Taha, Yassine
Taha, Yassine
Taha, Yassine
TECHNIQUE ET ENVIRONNEMENTALE
THÈSE
PRÉSENTÉE
PAR
YASSINE TAHA
JANVIER 20 17
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A mes parents, mes frères et ma soeur
«ft 'sa waste to waste waste»
Mathias Tellenbach
REMERCIEMENTS
Ces travaux de recherche ont été réalisés en cotutelle entre 1'Université du Québec en
Abitibi-Témiscamingue (UQAT, Québec) et l'Université Cadi Ayyad (UCA, Maroc).
Je remercie vivement mes directeurs de thèse, Mostafa Benzaazoua (UQAT) et
Mohammed Mansori (UCA), ainsi que mon codirecteur Rachid Hakkou (UCA) de
m'avoir donné l'opportunité de réaliser ce travail de recherche dans les meilleures
conditions possibles. Je tiens à les remercier pour leurs encouragements, disponibilité,
implications et leurs conseils avisés tout au long de cette thèse. Sans leur précieuse
aide, le travail n'aurait pas abouti.
Enfin, je tiens à remercier Dr. Michel Rigaud, Dr. Redouane Moussa et Dr. Bruno
Bussière, pour leur évaluation de ma thèse, ainsi que Dr. Benaissa Rhouta, pour
présider le jury.
Je remercie également de tout mon cœur ma famille pour avoir cru en moi et pour
m'avoir soutenu pendant les moments difficiles. Enfin, un grand merci à toute personne
ayant contribué de près ou de loin à 1' élaboration de ce travail.
A VANT PROPOS
Le présent projet de doctorat s'inscrit dans le cadre de la suite des travaux de la chaire
de recherche CRDI en gestion et stabilisation des rejets industriels et miniers. Après
plusieurs années de recherche dans le domaine de 1'environnement minier, ce projet est
venu pour proposer des solutions de gestion des rejets miniers en dehors de leur site
minier de provenance. Cette recherche contribue aux à l'amélioration des
connaissances scientifiques quant à 1' application des principes de 1' écologie
industrielle dans un contexte minier.
Je suis le principal auteur des différents chapitres de ce projet de mémoire où j'ai réalisé
l 'ensemble du travail depuis la collecte des données jusqu'à la rédaction. Mes
directeurs M. Benzaazoua et M. Mansori ainsi que mon co-directeur R. Hakkou ont
suivi de près chaque étape de ce travail et contribué à la révision de chaque chapitre.
Au niveau du chapitre IV, M. Yvon et M. Kanari ont contribué à la supervision d' une
partie de ce travail (étude des dégagements gazeux au cours de la cuisson) et sa
révision.
TABLE DES MATIÈRES
Figure Page
2.2 Classification des types de déchets selon EWC (2002) et selon leur rôle
potentiel dans la fabrication de briques cuites (Coronado, 2014) ...................... 26
3.8 Quelques images pour illustrer les différentes étapes de flottation du charbon
au niveau du laboratoire ..................................................................................... 67
4.4 Crystalline phases present in: (a) raw calamine tailings, (b) CPMT and (c)
TCPMT treated at different temperatures (500, 800, 1050°C) .......................... 96
4.5 Lead, zinc and iron bearing mineral phases in the studied calamine tailings .... 97
4.6 Crystalline and amorphous phase transformations during firing process; (a)
Raw calamine mine tailings (CPMT) and (b) Treated calamine mine tailings
(TCPMT) ............................................................................................................ 99
4.10 SEM secondary electron images of CPMT and TCPMT samples fired at
different temperatures ...................................................................................... 103
5.1 Sintered bricks production and characterization methodology .............. ......... 124
5.3 Sintering shrinkage and loss on ignition results of sintered bricks (Error bars
are plotted but do not appear due to their small range) .................................... 129
Xl X
5.4 Water absorption and open porosity variation of sintered bricks ..................... 131
5.5 Flexural strength and apparent density results of sintered bricks ..................... 133
5.6 Evolution offlexural strength, apparent density, open porosity and firing
shrinkage with sintering temperature for calamine wastes based fired bricks. 134
5.7 Linear regression and correlation between different bricks properties
fired at 1050°C ................................................................................................. 135
5.8 Co lor variation with the addition of 40 wt.% of TCPMT. ............................... 136
5.9 Main crystalline phases in (a) mixes Mo and M3o fired at 1050°C and (b) in
mix M3o fired at different temperatures ............................................................ 138
5.12 FTIR spectra of(a) fired brick samples at 1050°C and (b) M3o fired brick
samples at different temperatures ..................................................................... 142
6.2 The experimental approach diagram for the manufacture offired bricks ........ 16 1
6.3 The mineralogical composition oftreated calamine processing mine
tailings (TCPMT) and shales for brick (ShB) .................................................. 164
6.4 Thermal behavior oftreated calamine processing mine tailings (TCPMT),
shales for brick (ShB) and glass wastes (GW) ................................................. 164
6.5 Physical and mechanical properties evolution with the addition oftreated
calamine processing mine tailings (TCPMT) and glass wastes (GW) ............. 166
6.6 Entrapped gas pockets at the surface ofbricks containing 15% of glass
wastes (GW) ..................................................................................................... 167
6.7 SEM pictures of entrapped pores in the structure ofthe reference brick Mo
and M3o bricks containing 15% of glass wastes (GW) ..................................... 167
6.8 Combined BSE SEM and X-mapping images of crystals formed with the
addition oftreated calamine processing mine tailings (TCPMT) to brick
structure............................................................................................................ 169
xx
7.2 Coal mine waste rocks dumps in Jerada city, Morocco; (a) old coal waste
rocks, (b and c) recent coal waste crocks, ( d) white salts deposits in the
proximity of coal wastes .................................................................................. 183
7.3 Coal recovery and eco-friendly bricks production and characterization
scheme .............................................................................................................. 189
7.4 Particle size distribution of coal waste rocks (CMWR), treated coal mine
tailings (TCMT) and shales for brick as reference material (ShB) .................. 190
7.5 Optical microscopy observations of coal mine waste rock (CMWR)
sample..................................................................................................... ......... 194
7.6 The TG/dTG analysis ofCMWR, TCMT and ShB samples .................. ......... 195
7. 7 Evolution of physical and mechanical properties of fired bricks
containing up to 100% co al wastes .................................................................. 200
7.12 FTIR spectra of (a) unfired and (b) fired samples ......................................... 207
8.3 The cumulative amounts ofreleased metals during the whole period of tank
leaching test. ..................................................................................................... 238
8.4 Final pH evolution as a function of (a) initial pH and (b) time ........................ 239
Tableau Page
7.5 Gas emissions during the firing process of selected samples (CMWR,
TCMT and ShB) .......................................................................................... 211
8.1 Physical, chemical and mineralo gical properties of raw samples ............... 226
The mining industry is globally criticized for generating large amounts of solid wastes
with a potential negative impact on the environment. The reuse of these wastes as
alternative raw material in construction and building materials field is a promising
environmental solution. The aim of the thesis is to offer reliable and feasible solutions
for the production of fired bricks from two types of mine wastes: calamine processing
mine tailings (Calamine hydrometallurgical plant, Marrakech-Morocco) and coal
waste rocks (old mine society; Charbonnages du Maroc, Jerada-Morocco). The thermal
treatment of these wastes during brick making presents several advantages, amongst
them the freezing of inorganic pollutants in the glass y phase of the brick fired at high
temperatures (900-11 00 o C). The mine wastes are mixed with clays and other additives
to produce fired bricks. These latter are further evaluated by analyzing their physical
properties (water absorption, porosity, density, firing shrinkage), mechanical
(compressive strength) and environmental (leaching of heavy metals). The results of
this study were evaluated to determine the optimum substitution proportion of natural
clay by each mine waste and to assess the behavior of pollutants in the overalllife cycle
of a brick: (i) during the manufacturing process (gaseous emissions), (ii) during the life
service of bricks in construction and (iii) at the end of its service life (construction
waste). Indeed, fired bricks can be manufactured by substituting up to 30% of natural
clay by calamine processing wastes and up to 100% by coal wastes. According to the
results of the environmental properties of mine wastes based bricks; these latter will
have almost no potential risk (leaching of metals) on the environment. Moreover, this
recovery method reduces the amount of mining wastes and thus their environmental
impact and to preserve non-renewable natural resources (clay, sand) used extensively
in construction.
