechanical effects on sloped terrain; from the selection of the best performing plant species to the identification of sensitive plant traits. In this paper, we provide a detailed description of the Plant-Best modules and we show how this holistic tool can be effectively employed for plant cover selection in a shallow landslide context. To do so, we demonstrate the application of Plant-Best on a site with a history of slope failures in Northeast Scotland, where the tool is implemented using seven native plant species including both woody and herbaceous vegetation. The results reveal that different plant species were suitable for protection depending on the hydrological conditionsi.e. wetting or drying. Plant effects were limited to the topmost soil and, in general, underweight plants with dense root systems and broad thick canopies offered the best resistance to failure. This suggested that botanically diverse slopes with different plant functional groups are desirable for a more effective slope protection. Plant-Best proved to be a relatively simple but robust tool for the detection of landslide-prone zones, the selection and evaluation of plant covers, and the identification of relevant plant traits related to shallow landslides mitigation. The open-source nature of the tool confers a great versatility and applicability to the tool which can be deployed as a multidisciplinary aid to the decision making process.

Hydrological effect of vegetation against rainfall-induced landslides

Journal of Hydrology, 2017

The hydrological effect of vegetation on rainfall-induced landslides has rarely been quantified a... more The hydrological effect of vegetation on rainfall-induced landslides has rarely been quantified and its integration into slope stability analysis methods remains a challenge. Our goal was to establish a reproducible, novel framework to evaluate the hydrological effect of vegetation on shallow landslides. This was achieved by accomplishing three objectives: (i) quantification in situ of the hydrological mechanisms by which woody vegetation (i.e. Salix sp.) might impact slope stability under wetting and drying conditions; (ii) to propose a new approach to predict plantderived matric suctions under drying conditions; and (iii) to evaluate the suitability of the unified effective stress principle and framework (UES) to quantify the hydrological effect of vegetation against landslides. The results revealed that plant water uptake was the main hydrological mechanism contributing to slope stability, as the vegetated slope was, on average, 12.84% drier and had matric suctions three times higher than the fallow slope. The plant-related mechanisms under wetting conditions had a minimal effect on slope stability. The plant aerial parts intercepted up to 26.73% of the rainfall and concentrated a further 10.78% of it around the stem. Our approach successfully predicted the plant-derived matric suctions and UES proved to be adequate for evaluating the hydrological effect of vegetation on landslides. Although the UES framework presented here sets the basis for effectively evaluating the hydrological effect of vegetation on slope stability, it requires knowledge of the specific hydro-mechanical properties of plant-soil composites and this in itself needs further investigation.

Shallow landslides as drivers for slope ecosystem evolution and biophysical diversity

Landslides, 2017

Shallow landslides may be seen as local disturbances that foster the evolution of slope landscape... more Shallow landslides may be seen as local disturbances that foster the evolution of slope landscapes as part of their selfregulating capacity. Gaining insight into how slope ecosystems function and evolve could make eco-engineering interventions on slopes more successful. The objective of the present study is to detect traits of shallow landslide-triggered ecosystem evolution, self-regulation and biophysical diversity in a small-scale landslide-prone slope in Northeast Scotland. A protocol was defined to explore the emergence of landslide-driven slope habitats. This protocol studied plant diversity, species richness and plant biomass differences and their interactions with certain soil and topographic attributes at three slope strata during two consecutive growing seasons following an assemblage of shallow landslide events. Plant species and soil properties with potential as indicators of the different landslide-driven slope habitats and landscape evolution were also considered. Shallow landslides contributed to biophysical diversity and created distinct slope habitats within the landscape. Habitat differences in terms of species richness and composition were a direct consequence of the slope self-regulation. Certain plant species were found to be valid indicators of landslide-driven biophysical diversity. Soil total nitrogen and resistance to penetration were related to slope habitat and landscape evolution. As expected, plant establishment relied upon light and nitrogen trade-offs, which in turn were influenced by landscape topography. The insights derived from this study will be useful in slope restoration, particularly in harmonising effective actions with the functioning of landslide-prone ecosystems. Further research directions to clarify the observed variability and interactions are highlighted.