INTRODUCTION GÉNÉRALE
L'un des grands problèmes actuels, d'un point de vue économique et environnemental,
est le traitement des volumes importants de déchets produits continuellement par les
activités industrielles et urbaines. Il est estimé que la quantité de déchets produits à
l'échelle mondiale peut aller jusqu'à des centaines de milliards de tonnes. La grande
partie de ses déchets est produite par les industries des pays développés (États-Unis,
Canada, Chine, pays de l'Union Européen, etc.). Ces quantités de déchets sont en
augmentation continue et vont atteindre des niveaux supérieurs dans les prochaines
années.
Parmi ces activités productrices de déchets, on cite l'industrie minière critiquée pour
les grandes quantités de rejets miniers produits lors des opérations d'exploitation des
gisements de minerais. Ces rejets miniers sont stockés en général dans des haldes pour
les stériles et dans des parcs de confinement pour les résidus de concentrateurs, et ce à
même le site minier. En fonction des conditions climatiques locales et de la nature
physico-chimique et minéralogique des rejets, ces derniers peuvent relarguer des
polluants inorganiques nocifs pour 1' écosystème dans lequel ils se déversent. Durant
ces dernières décennies, la restauration des sites miniers et la gestion adéquate de ces
rejets revêt de plus en plus d'une grande importance pour faire oublier le passif
environnemental, malheureusement catastrophique, dans de nombreux pays à travers
le monde. Plusieurs méthodes de décontamination et de gestion des effiuents sont
2
Les rejets industriels ne peuvent être considérés seulement comme un déchet mais
plutôt comme un sous-produit ou des gisements d'un ou plusieurs éléments de valeur
commerciale. Les méthodes de gestion de déchets actuelles sont inadéquates et mènent
vers des impacts négatifs sur l'environnement et une consommation abusive des
ressources naturelles non-renouvelables. En effet, la réutilisation des rejets miniers
peut se faire également en dehors du site minier; dépendamment de leur composition
physico-chimique et minéralogique. Ainsi, le domaine de la construction peut
constituer une filière attractive pour absorber des sous-produits minéraux industriels et
miniers. Cette alternative revêt de nos jours une solution environnementale très
prometteuse, et connait un engouement important sachant les différents incitatifs en
termes de la diminution de l'utilisation exhaustive des ressources naturelles non
renouvelables (argiles, sable ... ) dans le domaine des matériaux de construction, et la
réduction des coûts de stockage et d'entretiens des rejets industriels et miniers stockés
dans des parcs à résidus. Plusieurs voies de valorisation avec des prétraitements plus
ou moins complexes des rejets solides ont été évaluées. Pour ne citer que les plus
importantes : le béton, le mortier, les routes, la céramique et le ciment.
base de stériles et résidus de charbon pendant leur durée de vie, à la fin de leur vie
(déchet de construction) ainsi que l'influence du pH sur le relarguage des contaminants.
Par la suite, on finira par une présentation des contributions générales de ce projet de
recherche, des propositions et des recommandations pour les travaux de futur dans le
neuvième chapitre.
CHAPITRE II
REVUE DE LITTÉRATURE
En général, l'industrie minière partout dans le monde est critiquée pour la génération
de quantités importantes des rejets ayant un impact potentiellement négatif sur
l'environnement. Ainsi, l'exploitation minière, qu' elle soit en galerie souterraine ou à
ciel ouvert, génère principalement trois types de déchets solides; (i) des stériles sous
forme de fragments de roches représentant la partie sans valeur commerciale de la
roche extraite; elles sont généralement stockées dans des haldes à stériles (Deschamps,
2009), (ii) des résidus de concentrateur composés de la gangue, d'eau et parfois
11
Dans le cas du Maroc, on distingue plusieurs sites miniers abandonnés et d'autres qui
sont en cours d'exploitation. On compte actuellement au Maroc plus de 200 sites
miniers abandonnés (Hakkou et al., 2008a). Après 1'arrêt de l'exploitation, des
quantités importantes de rejets miniers, évaluées statistiquement par des millions de
tonnes, sont entreposés dans des empilements de stériles d'exploitation et dans des
parcs à résidus. Les sites miniers abandonnés comme celui de Zeida et Mibladen dans
la région de la haute Moulouya, du Touissit, de Boubker ou de Jerada dans la région
de l'Oriental ou celui de Kettara dans la région de Tensift sont laissés sans aucun plan
de restauration ou de réhabilitation. Sous l'effet des conditions climatiques et du
contact avec les facteurs naturels de l'eau, de l'air et de température, ces rejets miniers
ont produit une contamination des ressources en eau et de la faune et de la flore. Les
principaux impacts rencontrés souvent dans la littérature peuvent être liés à des risques
d'ordre physique, chimique ou esthétique:
Rupture des digues :plusieurs ruptures de digues ont eu lieu dans pas mal pays
du monde à cause de certain problèmes d'instabilité géotechniques. Les raisons de
rupture de digues ont été toujours liées soit à (i) une teneur en eau élevée dans les rejets
de concentrateur qui génère des pressions interstitielles importantes dans les digues de
rétention soit à cause (ii) des problèmes de fuites, de liquéfaction ou une mauvaise
conception des sites d'entreposage (Aubertin et al., 2002b). Tout récemment, deux
ruptures de digue ont eu lieu à Rio-Doce au Brésil (2015) et une autre à Colorado aux
États-Unis (2015). Les rejets de concentrateurs, provenant de digues, contiennent
souvent plusieurs contaminants potentiellement toxiques (ex. métaux lourds et
métalloïdes) et peuvent présenter un risque potentiel sur 1'environnement.
12
Il est à signaler que les risques de contamination chimique peuvent être intensifiés, en
particulier, par la présence de bactéries qui accélèrent ces réactions par un facteur de
103 à 106 (Nordstrom and Alpers, 1999; Singer and Stumm, 1970).
Compte t enu des altérations causées par les rejets miniers, il est indispensable de
remédier à cette problématique, et procéder par une gestion contrôlée, afin de limiter
les impacts environnementaux engendrés. En raison des différents incitatifs
13
La gestion des rejets sur site peut se traduire par quelques mesures de prévention et
des méthodes de gestion adoptées par les compagnies minières dans l'espoir de réduire
les impacts environnementaux des rejets miniers. Il est important de distinguer entre
les méthodes de gestions de stériles miniers, des rejets de concentrateurs et des boues
de traitement des eaux acides. Les différentes méthodes de gestion de ces différents
types de rejets miniers sont présentées dans le Tableau 2.1. Les stériles miniers sont
généralement utilisés pour la construction de digues, de chemins, de parcs à résidus,
des remblais de chantiers, de remplissage des excavations souterraines et des fos ses à
ciel ouvert (Benzaazoua et al., 2006; Ritcey, 2005). En ce qui concerne les rejets
provenant des usines de concentration, on distingue des méthodes qui consistent en la
désulfuration environnementale (Benzaazoua et al., 2008) pour enlever les sulfures
(générateurs d'acidité), leur utilisation pour la préparation des remblais en pate
cimentée, comme composante de recouvrements (barrière d'oxygène, géo membranes
ou géo composite bentonitique) pour empêcher 1' infiltration des facteurs qui favorisent
le drainage minier acide (DMA) (eau et oxygène). Ils sont également retraités et
valorisés pour 1'extraction des éléments de valeur commerciale demeurant dans ces
résidus. D ' autres méthodes sont également développées pour la gestion des boues qui
proviennent des unités de traitement des eaux acide (UTAE). On distingue à ce niveau
des méthodes de leur valorisation et leur réutilisation comme amendements dans les
14
recouvrements ou dans les remblais. Elles peuvent aussi être retraitées pour 1'extraction
des métaux de valeur commerciale. Cependant, il est à signaler qu'une grande partie
de ces méthodes de gestions des boues sont encore à un niveau expérimental (Aubé
and Zinck, 1999; Zinck and Aubé, 2000; Zinck and Griffith, 2013). Plus de recherches
dans ce sens sont en développement et en amélioration continue avant de passer à une
échelle industrielle.