A Novel Integrated Design Methodology for Nature-Based Solutions and Soil and Water Bioengineering Interventions: The Tardio&Mickovski Methodology

Sustainability

A methodology for designing nature-based solutions (NBS) and soil and water bioengineering (SWB) ... more A methodology for designing nature-based solutions (NBS) and soil and water bioengineering (SWB) works is proposed which includes the main particularities of this type of intervention. The dynamic nature of NBS/SWB works, their most important changes and possible critical scenarios are reflected in the proposed methodology. A clear and practical time framework for design checks is also defined. Existing structural design routines and plant root reinforcement models are integrated into the proposed time staged scheme. Likewise, the connections with the monitoring stage and the possibilities of continuous improvement are incorporated as an essential characteristic of the approach of this type of intervention. The proposed methodology is validated by means of a practical case study example embracing the whole service life of an SWB/NBS intervention. The obtained results are in good agreement with both the accumulated experience within the European SWB sector and the existing data colle...

Considerations on the Design of Shellfish Reef Against Coastal Erosion

Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering, 2022

The Catterline Bay in Scotland (UK) is regularly subjected to storm surges during spring tide per... more The Catterline Bay in Scotland (UK) is regularly subjected to storm surges during spring tide periods which had led to coastal erosion and landslides. As a response to the local population whose material properties and lives are at risk, we have investigated the potential of design and construction of Nature-Based Solutions (NBS) against the geo-hydro-climatic hazards posed by a changing climate. This paper assesses theoretically the wave attenuation capacity of an off-shore shellfish reef, as an NBS, which could be implemented in Catterline. Although less rigid than a traditional, 'grey' solution, this strategy plays on the depth reduction created by its organic structure to break the wave before it reaches the shore. Through numerical modelling using R Studio, we calculated the wave breaking probability (Qb) and the distribution of the wave energy flux (P) from the sea to the shore. Then, we compared two possible scenarios: the current conditions without a shellfish reef and a scenario with a constructed shellfish reef at three different locations and with different dimensions. The modelled NBS showed high wave breaking probability for each wave height trend. Moreover, the reef was shown to be more effective when located furthest from the shore. For maximum wave breaking effectiveness, the reef was shown to require relatively short length when located the furthest from the shore. Finally, based on the design and construction requirements, we offer recommendations about the reefs dimensions, and the shellfish species to implement as well as its management throughout the design life.

The Effect of Willow (Salix sp.) on Soil Moisture and Matric Suction at a Slope Scale

Sustainability, 2020

The aim of this study is to provide new knowledge on the effect of willow on hillslope hydrology ... more The aim of this study is to provide new knowledge on the effect of willow on hillslope hydrology at a slope scale. Soil moisture and matric suction were monitored in situ under willow-vegetated and fallow ground covers on a small-scale hillslope in Northeast Scotland for 21 months. The retrieved time series were analysed statistically to evaluate whether the dynamics of soil moisture and matric suction changed with the hillslope zone (i.e., toe, middle, and crest) under the two ground covers. The effect of air temperature and rainfall on the dynamics of soil moisture and matric suction, as well as the relationship between the two soil-water variables, under both ground covers, were also investigated by analysing the cross-correlation between time series. The results of 21 months of monitoring showed that willow contributed substantially to reduce soil moisture and to increase matric suction with respect to fallow soil. Additionally, willow-vegetated soil exhibited higher water reten...

A Simple GIS-Based Tool for the Detection of Landslide-Prone Zones on a Coastal Slope in Scotland

Land, 2021

Effective landslide detection is crucial to mitigate the negative impacts derived from the occurr... more Effective landslide detection is crucial to mitigate the negative impacts derived from the occurrence of these natural hazards. Research on landslide detection methods has been extensively undertaken. However, simplified methods for landslide detection requiring a minimum amount of data inputs are still lacking. Simple approaches for landslide detection should be particularly interesting for geographical areas with limited information or resources availability. The aim of this paper is to present a refined, simple, GIS-based tool for the detection of landslide-prone and slope restoration zones. The tool only requires a digital elevation model (DEM) dataset as input, it is interoperable at multiple spatial scales, and it can be implemented on any GIS platform. The tool was applied on a coastal slope prone to instability, located in Scotland, in order to verify the functionality of the tool. The results indicated that the proposed tool is able to detect both shallow and deeper landsli...

Describing the vertical root distribution of alpine plants with simple climate, soil, and plant attributes

CATENA, 2021

The vertical root distribution (VRD) in the soil remains unknown for most plant species, as study... more The vertical root distribution (VRD) in the soil remains unknown for most plant species, as studying root systems in different pedo-climatic settings is time-consuming and methodologically challenging. Yet, information on the VRD of different vegetation types is essential to understand better the biogeochemical processes occurring at the soil-plantatmosphere continuum. The aim of this study was to describe the (VRD) of three dominant alpine, herbaceous plants (i.e. Euphrasia minima Jacq., Leucanthemopsis alpina L., and Poa alpina L.) on the basis of simple and easy-to-measure climate, soil, and plant attributes in order to test the validity of existing descriptive protocols and parametric ecohydrological models. The results showed that the VRD decreased with soil depth for the three plants and that it can be effectively described with a negative exponential equation. Key VRD parameters, such as the mean rooting depth, cross-sectional area at the root collar, and root biomass, were both site and species-specific but they were chiefly influenced by the attributes regulating the soil's water mass balance. The existing parametric ecohydrological models were not able to portray successfully the VRD of the studied alpine plants but we found a strong correlation between empirical and parametric VRD models that establish a clear direction for future research. Future work should address the influence of the snowpack characteristics and the length of the snow-free and frozen ground periods on the soil's ecohydrology and VRD in alpine ecosystems.

Observations on different post-fire bio-engineering interventions and vegetation response in a Pinus canariensis C. Sm. forest

On the Canary Islands, during the 2007 (30 July - 2 August) wildfire, about 18.000 hectares of fo... more On the Canary Islands, during the 2007 (30 July - 2 August) wildfire, about 18.000 hectares of forest were destroyed. After the event, to avoid erosion, a series of mixed check dams (wooden elements and stones with a core filled with forest residues) were built in the gullies created by the surface runoff. This first study aims to investigate the different responses of vegetation and its recovery after fire, with three different types of structures. We analyzed the performance and evolution of the mixed check dams nine years after their construction and the post-fire response of vegetation with the different types of bio-engineering techniques applied. The effects of the mixed check dams are expressed in terms of plant density, frequency, and cover both in absolute and in relative terms and the same effects were compared with those of the rocks, check dams, wattle fences, and structure in the surrounding areas. Our observations show that fire adaptation in the Canary Islands vegetat...

Novel approaches to quantification of the vegetation effects on soil strength

Vegetation has the potential to reinforce the soil through the mechanical and hydrological effect... more Vegetation has the potential to reinforce the soil through the mechanical and hydrological effects of the roots. Increased soil strength would contribute towards reducing the risks of mass wasting on slopes in terms of erosion and shallow landslides. The investigations of the vegetation effects in the past have been usually restricted to either mechanical or hydrological and have usually been carried out at a micro, meso or macro scale. However, for full understanding of the effects of vegetation on and slope stability soil strength in general, a holistic approach should be used that will include investigations of the combined effects and at different scales. For this study we outline a number of novel methods and approaches that can be used to enhance the understanding of the mechanisms of soil root reinforcement. These methods range from micro scale assessment of suction stress induced by the vegetation, through meso scale assessment of root growth on slopes, to the macro scale as...