Jusqu'à date, les rejets miniers sont surtout utilisés sur le site même. Les exemples de
leur réutilisation en dehors du site minier sont très parcimonieux. L'utilisation réelle
des rejets ont été reportés dans la littérature. Au Maroc par exemple, des résidus de
concentrateurs de lamine de Zeida et de Mibladen, ayant l'apparence du sable naturel,
sont utilisés clandestinement par les riverains pour la confection de mortier de finition
et de surfaçage des murs d' habitations sans se rendre compte des dangers que
pourraient présenter cette utilisation (Argane, 2015). Cependant, Argane et al. (2015)
ont montré que 1'utilisation de ces résidus pour la confection du mortier présente une
15
L'utilisation des rejets miniers en dehors du site minier est l'une des méthodes qui
pourrait résoudre leur impact sur l'environnement tout réduisant leur volume. L'idée
est de trouver des voies de valorisation de ces rejets qui peuvent consommer ces
grandes quantités. En effet, cela revient à trouver des clients potentiels qui seront
intéressés par les propriétés physiques, chimiques et minéralogiques de ces rejets. Il est
certain qu'il est impossible de trouver une solution magique de gestion de ces déchets
comme chaque déchet présente des propriétés intrinsèques et qui ne sont pas forcément
les même dans chaque type de rejet. Souvent, les solutions proposées par les chercheurs
pour gérer un type de déchet restent adéquates seulement au type de déchet étudié. Ces
solutions peuvent certainement être utilisées par d'autres entreprises minières si leur
déchet présente des propriétés similaires. Par contre, il est démontré dans la littérature
que grâce à leurs caractéristiques en termes de matière minérale et de granulométrie,
les rejets miniers peuvent être utilisés avec succès dans le domaine des matériaux de
construction. Cette voie de valorisation pourrait être une solution environnementale
prometteuse. Il est possible en effet non seulement de réduire les quantités de rejets
miniers mais aussi de conserver les ressources naturelles (argiles, sables, granulats,
etc.) consommées dans les constructions. Certes, tous les rejets miniers ne sont pas
réutilisables, une caractérisation approfondie est généralement utilisée pour statuer sur
la méthode de gestion appropriée des rejets miniers. Cela dans le but de classifier
préalablement ces rejets en se basant sur une estimation du potentiel de génération
d'acidité. Des essais statiques, cinétiques et des modèles numériques de prédiction sont
souvent utilisés. Plus de renseignements sur ces méthodes peuvent être consultés dans
la littérature (Bouzahzah, 2013; Villeneuve, 2004). Dans le cadre de l'écologie
industrielle et du développement durable, une bonne volonté de symbiose et de
synergie entre les différents producteurs de déchets et de consommateurs potentiels est
17
reqmse pour trouver des embauches réelles d'utilisation des rejets mmwrs. Ces
derniers présentent certainement tout un potentiel à découvrir et à explorer. Ils peuvent
être utilisés comme matière première secondaire ou matière alternative pour la
fabrication des matériaux de construction écologiques. Dans ce cadre, une multitude
d'études toutes récentes ont porté un intérêt majeur aux modes de réutilisation des rejets
miniers dans la construction. En général, ces études sont développées à une échelle de
laboratoire et une application réelle de ces études n'a pas encore vu la lumière du jour.
Des études ont porté sur la valorisation des rejets du procédé de cuivre comme
substituant au sable naturel pour la confection du béton normal (Thomas et al., 2013).
Un taux de substitution de 60% a été jugé optimal et les matériaux du béton dérivés
présentent des propriétés de résistance mécanique et de durabilité satisfaisante. Dans
une autre étude en Turquie (Onuaguluchi and Eren, 2012), des résidus de cuivre ont
incorporés dans des produits de mortiers et ont montré que de meilleures propriétés de
résistance à la compression, d'abrasion et de durabilité peuvent être obtenues. En
Chine, des briques de bonne qualité ont été confectionnées en utilisant jusqu'à 84% des
résidus d'hématite (Chen et al., 2011b). D'autres études proposent la production de
briques à base de rejets miniers en passant par une étape préalable de
géopolymérisation (Ahmari and Zhang, 2012). Des résidus du minerai de fer ont été
également étudiés pour la faisabilité de leur utilisation, après récupération du fer,
comme matière première secondaire pour la préparation d'un matériau cimentaire (Li
et al. , 2010). Les résultats de cette étude ont montré que le mélange de 30% de ces
résidus de fer avec 34% de laitier de haut-fourneau, 30% de clinker et 6% de gypse
offrent une pâte cimentaire avec des propriétés mécaniques comparables à celles d'un
ciment Portland ordinaire. Wong et al. (2004) ont étudié la faisabilité d'utilisation des
résidus miniers de sables bitumineux calcinées (Canada) comme ajout cimentaire
(similaire au metakaolin) pour la confection de béton haute performance. Il a été
constaté que ces rejets calcinés ont une excellente activité pouzzolanique dans les
18
On distingue en général deux grands défis majeurs, le premier est lié à l'acceptabilité
sociétale de l'idée d'utilisation des rejets miniers et le deuxième est surtout lié aux défis
techniques. Dans un premier lieu, il est à signaler qu'un long trajet est à parcourir pour
la réutilisation des rej ets miniers dans la construction. On est encore loin pour que les
gouvernements et les citoyens acceptent l' idée d'avoir des rejets miniers dans leur
maison. Les gens ont toujours tendance à coller cette étiquette noire quand il s'agit de
rejets miniers. Avec un recul d'expérience, à chaque fois qu'on parle de rejets miniers,
les gens pensent automatiquement au terme risque au lieu du terme opportunité à saisir.
C ' est un contrat volontaire qu' il va falloir développer entre les porteurs de projets et
les populations avoisinantes dans le but de trouver un compromis entre ces deux parties
prenantes, et prendre en considération les craintes des populations vis-à-vis l 'activité
minière. Le défi maj eur à surmonter pour atteindre l'acceptabilité sociétale est lié
surtout à un manque de communication entre les exploitants et les collectivités locales.
Dans un second lieu, la collecte, le transport, le tri et la nécessité des fois d'un
prétraitement des rejets font également partie des défi s majeurs en raison des grands
volumes produits. Il est certain qu'il serait impossible d'utiliser la totalité des déchets
dans la construction à cause de leur grande quantité évaluée à des millions de tonnes
19
au Maroc et des milliards de tonnes dans d'autres pays comme le Canada, l'Australie,
les États Unis, etc. Aussi, la faisabilité de transport entre les producteurs (industrie
minière) et les consommateurs de déchets (ex. construction) pose généralement un
grand défi. Les mines sont généralement loin des zones ou une grande consommation
de matières premières est présente. En outre, 1'hétérogénéité des caractéristiques des
rejets influence leur traitement et le comportement de leurs produits finis une fois
recyclés. Les industriels miniers ont généralement tendance à mélanger les différents
types de rejets miniers (stériles et résidus de concentrateurs) et ne pensent pas vraiment
à des possibilités de valorisation. Il est des fois impossible de réaliser un tas de rejets
miniers qui ont les mêmes propriétés physiques, chimiques ou minéralogiques. Aussi,
le caractère toxique d'un certain type de rejets miniers à cause de leur teneur en métaux
lourds et metalloïdes pourrait poser un défi. En effet, d'autres charges de prétraitement
peuvent s'ajouter pour enlever les éléments pénalisants (métaux lourds, métalloïdes,
sulfures, etc.).
Les briques cuit es sont fabriqués en grande partie à partir de m atières premières
naturelles :
Les étapes de fabrication de briques cuites sont généralement les m êmes, mais le
procédé de façonnage peut changer selon la qualité et la nature de brique recherchée.
Les étapes principales sont illustrées dans la Figure 2.1 et peuvent être présumées
comme suit:
PRÉPARATION n
dosage, mélange, broyagr "'- 0 FAÇONNAGE 1 MOULAGE
/
la SÉCHAGE
/ (ex: séchoir tunnel)
·-
"' EJ CUISSON
(ex: four tunnel)
EXTRACTION n
de la terre issue des carrière~
premières ou des sources d'énergie fossile. Dans cette étude, seulement le volet de
substitution des matières premières est traité. Le lecteur pourrait consulter le mémoire
de thèse de Moedinger (20 10) pour plus de renseignements sur les types de déchets
utilisés pour substituer les sources d'énergie fossile.
Plusieurs revues de littérature sont disponibles sur les différentes qualités et sources de
déchets industriels utilisés dans la fabrication des briques cuites (Bories et al., 20 14;
Coronado, 2014; Coronado etal., 2015; Moedinger, 2010; Mufioz Velasco etal., 2014;
Phonphuak and Chindaprasirt, 2015; Zhang, 2013). Une classification de déchets selon
leurs propriétés et leur origine a été réalisée selon le catalogue européen de déchets
(EWC, 2002) et selon leur rôle comme matière alternative pour la fabrication de
briques cuites (Coronado et al., 2015). En général, les déchets classés selon EWC
(2002) dans les catégories EWC; codes 01, 10 et 19 sont les plus utilisés la fabrication
de briques cuites. Les déchets classés dans le code EWC 01 sont des déchets résultant
de l'exploration, l' extraction ou le traitement physique et chimique des minéraux. Ces
déchets proviennent généralement des procédés de transformation physique et
chimique des roches ornementales, d'extraction et de production d'alumine. Les
déchets appartenant au code EWC 10 sont des déchets provenant de procédés
thermiques : les centrales électriques et d'autres installations de combustion utilisées
pour la production d'aluminium, de fer et d' acier, de plomb et de zinc
(pyrométallurgie ). Dans cette catégorie sont inclus entre autres les cendres volantes des
procédés de charbon ou de biomasse, les boues métalliques, les scories et les sables de
fonderie. Les déchets classés dans le code EWC 19 sont des déchets provenant des
installations de gestion de déchets, des usines de traitement des eaux usées et de la
préparation de 1'eau destinée à la consommation humaine et de 1' eau à usage industriel
tels que les boues d'épuration ou les cendres de l'incinération des boues d'épuration.
En outre, une bonne partie des déchets utilisés dans la fabrication des produits
25
Les déchets substituants d'argiles sont généralement caractérisés par leur contenu en
minéraux argileux qui peuvent améliorer la plasticité des mélanges de tesson pour la
fabrication de briques cuites. Les minéraux argileux recherchés pour la terre cuite sont
généralement la kaolinite ([Si20s]Ah(OH)4 ou sous une autre forme
Ah03.2Siüz.2Hz0), l ' illite (KAh(OH)z[AlSh(O,OH)lo), les smectites (ex.
montmorillonite) ou les chlorites (Mgs(Al,Fe )(0Hs)(Al,Si)4Ülo). Ces différents
minéraux présentent des propriétés différentes et se comportent justement
différemment une fois utilisés dans les mélanges de tesson. Les smectites par exemple
possèdent une très grande plasticité et assurent une grande cohésion que les minéraux
kaolinitiques et illitiques peuvent assurer.
26
~
Fluxing agents Body fu els
Coal power plant X X X
ffi
Fil/ers Pores form ers
Clay substitutes Other affecting
Steel & metallurgical lnd X X X
properües
Galvanizing ind.
Mn-Fewaste
Food processing
rnt+Q Bio_diesel production 1X 1
res1dues
lit±tij
EWC03
n
Paper indusny
DIEEEJ 1 1 1 1 1 lx1
Wood ind.
DIEEEJ
EWC04 EWC 17
1 1 1 1 1 lx1
5
~~~~i~i~t~o~;ste x xx
River sediments xxx
Harbour sediments x xx
Grog x xx
EWCOS EWC 18
DA"'"'··~-
Oilywaste ~~x 1 1 1 lx lx lx 1
Petroleum waste x x
Fluorite waste x
Silica fume
Others
EWC07
lx1 1 1 1 lx1 Glass waste
EI:EIT0
Others EJI[ŒJ
Figure 2.2 Classification des types de déchets selon EWC (2002) et selon leur
rôle potentiel dans la fabrication de briques cuites (Coronado, 2014).
27
Cependant, il est à signaler que des difficultés de séchage de briques cuites sont
généralement associées avec les minéraux argileux très plastiques. Plus de détails sur
les propriétés des minéraux argileux et les difficultés associées à leurs utilisation dans
la briques cuites sont décrites dans le mémoire de thèse de Samara (2007). Une
multitude de déchets sont déjà utilisés dans l'industrie et d'autres sont encore au niveau
recherche et développements. Les résidus de traitement des eaux usées, les cendres
d'incinération des déchets solides urbains et d'autres déchets sont utilisés (Cusido et
al., 2003; Cusido and Soriano, 2011; Lin, 2006b). Dans une autre étude, qui est
d'ailleurs un exemple réel de valorisation de déchets industriels, celui de la fabrication
de briques cuites à partir des déchets de l'extraction de charbon en Pologne
(Ciesielczuk, 2015; Ryncarz and Bialas, 1995). Ces déchets sont constitués
essentiellement de schistes carbonatés et sont utilisés pour la production de briques
cuites commercialisées en Pologne.
(Lafhaj et al., 2008; Samara et al., 2009) et d'autres déchets (Muiioz Velasco et al.,
2014).
Les industriels utilisent souvent ce qu'on appelle des agents formateurs de pores afin
de réduire la conductivité thermique de la brique et par conséquent augmenter la
résistance thermique des murs de briques. Récemment, l'utilisation de déchets riches
en matières organiques comme agents formateurs de pores commence à prendre de
l'ampleur. Les déchets de l'industrie de bois, de papeterie, de tabac, de canne à sucre
et de biomasse sont de plus en plus utilisés (Bories et al., 20 14; Sutcu and Akkurt,
2009). La décomposition de ces matières organiques au cours de la cuisson provoque
un dégagement de C02 et permet une augmentation de la porosité et donc une
amélioration des propriétés d'isolation thermique.
Certains déchets sont utilisés dans la fabrication de briques cuites grâce à leur teneur
en oxydes alcalins particulièrement K20 et Na20. Ces éléments sont appelés des agents
fluxants ou des promoteurs de fusion et permettent de baisser les températures de
cuisson et d'améliorer la formation de la phase liquide qui contribue à l'amélioration
des mécanismes de frittage et de densification des produits cuits. Généralement, ces
oxydes sont contenus les feldspaths et les micas naturels. Plusieurs types de déchets
industriels sont connus pour leur teneur en éléments fluxants comme la poudre de verre
recyclé (Demir, 2009; Loryuenyong et al., 2009), résidus riches en bore (Kavas, 2006;
Kavas et al. , 2011 b ), les scories d' acier (Shih et al., 2004), les scories du procédé Waelz
(Quijoma et al. , 2012; Quijoma et al., 2014; Quijoma et al., 2011) et les cendres des
procédés de gazéification de la biomasse et de charbon (Chou et al., 2004; Femândez-
Pereira et al., 2011b). D ' autres types de déchets sont effectivement utilisés et sont
29
rapportés dans les recherches de (Acchar et al., 2013; Coronado et al., 2015; Menezes
et al., 2005; Tucci et al., 2004).
Un type de déchet est considéré comme un agent combustible s'il contient des matières
ayant un pouvoir calorifique important qui pourraient réduire la consommation
d 'énergie au cours de la cuisson. Les matières combustibles permettent généralement
de réaliser des économies d'énergie importante. Parmi les déchets utilisés sont les
résidus huileux, les boues de gaz des hauts-fourneaux, les boues de 1'industrie de
papier, les cendres ayant une teneur considérable en carbone (Moedinger, 2010;
Schilderman and Mason, 2009). L'utilisation de ce type de déchet provoque, comme
c'est le cas des éléments formateurs de poress, à une augmentation de la porosité et une
diminution de la densité.