Specialization Process for the Bioengineering Sector in the Mediterranean Environment. Ecomed Project Part 1. Training Modules

According to the EFIB (European Federation of Soil Bioengineering) soil bioengineering is a disci... more According to the EFIB (European Federation of Soil Bioengineering) soil bioengineering is a discipline that combines technology biology, and sociology making use of plants and plant communities to help protect and develop land uses and infrastructures, and contribute to landscape development, particular in the domain of slope stability and erosion control. The promotion and greater adoption of soil bioengineering in the Mediterranean ecoregion is the main aim of the Erasmus + ECOMED project. This aim is being achieved by generating sector-specific theoretical and practical materials and tools essential for the specialization process and enhancement of this sector in the region of interest which is at the core of the ECOMED project strategy and approach. The lack of specialized training, a collection of analysed case studies and shortage of specialized staff in soil bioengineering in most of the Mediterranean countries makes it a necessity to develop training courses and a handbook on soil and fluvial soil bioengineering implementation, along with hazard assessment methods and effective selection of soil bioengineering methods specific to the Mediterranean environment. Book Topics:  Introduction to soil and water bioengineering.  Soil and water bioengineering and geological engineering.  Hydrology, Hydraulics and water bioengineering techniques.  Geographic Information Systems (GIS) for soil and water.  Environmental Impact Assessment and Planning.

The ‘Rocket Framework’: A Novel Framework to Define Key Performance Indicators for Nature-based Solutions Against Shallow Landslides and Erosion

Frontiers in Earth Science, 2021

The idea of nature providing solutions to societal challenges is relatively easy to understand by... more The idea of nature providing solutions to societal challenges is relatively easy to understand by the layperson. Nature-based solutions (NBS) against landslides and erosion mostly comprise plant-based interventions in which the reinforcement of slopes provided by vegetation plays a crucial role in natural hazard prevention and mitigation, and in the provision of multiple socio-ecological benefits. However, the full potential of NBS against landslides and erosion is not realised yet because a strong evidence base on their multi-functional performance is lacking, hindering the operational rigour of NBS practice and science. This knowledge gap can be addressed through the definition of repositories of key performance indicators (KPIs) and metrics, which should stem from holistic frameworks facilitating the multi-functional assessment of NBS. Herein, we propose the ‘rocket framework’ to promote the uptake of NBS against landslides and erosion through the provision of a comprehensive set...

Waste to Land (W2L): A novel tool to show and predict the spatial effect of applying biosolids on the environment

Agricultural Systems, 2020

A holistic tool that combines spatial data analysis methods, multi-criteria analysis, and numeric... more A holistic tool that combines spatial data analysis methods, multi-criteria analysis, and numerical models was created to predict the spatial effect of applying biosolids to land. A robust framework was developed first to chart the effects of applied biosolids on the environment and, potentially, on the human food chain. Selecting cadmium as a prototype contaminant, a conceptual model was designed as the basis to define the workflow for the tool. Using open source and freely available data the operation and outputs form the tools are demonstrated at a national scale.

Nature-based solutions efficiency evaluation against natural hazards: Modelling methods, advantages and limitations

Science of The Total Environment, 2021

climates in urban environments and assess the effects of atmosphere, vegetation, architecture and... more climates in urban environments and assess the effects of atmosphere, vegetation, architecture and materials; FEFLOW, Finite Element subsurface FLOW system; Flood Modeller, simulates the flow of water through river channels, urban drainage networks and across floodplains using a range of 1D and 2D hydraulic solvers.

The Use of Bamboo for Erosion Control and Slope Stabilization: Soil Bioengineering Works

Bamboo - Current and Future Prospects, 2018

The potential of bamboo in erosion control and slope stabilization has been proven worldwide. Bam... more The potential of bamboo in erosion control and slope stabilization has been proven worldwide. Bamboos are being used as living plants as well as construction material in different soil bioengineering techniques in many countries. The soil and water bioengineering approach is combined with bamboo traits and mechanical properties. The existing accumulated experiences of using bamboo in soil and water bioengineering works, along with the existing standards and design guidelines, make bamboo species an essential and cost-effective material for erosion control and slope stabilization works. In this chapter, all the necessary aspects to be taken into account for an appropriate use of bamboo in soil bioengineering works are addressed, and the design approaches for soil bioengineering works using bamboos are presented.