Outre tous les agents évoqués précédemment, il est souvent nécessaire d'ajouter aux
mélanges des agents colorants pour avoir des produits finis ayant une belle couleur qui
soient vendables facilement. L'oxyde de titane est utilisé avec certaines argiles pour
obtenir des briques ayant une couleur orangée, jaune ou crème. Le bioxyde de
manganèse est utilisé donner aspect vieilli aux produits finis. La chaux permet un
éclaircissement de la couleur de la brique finale. En effet, les déchets contenant du
titane ou de la chaux, les résidus de plastiques, les mâchefers, les fines de charbon, les
résidus de peintures et d'autres sont utilisés (Kreimeyer, 1987; Petavratzi and Barton,
2007).
30
Il est bien observé que les matières premières utilisées pour la fabrication de briques
cuites sont composées essentiellement, d'un point de vue chimique, de la Si02 (50-
80%) et d' Ah03 (0-30%). Les autres oxydes présentent jusqu'à 30% de lamasse totale
des matières premières. C'est en effet la composition en ces éléments qui détermine les
propriétés de ces matières. La silice, sous forme de quartz, joue généralement le rôle
de matériaux de charge lorsqu'elle est grossière et présente le squelette de la brique.
L'alumine quant à elle permet d'améliorer la plasticité des mélanges et d'obtenir des
produits pressés à reliefs importants. Les oxydes et hydroxydes de fer agissent au cours
de la cuisson comme fluxant (ou flux) au cours de la cuisson et permettent de
communiquer une couleur rouge aux produits cuits. Par contre, il est à signaler que la
couleur finale du produit fini dépend de la nature de l'oxyde de fer, l'hématite tend à
31
donner un aspect rouge alors que la magnétite favorise plutôt une coloration grisâtre.
Les oxydes de chaux et de magnésie, provenant des carbonates de chaux et de
magnésie, sont également considérés comme des éléments fluxants et tendent à se
combiner aux silicates au cours de la cuisson. Les oxydes alcalins (Na20 et K20)
peuvent jouer également le rôle de fluxants et contribuent aux réactions de grésage et
de formation de la phase vitreuse qui sont responsable des propriétés finales de produits
cuits (ex. résistance mécanique, porosité, etc.).
L'utilisation des diagrammes ternaires est aussi d'une importance primordiale dans le
domaine des terres cuites en général. Quand il est question d'utiliser un déchet donné
dans la fabrication de briques cuites, il est très important de localiser sa composition
chimique dans le diagramme ternaire (Si02, Ah03, oxydes) pour évaluer sa
compatibilité avec les argiles naturelles.
100%Si0,
~~--~---+------
100%
(Fe2 0 3 + MgO +CaO+ Na 2 0
+K2 0 +Ti02 )
1,.., ·.
\
La plasticité est une propriété importante dans les procédés de fabrication de briques
cuites surtout quand 1'extrusion est utilisée. La plasticité renseigne sur la variation de
la consistance d'un sol en fonction de la teneur en eau. Elle dépend de plusieurs facteurs
: teneur en eau, nature minéralogique de 1'argile, finesse, forme des grains, surface et
orientation des particules, agrégation des particules, présence en éléments inertes
(sable) et présence des sels. La plasticité dépend également des forces de cohésion et
d'attraction entre les particules constituant un sol. La présence des charges électriques
à la surface des particules d'argiles influe fortement sur les interactions entre ces
particules et les molécules d'eau qui rendent plastique la pâte d'argile. Généralement,
la fraction granulométrique <2 Jlm (fraction argileuse) influence fortement la plasticité
des mélanges. Elle permet d'obtenir une plasticité importante et entraîne par contre une
forte demande en eau de façonnage et des difficultés de séchage. On considère souvent
qu'un sol est cohérent et facile à façonner que lorsqu'il comprend plus que 50% de la
fraction argileuse. La Figure 2.5 montre les zones optimales pour la mise en forme des
produits de terres cuites en fonction de leurs caractéristiques de plasticité.
...
· Q)
.5
....J 30
25
c0
...
.... c:
VI Ill
-
Q)
-~~
20 0 0
15 u
10 - Poteries Mise en fo rme
5 Briques -
optimale
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Indice de plasticité
Le procédé de cuisson est une étape clé qui détermine les propriétés finales des briques
cuites. Le développement de ces propriétés est lié essentiellement au comportement et
transformations des composantes des matières premières au cours de la cuisson.
Plusieurs paramètres sont à considérer dans un procédé de cuisson : la température
finale de cuisson, la vitesse de cuisson et la durée de cuisson. La nature physique,
chimique et minéralogique des matières premières déterminent les conditions de
cuisson. La formation de la phase liquide, responsable majeure des propriétés finales
des briques cuites, ainsi que les mécanismes de vitrification commencent généralement
aux alentours de 900°C et se terminent aux alentours de 1050°C (BREF, 2007). La
présence des promoteurs de fusion (oxydes de fer, chaux, alcalins) provoque ainsi une
fusion de la matrice à basses températures, une amélioration de la quantité de la phase
liquide produite et des propriétés mécaniques des briques cuites.
Les propriétés de chaque type de déchet déterminent ainsi les conditions de cuisson
optimales à adopter pour obtenir des produits finis qui répondent aux normes et
exigences de la construction. La plupart des articles traitant la valorisation de déchets
industriels dans la fabrication de briques cuites ont toujours la tradition de déterminer
les conditions optimales de cuisson tout en cherchant à valoriser la quantité maximale
du déchet étudié. Souvent, quand il est question de déchet contenant des fluxants, des
basses températures de cuisson sont suffisantes pour atteindre les propriétés désirées.
Par contre, quand des déchets contiennent des phases réfractaires, il est indispensable
de monter vers des températures supérieures. Aussi, il est très important de donner plus
d'attention à la vitesse de cuisson quand il est possible d'avoir des transformations
d'ordre allotropiques peuvent avoir lieu : ex. transformation du quartz alpha en quartz
beta aux environs de 573°C. Ces transformations sont généralement sévères et tendent
à détruire la résistance mécanique des produits finis. En effet, pour palier à ce
problème, des chercheurs préfèrent passer par des paliers de cuisson avant d'atteindre
la température finale. Les paliers de cuisson sont aussi utilisés pour faciliter les
35
dégagements gazeux d'une manière à ce que leur pression ne provoque pas une chute
des propriétés mécaniques.
un frittage liquide qui coule entre les particules non fondues donnant aux produits
finaux une structure liée par un procédé de vitrification partielle. Le degré de
vitrification dépend essentiellement de la température de cuisson finale et influence
amplement les propriétés physiques et mécaniques de la brique d'argile.
Au cours du refroidissement, la phase fondue formé au cours de la cuisson se
durcit et forme la phase vitreuse. Cette dernière se comporte comme un liant et donne
une résistance mécanique importante à la brique. Une partie de la phase fondue se
cristallise et donne naissance à de nouvelles phases comme la mullite, l'hématite, le
pyroxène, la melilite, l' anorthite et les feldspaths. Aussi, la transformation allotropique
du quartz beta en alpha prend lieu aux environs de 573°C.
~'
OH) Cristobalite
lllite/Mica
H Mullite
Chlorite
_(OH)
Kaolinite Meta-kaol K
K-Feldspar
Na,~~
K-Feldspar
Glass
Na-rich ca-rich
Plagjoclase Plagioclase
Ca'
(C0 2 ) ,~ Wolastonite
Calcite
_\',u, ) '~;' Pyroxene
Siderite Melilite
.tOH, S
Gypsum Anhydrite
(S)
Pyrite \Fe
Fe-oxide/hyd. Hematite
Organic material Z?ZZZ?ZZZZZtZ/..2 " Bum .QH
Stages
~ 1 ------->;
!+-- 2 ------>-!
~
Soak
4 ______..,.._ s _ __ ___:
l 6
-- ~
La valorisation des déchets industriels dans la brique cuite passe dans un premier lieu
à une évaluation de leurs propriétés technologiques : résistance mécanique, porosité,
absorption d'eau, retrait de séchage et de cuisson, densité, pertes au feu. La
détermination de ces propriétés est évaluée selon les normes de construction en vigueur
dans chaque pays. Le but final est de comparer les résultats obtenus avec les exigences
39
La résistance mécanique est parmi les indicateurs de qualité exigés par les
normes de construction. La caractérisation mécanique comprend les essais de
compression uni-axiale et de flexion sur les éprouvettes fabriquées et permet
l'évaluation de l'aptitude d'un matériau à être utilisé dans le domaine de la
construction.
L'absorption d'eau est également une caractéristique primordiale qui renseigne
sur la résistance de la brique à l'eau et sur sa durabilité. Une forte absorption d'eau
pourra conduire à une pénétration d'eau à 1'intérieur de la brique et donc à une
accélération des dommages par les cycles de gel-dégel.
L'analyse de la porosité est importante car elle influence grandement la
résistance mécanique, l'absorption d 'eau et la perméabilité de la brique. Elle dépend
de la température de cuisson et de la minéralogie des matières premières. Une
température de cuisson élevée induit une structure assez vitreuse et une variation
importante du volume (contraction) et de porosité.
Le retrait de cuisson est un paramètre important qui influence les dimensions et
la résistance mécanique de la brique. Un retrait important provoque une déformation
facile de la brique et une grande variation de volume de produit fini.
Les pertes au feu au cours de la cuisson, c' est aussi un paramètre important qui
renseigne sur la porosité d'un produit qui affecte automatiquement les autres propriétés
technologiques. Les pertes au feu dépendent essentiellement de la décomposition des
matières organiques, des carbonates et des sulfures.
La densité est l'un des critères qui qualifie une brique s'elle est légère ou lourde.
La densité renseigne sur le degré de densification et de la vitrification.
40
La durabilité des briques est évaluée pour prédire leur comportement à long
terme. Le défi majeur de durabilité des briques est évalué par des tests d'efflorescence
et de quantification des sels solubles. La présence des sels dans la structure des briques
provoque, une fois en contact avec 1' eau, une migration des sulfates à la surface des
briques ou ils se déposent et forment d 'un précipité blanc (Dondi et al., 1997; Morillas
et al., 2015). C'est le phénomène d'efflorescence, il est considéré comme un élément
pénalisant de la qualité des briques. La formation de ces dépôts blancs, souvent sous
forme de sulfates, influence négativement la durabilité des briques et pourrait
provoquer une destruction de la brique (Shahidzadeh-Bonn et al., 2010).
Il est connu que les déchets industriels peuvent contenir des contaminants (métaux,
métalloïdes, etc.) et leur utilisation dans la fabrication des matériaux de construction
peut engendrer des risques importants sur 1'environnement, la sant é et la sécurité des
leurs utilisateurs. C'est dans ce sens qu'il est important d'évaluer le comportement
environnementale des matériaux de construction à base de déchets industriels. Le
comportement environnemental des matériaux de construction est évalué en analysant
les facteurs qui peuvent influencer la lixiviation de contaminants. Les paramètres
étudiés sont généralement ceux qui peuvent influencer la durabilité du produit comme
la granulométrie du produit, la solution de lixiviation, le ratio solide-liquide, la masse
du produit analysée et le pH de la solution de lixiviation. Dans ce sens, une multitude
de tests sont utilisés à 1' échelle mondiale. Aucune harmonisation de ces tests n'a encore
pas vu le jour pour évaluer la performance environnementale des matériaux de
construction. Les tests utilisés dans la littérature peuvent être retrouvés dans 1' étude de
(Coronado et al., 20 15). Ces tests sont classifiés en deux catégories; (i) des tests de
lixiviation sur des blocs monolithiques et (ii) des t ests de lixiviation sur des produits
concassés ou broyés. Le test de diffusion sur des blocs monolithiques NEN-7375
41
(2004) est souvent utilisé pour évaluer la lixiviation des contaminants durant la durée
de vie du produit de construction étudié. Ce test est basé sur le transfert de masse du
bloc étudié vers la solution de lixiviation dans laquelle est imprégné le produit étudié.
Il permet également de donner des informations sur la cinétique de relarguage de
contaminants avant d'arriver aux conditions de stabilité du bloc monolithique. Les
résultats de ce test sont comparés avec les limites fixées par « the Building Material
Decree ». D'autres tests sont utilisés pour simuler la lixiviation de contaminants à la
fin de vie du matériau étudié. Ces tests sont généralement réalisés sur des produits
concassés ou broyés. Les tests TCLP (Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure) et
UNE-EN 12457 (Equilibrium batch leaching tests) sont les plus utilisés. Les résultats
de ces tests sont comparés avec les limites fixées respectivement par 1' agence de
protection de l'environnement (US-EPA) et le conseil de décision européen
(2003/03/EC). D'autres tests ont pour but de simuler la lixiviation de contaminants
dans des solutions ayant des valeurs de pH différentes comme le cas de la méthode
1313 (EP A-1313 , 20 12) et de la capacité de neutralisation acido-basique (EN 14997).
Des dégagements gazeux ont toujours lieu lors de la cuisson des briques à cause de la
décomposition des minéraux provenant des matières premières et de la combustion des
ressources d' énergie fossile si utilisées. La composition chimique et minéralogique des
matières premières ainsi que les paramètres de cuisson (durée de cuisson, température
42
Comme déj à mentionné auparavant, les dégagem ents gazeux dépendent entre autres de
la température de cuisson et des minéraux présents dans les matières premières. Les
émissions de soufre dépendent surtout de la minéralogie des matières premières et des
réactions physico-chimiques au cours de la cuisson. L'anhydrite et/ou le phénom ène
d'efflorescence peuvent avoir lieu lorsque la calcite et les sulfures sont suffisamment
présents dans les matières premières. Les émissions de soufre sont issues généralem ent
de la décomposition des sulfures (ex. pyrite) et des matières organiques à basse
températures ( 400-550°C), ou des sulfates (ex. anhydrite) à hautes températures
(1200°C). Les émissions de fluorine sont observées génér alement à deux intervalles de
températures; à 600°C (déhydroxylation des minéraux) et des températures supérieures
à 900°C (décomposition de la fluorite CaF2). Les émissions de C0 2 peuvent avoir lieu
aussi à cause de la décomposition des m atières organiques (350-500°C) ou des
carbonates (700-850°C).
43
2.8 Références
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Coronado, M., Blanco, T., Quijoma, N., Alonso-Santurde, R., Andrés, A., 2015. 7-
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Dondi, M., Fabbri, B., Guarini, G., Marsigli, M., Mingazzini, C., 1997. Soluble salts
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50
MATÉRIEL ET MÉTHODES
La méthodologie suivie dans ce projet de thèse est illustrée dans la Figure 3.1. En
principe, tous les échantillons des rejets miniers sont caractérisés dans un premier
temps pour leurs propriétés physiques, chimiques, minéralogiques et
environnementales. Dans le but de leur valorisation comme matière première
secondaire, des formulations de substitution de l'argile naturelle par les rejets miniers
ont été préparées pour la fabrication des briques cuites. Ces dernières, une fois cuites,
subissent des tests de caractérisation physique, mécanique et environnementale afin de
comparer leurs propriétés avec les exigences des normes de construction et
réglementations environnementales en vigueur. Le but était de déterminer le taux de
substitution optimal des argiles par les rejets miniers. Il était aussi question d'évaluer
les dégagements gazeux au cours de la cuisson afin d'étudier le comportement
environnemental des rejets miniers au cours de la cuisson.