Providing ecosystem services in a challenging environment by dealing with bundles, trade-offs, and synergies

Ecosystem Services, 2017

The provision of ecosystem services (ES) relies upon the adequate functioning of multifunctional ... more The provision of ecosystem services (ES) relies upon the adequate functioning of multifunctional ecosystems and landscapes. Multifunctional ecosystems are prone to the emergence of ES bundles, trade-offs, and synergies due to various ecological and socio-ecological drivers. Dealing effectively with ES bundles, in general, and the interactions between ES, in particular, is crucial to achieve high degrees of sustainability and resilience by human societies. Yet, ES associations and interactions are difficult to assess, posing important challenges to ecologists, decision-makers, environmental planners, and managers. For this Special Section, we selected eight original contributions that were presented during the 5 th International EcoSummit held in Montpellier (France) in the summer of 2016. Together, the studies presented herein, cover novel research, tools, and approaches focusing on overcoming the multiple challenges associated with the quantification and analysis of ES bundles, trade-offs, and synergies. These will certainly contribute to develop a better understanding and more comprehensive studies focusing on ES interactions within multifunctional ecosystems in the future.

The Effect of Vegetation on Soil Polluted with Galligu: Phytostabilisation and Novel Approaches to Evaluate Soil Galligu Concentration

Environmental Geotechnics, 2020

The Sightill area, situated north of river Clyde in Glasgow, is polluted with the waste product g... more The Sightill area, situated north of river Clyde in Glasgow, is polluted with the waste product galligu as a consequence of past activities associated with the alkali industry. As this area is planned for re-development, it is necessary to explore feasible ways of polluted soil decontamination. An experimental laboratory survey was conducted to assess whether phytostabilisation could be a suitable strategy to limit the mobilisation of galligu within contaminated soil. For this purpose, two different types of vegetation were tested -i.e. a male dwarf fern (Dryopteris Affinis (Lowe) Fraser-Jenk) and alfalfa (Medicago Sativa L.). Laboratory experiments were conducted using readily available materials to study both the axial and vertical movement of galligu in the soil as a result of heavy rainfall events. In addition to this research, original and simple methods were tested to assess whether it was possible to estimate galligu content within a soil volume. The results showed that sediment loss was reduced by 84% and 94% under fern and alfalfa covers, respectively, compared to fallow soil. The concentration of galligu in the sediments from fern and grass treated soil was 59% and 62% lower, respectively, than under fallow soil conditions. Furthermore, alfalfa was observed to be more effective in containing galligu, since the fern root systems may have allowed the contaminant to percolate towards the bottom of the soil. Turbidity and colour-based analyses were able to give an estimation of the concentration of galligu in the soil effectively. The results of this research are directly applicable to phytoremediation actions on polluted soils and to the assessment of synthetic soil pollutants using simple and inexpensive methods.

A novel framework to study the effect of tree architectural traits on stemflow yield and its consequences for soil-water dynamics

Journal of Hydrology, 2020

A novel experimental approach and numerical framework are proposed to study the effect of tree ar... more A novel experimental approach and numerical framework are proposed to study the effect of tree architectural traits on stemflow yield and its effects on soil-water dynamics. The framework includes a data mining workflow employing information from two experimental steps: (i) evaluation of the effect of tree aboveground architecture on stemflow yield and (ii) quantification of specific parameters for soil-water dynamics with and without stemflow. We studied double-funnelling (stemflow and root-induced preferential flow) under three sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus L.) trees growing on a slope in Scotland during the summer season and measured architectural traits. Stemflow yield ranged from 1.3 to 3.8 % of the incident rainfall, with funnelling ratios of between 2.22.1 and 5.23.9. Double-funnelling to a depth of up to 400 mm beneath the soil surface occurred as matrix flow and was significantly and positively correlated with the vertical root distribution. Soil-water dynamics were distinctly different with and without stemflow. Our framework revealed that the number of tree branches, their insertion angle, leaf number, and stem basal diameter influenced stemflow yield within rainfall thresholds of 1.1 and 3.5 mm d -1 . The framework also showed that stemflow yield had a negative impact on soil matric suction, while air temperature was the most influential covariate affecting soil-water dynamics, likely due to its strong correlation to evapotranspiration during the summer season. In spite of the study limitations, such as small sample size and differences between individuals, we show that the proposed framework and experimental approach can contribute to our knowledge of how stemflow generated aboveground triggers major responses in soil-water dynamics belowground.