Deux types de rejets miniers feront l'objet de cette étude; (i) les rejets de l'usine
hydrométallugique de calamine (Marrakech, Maroc): rejet de calamine brut (CPMT),
qui est 1' effluent direct du procédé de lixiviation utilisé dans 1'usine de calamine, et le
rejet de calamine traité (TCPMT) résultant d'une valorisation par flottation du plomb
restant dans le rejet de calamine brut, ainsi que (ii) les stériles de charbon (Jerada,
Maroc) : les stériles de charbon non traités (CMWR) et les résidus de flottation de
52
charbon (TCMT). Une argile provenant d'une usme marocame de fabrication des
briques d'argile sera caractérisée. D'autres additifs seront également utilisés afin de
réaliser les dosages désirés, de réduire la température de cuisson et de régler la plasticité
des mélanges.
...
Qj
1 Argiles, Schistes Rejets miniers 1
Q..
~
l=J :
1
Caractérisation physique, chimique, minéralogique et environnementale
Di,.ributiu.. o'""uov•"~" GS, SS, ICP-AES, XRF, DRX, MO, MEB-EDS, ATG, TCLP, CTEU-9 -~·
r· ~ ~~;;;;;;;=~~;=~~~=~~=s=e=s=o=in=d=.=u=n=pir=é=t=ra=i=te=m==e=n=t=~~~==~;=~;;=======;~~
~ ou ajout d'additifs
- '. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................: .::·:··-
Homogénéisation
Ajout d'eau,
r 1
BaC03
1
Pressage (6MPa)
1 1
Séchage (25-6o•q
1 1
1 J Briques cuites 1
-
Caractérisation physique et mécanique des briques cuites
Abwrption d'eau, dist ribution des pores, ret rait de cuisson, résistance à la flexion
Selon les normes internationales (européennes et américaines)
-
Comportement environnemental des briques cuites
Relargage des métaux durant la durée de vie des briques (TLM)
Relargage des métaux à la fin de vie des briques (TCLP et CTEU-9)
-
Durabilité des briques cuites
Re largage des s ulfates: test des sels solubles et test d'efflorescence
Selon les normes internationales (européennes et américaines)
_ ; ................................................................................................................................................................
10° s·
33'
) 33.
32. 32°
31· - o 31'
-r--
10' 9' s·
~ Calamine m ine site Tenslft watershead
souterrain ou manque d'oxygène). Cela dans le but de gagner leur vie et subvenir aux
besoins de leurs familles dans une province ou le taux de chômage a battu tous les
records (24%) (L'économiste, 2015). D 'un point de vue environnemental, de grandes
quantités de stériles de charbon sont stockés à la surface dans plusieurs endroits sous
forme de terrils (Figure 3.3). La quantité de ces stériles est estimée aux environs de 25
millions de tonnes. Les stériles de charbon présentent un risque potentiel sur la vie de
la population avoisinante. Trois types de risques peuvent être distingués : risque
d 'instabilité physique du gros terril, risques d'explosion due à la combustion du
charbon résiduel et la difficulté de fuites de gaz générés et risque d'instabilité chimique
surtout avec les grandes quantités des contaminants reléguées (ex. sulfates). Plus
d 'informations sur la problématique du site de Jerada peuvent être consultées dans le
Chapitre VII.
56
Deux types de matières premières sont utilisés dans cette étude entant que matières de
référence : les argiles et les schistes. Ces matières sont utilisées pour la fabrication des
57
briques cuites et ont été fournies par des briqueteries locales. Les argiles sont utilisées
dans l'étude concernant les rejets de calamine et les schistes naturelles sont utilisées
dans le cas des stériles de charbon.
Les matières premières ont été caractérisées pour leurs propriétés physiques, chimiques
et minéralogiques. L'ensemble des paramètres analysés mns1 que les
normes/techniques utilisées sont présentées dans le Tableau 3.1.
grossière (>300 J.lm) des matières premières a été lavée pour s'assurer d'enlever les
particules fines et le refus a été séché et analysée par un tamisage sec au moyen d'une
série de tamis de dimensions d'ouverture décroissantes. La partie fine (<300 J.lm) a été
récupérée, filtrée et séchée avant d'être analysée par granulométrie laser. Cet appareil
a pour principe de mesurer la déviation d'un faisceau laser lorsqu'il passe au travers
d'une suspension aqueuse du matériau à analyser. Une faible quantité d'échantillon est
suffisante pour donner la courbe de la distribution granulométrique de 1' échantillon
analysé d'un diamètre de 0,01 à 1000 J.lm. Les résultats des deux techniques sont
combinés par la suite dans un fichier Excel, développé pour ce genre d'analyse.
• Densité réelle
La mesure de la densité réelle d'un échantillon est réalisée à l'aide d'un pycnomètre à
hélium Micromeritics Accupyc 1330. Dans cette analyse, une masse connue de
l'échantillon est séchée et introduite dans une chambre d'analyse. La chambre est
ensuite pressurisée par ajout d'hélium jusqu'à une pression prédéterminée. L'appareil
permet ensuite à l 'hélium de traverser dans une chambre d'expansion à volume connu
et mesure la pression d'équilibre. Par la loi des gaz parfaits, il est possible de calculer
très précisément le volume de l ' échantillon analysé. Le rapport masse sur volume
donne directement la densité.
• Surface spécifique
Les mesures de la surface spécifique sont réalisées dans cette étude pour des fins de
caractérisation seulement et ne rentrent dans aucun calcul. La surface spécifique a été
mesurée à l'aide d'un analyseur Micromeritics Gimini III 2375. Il a pour principe de
mesurer la différence de pression entre deux tubes (tube de référence et le tube
contenant l'échantillon) alimenté avec de l 'azote liquide selon la méthode BET
(Brunauer, Emett et Teller). Lors de l'essai, une partie de gaz est adsorbé à la surface
59
Les limites d' Atterberg ou les limites de consistance sont les états qui délimitent les
états de consistance d'un sol. On distingue deux types de limites :la limite de plasticité
et la limite de liquidité. La différence entre les deux correspond à l'indice de plasticité
IP. La limite de plasticité wp est la teneur en eau qui sépare l'état plastique de l'état
semi-solide. La limite de liquidité wl quant à elle permet de séparer l'état liquide de
l'état plastique. Les trois paramètres sont exprimés en pourcentage. L'indice de
plasticité est souvent utilisé pour déterminer la zone dans laquelle un sol est à l'état
plastique. D'une façon générale, plus l'indice de plasticité d'un sol est grand plus il
contient de l'argile et considéré très plastique s'il est supérieur à 35%. Les sols non
plastiques ont un IP inférieur à 5% et moyennement plastique entre 5 et 30%. La limite
de liquidité est déterminée au moyen de l'appareil de Casagrande selon la norme
française NF P94-051. Cet appareil est constitué d'une coupelle de bronze, d'une base
en caoutchouc dur et d'une came entraînée par une manivelle. On estime que le sol
atteint la limite de liquidité lorsque, tombant d'une hauteur de 10 mm, doit frapper la
base 25 fois pour refermer, sur une distance de 13 mm, une rainure qui a été pratiquée
sur l'échantillon de sol. La limite de plasticité est déterminée en se basant sur un test
qui consiste à former un rouleau de 3 mm de diamètre à partir d'une boulette de 15 g
environ. Le rouleau, au moment où il atteint ce diamètre, doit avoir environ 10 cm de
longueur. La limite de plasticité est obtenue lorsque, simultanément, le rouleau se
fissure et que son diamètre atteint 3 mm(± 0.5 mm).
• Carbone-Soufre
La méthode d'analyse minéralogique par diffraction des rayons X (DRX) est utilisée
généralement pour l'identification des différentes phases minérales cristallines
contenues dans un échantillon solide. Cette technique est utilisée dans cette étude pour
déterminer les phases cristallines présentes dans les rejets miniers ainsi que dans les
briques cuites. Elle a pour principe de bombarder 1'échantillon à analyser par faisceau
de rayons X en parcourant un intervalle d'angle de réflexion 28 et à mesurer, au moyen
d'un détecteur, l' intensité des rayons X diffractés à un angle précis. Les résultats de
cette technique sont représentés par des diffractogrammes ou l'intensité de chaque pic
est fonction de la position 28. En se basant sur la loi de Bragg, il est possible de
61
comme l'EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). Dans cette étude, trois tests de
lixiviation ont été choisis pour évaluer le comportement environnemental des
échantillons de rejets miniers et des particules de briques cuites (obtenues par
concassage et/ou broyage). Le but de caractériser ces derniers est de simuler leur
comportement à la fin de leur durée de vie (déchet de construction et de démolition) à
différentes distributions granulométriques et rapports liquides/solides.