Nature-Based Solutions for hydro-meteorological risk reduction: A state-of-the-art review of the research area

Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences Discussions, 2019

Natural hazards such as severe floods, storm surges, landslides, avalanches, hail, windstorms, dr... more Natural hazards such as severe floods, storm surges, landslides, avalanches, hail, windstorms, droughts, heat waves and forest fires occur almost daily. This situation is likely to become worse given the projected changes in climate, degradation of ecosystems, population growth and urbanisation. The new concepts such as Ecosystem-based Adaptation, Green Infrastructure and/or Nature-Based Solutions have emerged as effective means to respond to such challenges. The present paper provides a critical review of the literature and identifies current knowledge gaps and future research prospects. There has been an explosion of scientific publications on this topic with a more significant rise taking place from 2007 onwards. Hence, the review process started by sourcing 1381 articles from Scopus which were also cross-referenced with the articles sourced from Web of Science and Google Scholar. The full analysis was performed on 159 closely related articles. The analysis confirmed that numerous advancements have been achieved to date. These solutions have already proven to be valuable in providing sustainable, cost-effective, multi-purpose and flexible means for hydro-meteorological risk reduction. However, there are still many areas where further research and demonstration is needed in order to promote their upscaling and replication and to make them become mainstream solutions. related to the increased frequency of extreme events (Maragno et al., 2018). Since biodiversity and ecosystem services can play important role in responding to climate-related challenges, both mitigation and adaptation strategies should take into consideration a variety of Green Infrastructure (GI) and Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) as effective means to respond to present and future disaster risk (see also EEA, 2015). Such approaches are already well accepted within multilateral frameworks such as the international United Nations (UN) Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk reduction (SFDRR). As such, they are recognized as effective means for climate change adaptation (CCA) and disaster risk reduction (DRR), and for the implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). In view of the above, many countries are nowadays developing adaptation and mitigation strategies based on GI and EbA to reduce their vulnerability to hydro-meteorological hazards . Nature-Based Solutions (NBS) have been introduced relatively recently. The reason behind is that NBS offer the possibility to work closely with nature to adapt with the future changes and to reduce the impact of climate change as well as to improve human well-being . NBS have been in the focus for reseach in several EU Horizon2020 funded projects. The Horizon2020 offers new opportunities in the focus area of 'Smart and Sustainable Cities with Nature based solutions' (Faivre et al., 2017). Some of these important projects are: Nature4Cites, Naturvation, NAIAD, BiodiverEsA, Inspiration, URBAN GreenUP, UNaLaB, URBINAT, CLEVER Cities, proGIreg, EdiCINET, RECONECT, OPERANDUM, ThinkNature, EKLIPSE and PHUSICOS (nature4cities, 2019). NBS are typically implemented through both structural (green-blue infrastructure, e.g. wetlands, green roofs) and nonstructural measures (e.g. improving the local knowledge of NBS) . They are associated with multiple benefits such as improving water quality, increasing the opportunities for recreation, improving human well-being and health, enhancing vegetation growth and connecting habitat and biodiversity

Soil and water bioengineering: Practice and research needs for reconciling natural hazard control and ecological restoration

Science of The Total Environment, 2019

Soil and water bioengineering is an ecological engineering solution providing several benefits to... more Soil and water bioengineering is an ecological engineering solution providing several benefits to both humans and nature. • There is an emphasis on the necessity to reconcile both natural hazard control and ecological restoration. • Applied research in geosciences and ecology can be used in an interactive process with practitioners to reach this aim. • Sound soil and water bioengineering methods that reconcile both objectives are proposed.

Plant-Best: A novel plant selection tool for slope protection

Ecological Engineering, 2017

Plant-Best is a novel tool for the selection of the most suitable plant cover against rainfall-in... more Plant-Best is a novel tool for the selection of the most suitable plant cover against rainfall-induced shallow landslides. It explores the plant-derived likelihood of slope failure reduction under wetting and drying events, respectively. Plant-Best comprises five comprehensive open-source modules built in the freeware R. The modules' objectives range from the spatial detection of landslide-prone zones to the integrated evaluation of plant-derived hydro-mechanical effects on sloped terrain; from the selection of the best performing plant species to the identification of sensitive plant traits. In this paper, we provide a detailed description of the Plant-Best modules and we show how this holistic tool can be effectively employed for plant cover selection in a shallow landslide context. To do so, we demonstrate the application of Plant-Best on a site with a history of slope failures in Northeast Scotland, where the tool is implemented using seven native plant species including both woody and herbaceous vegetation. The results reveal that different plant species were suitable for protection depending on the hydrological conditionsi.e. wetting or drying. Plant effects were limited to the topmost soil and, in general, underweight plants with dense root systems and broad thick canopies offered the best resistance to failure. This suggested that botanically diverse slopes with different plant functional groups are desirable for a more effective slope protection. Plant-Best proved to be a relatively simple but robust tool for the detection of landslide-prone zones, the selection and evaluation of plant covers, and the identification of relevant plant traits related to shallow landslides mitigation. The open-source nature of the tool confers a great versatility and applicability to the tool which can be deployed as a multidisciplinary aid to the decision making process.

Hydrological effect of vegetation against rainfall-induced landslides

Journal of Hydrology, 2017

The hydrological effect of vegetation on rainfall-induced landslides has rarely been quantified a... more The hydrological effect of vegetation on rainfall-induced landslides has rarely been quantified and its integration into slope stability analysis methods remains a challenge. Our goal was to establish a reproducible, novel framework to evaluate the hydrological effect of vegetation on shallow landslides. This was achieved by accomplishing three objectives: (i) quantification in situ of the hydrological mechanisms by which woody vegetation (i.e. Salix sp.) might impact slope stability under wetting and drying conditions; (ii) to propose a new approach to predict plantderived matric suctions under drying conditions; and (iii) to evaluate the suitability of the unified effective stress principle and framework (UES) to quantify the hydrological effect of vegetation against landslides. The results revealed that plant water uptake was the main hydrological mechanism contributing to slope stability, as the vegetated slope was, on average, 12.84% drier and had matric suctions three times higher than the fallow slope. The plant-related mechanisms under wetting conditions had a minimal effect on slope stability. The plant aerial parts intercepted up to 26.73% of the rainfall and concentrated a further 10.78% of it around the stem. Our approach successfully predicted the plant-derived matric suctions and UES proved to be adequate for evaluating the hydrological effect of vegetation on landslides. Although the UES framework presented here sets the basis for effectively evaluating the hydrological effect of vegetation on slope stability, it requires knowledge of the specific hydro-mechanical properties of plant-soil composites and this in itself needs further investigation.

Shallow landslides as drivers for slope ecosystem evolution and biophysical diversity

Landslides, 2017

Shallow landslides may be seen as local disturbances that foster the evolution of slope landscape... more Shallow landslides may be seen as local disturbances that foster the evolution of slope landscapes as part of their selfregulating capacity. Gaining insight into how slope ecosystems function and evolve could make eco-engineering interventions on slopes more successful. The objective of the present study is to detect traits of shallow landslide-triggered ecosystem evolution, self-regulation and biophysical diversity in a small-scale landslide-prone slope in Northeast Scotland. A protocol was defined to explore the emergence of landslide-driven slope habitats. This protocol studied plant diversity, species richness and plant biomass differences and their interactions with certain soil and topographic attributes at three slope strata during two consecutive growing seasons following an assemblage of shallow landslide events. Plant species and soil properties with potential as indicators of the different landslide-driven slope habitats and landscape evolution were also considered. Shallow landslides contributed to biophysical diversity and created distinct slope habitats within the landscape. Habitat differences in terms of species richness and composition were a direct consequence of the slope self-regulation. Certain plant species were found to be valid indicators of landslide-driven biophysical diversity. Soil total nitrogen and resistance to penetration were related to slope habitat and landscape evolution. As expected, plant establishment relied upon light and nitrogen trade-offs, which in turn were influenced by landscape topography. The insights derived from this study will be useful in slope restoration, particularly in harmonising effective actions with the functioning of landslide-prone ecosystems. Further research directions to clarify the observed variability and interactions are highlighted.