........................................................................................................................................................
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. ...
:: ca
: ·.;:::;
: :::J
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re 0
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re
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.......................................................................................................................................................
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Figure 3.5 Méthodologie utilisée pour la réalisation du test TCLP.
• Le test CTEU-9 est un test de lixiviation à l'eau qui a pour but de déterminer
les concentrations des polluants inorganiques susceptibles d'être lixiviées en contact
avec de l'eau. C'est un test tirée de la méthode B9 (CTEU-9) Equilibrium Extraction
provenant de Investigation of Test Methods for Solidified Waste Evaluation - A
Cooperative Program (Environnement Canada) (lv1A-100-Lix.com.1.1, 2010).
L'objectif de ce test est d'évaluer la possibilité de valorisation des résidus industriels
non dangereux par des mécanismes de stabilisation-solidification. Le test consiste en
une agitation d'une bouteille de plastique contenant 40g d'un échantillon broyé (<150
~)et 160 nù d'un tampon d'un pH de 7,0 pendant une période de 7jours ± 2heures.
Un rapport solide-liquide de 1 :4 est utilisé. Les lixiviats sont ensuite filtrés (0,45 ~),
65
acidifiés et analysés par ICP-AES. La procédure suivie dans ce test est illustrée dans la
Figure 3.6 .
.:········· .. . ........................ ......... ......... ............................. .. ...... ................... .................... .......................-. .....................
~·
.- .-
1 1
1
Concassage/broyage
f-
Ouil
: ru
1:~
:-
Ajout de 160 ml de la solution tampon (pH=
j.--
7,0) selon un rapport S/L de 1/4
~
Agitation pendant 7 jours± 2 heures avec
c une vitesse de rotation de 30 tours/min
.Q
, +"'
· 'Il ..
: .~
:-m
: •Q)
Filtration (0,45 11m), acidification et analyse
ICP-AES
:a:::
.............. ............................................................................................................................................................
• Le test SPLP est un test de lixiviation qui a pour but de déterminer les
concentrations des polluants inorganiques susceptibles d'être lixiviés dans des
conditions simulant les pluies acides. c'est un test qui a été développé par l'US-EPA
(méthode 1312) : Synthetic Precipitation Leaching Procedure (SPLP). Il a pour but
d'évaluer les possibilités de valorisation des résidus industriels traités par stabilisation-
solidification. ll consiste à mettre 20g d'un échantillon préalablement broyé (si
nécessaire) à 9,5 mm et 400 ml d'un tampon acide (pH=4,20) d'une manière à avoir un
rapport solide-liquide de 1 :20. Ensuite, la bouteille contenant l'échantillon et le
tampon est agitée pendant 18 heures±2 heures avec une vitesse de rotation de 30
tours/min. Les lixiviats sont ensuite filtrés (0,45 )lm), acidifiés et analysés par ICP-
AES. La procédure suivie dans ce test est illustrée dans la Figure 3.7.
66
c Non J
.Q ~
1
20g d'échantillon >9,5 mm Concassage/broyage
1 1 1
Il est question de procéder à un prétraitement des rejets miniers avant leur incorporation
comme matière première secondaire pour la fabrication de briques cuites. Cela est
souvent nécessaire quand un/plusieurs élément (s) peuvent nuire à la qualité des
produits finis ou à 1'émanation de substances toxiques durant le procédé de cuisson ou
durant la durée de vie de la brique. Les éléments problématiques peuvent être sous
forme de minéraux (ex. sulfures), de métaux ou métalloïdes ou de la matière organique.
Les sulfures se décomposent souvent dans 1'intervalle de températures entre 300 et 600
C et provoquent un dégagement des gaz toxiques (SOz et SOx). Leur présence dans les
matières premières peut provoquer aussi la formation de certaines phases à base de
sulfates comme 1'anhydrite. Aussi, la présence de grandes quantités de matières
organiques dans les matières premières peut provoquer la formation d'une porosité
importante dans les briques. Cela étant le résultat des dégagements gazeux (ex. COz )
provenant de la décomposition de la matière organique. D'un autre côté, la présence de
métaux (Pb, Zn, Cu, F, etc.) peut être problématique à cause des possibilités de leur
volatilisation au cours de la cuisson. Le lecteur peut consulter la littérature pour plus
de détails sur cet aspect (Kanari et al., 2001; Menad et al., 1999). C'est dans ce sens
67
Figure 3.8 Quelques images pour illustrer les différentes étapes de flottation du
charbon au niveau du laboratoire.
Un prétraitement a été réalisé aussi dans le cas des rejets de calamine. Le laboratoire
de recherche REMINEX a en effet optimisé un procédé de récupération du plomb
résiduel en utilisant un procédé de flottation. Pour des considérations de confidentialité,
les responsables de REMINEX ont préféré ne pas partager les résultats de ces tests. Ce
qui est à mentionner ici est le fait d'avoir deux types de rejets de calamine : les rejets
de calamine bmts (CPMT) et les rejets de calamine après flottation du plomb résiduel
(TCPMT). Plus de données sur ces deux types de rejets miniers sont présentés dans le
Chapitre III.
68
Plusieurs méthodes sont utilisées dans la littérature pour la fabrication des briques
cuites. Le pressage et l'extrusion sont les méthodes les plus utilisées. Dans cette étude,
le pressage/compactage a été utilisé pour fabriquer des briques à base de rejets miniers.
Le principe est de formuler des briques en substituant l'argile naturelle par les rejets
miniers à différents proportions allant de 0% du rejet, jusqu'à la proportion maximale
possible du rejet étudié. Des amendements ont utilisés tel que le verre recyclé pour
améliorer les propriétés mécaniques des briques. Les matières premières sont
concassées, broyées, séchées, homogénéisées, divisées dans des sacs en plastique avec
1 kilogramme d'échantillon et stockées pour d'éventuelles caractérisation et utilisation
(Figure 3.9).
Les mélanges de matières premières sont ensuite préparés selon les taux de substitution
désirés. Ces derniers changent d'un rej et minier à un autre et sont définis dans chaque
chapitre. Les matières premières sont mélangées avec une quantité suffisante d'eau et
de carbonates de baryum. Les mélanges sont ensuite mis dans un moule (Figure 3.10),
pressés avec une presse hydraulique (Figure 3.11), séchés à l'air ambiant dans l'ombre
pendant 24 heures et à 60°C pendant 24 heures, cuits dans un four de t ype N abertherm©
(Figure 3.11) avec une vitesse, une température et une durée de cuisson bien définies .
Le moule utilisé permet d'avoir quatre briques à chaque pressage avec des dimensions
de 100 mm*20 mm*12 mm.
69
(d) Étiquet age (e) Cuisson d:ms le fom· (t) Btiques atn·ès cuisson
Les briques cuites sont caractérisées pour leurs propriétés physiques (retrait de cuisson,
absorption d'eau, porosité, densité), mécaniques (résistance à la flexion),
environnementales (fLM, TCLP et CTEU-9) et leur durabilité (efflorescence et sels
solubles). Les méthodes utilisées sont déctites plus loin dans ce chapitre.
p .t , Poros1te access1 e a
< a 4001
1 1 1 1 , 1
1 oros1 e 1 , 1 1 /o 1
1 1 1 eau
>--------------------------------~-------------------------------------1
1
A STM-C3 73 1
~------------------------------------------~
1
!f-------------------------------+-------------------------------------j
Densité ! Légèreté des briques ! (1999) !~------------------------------------------"!
1 . , 1 Quantitéd' eau 1 1 , 1
1 Absorption d eau 1 b b, d t h
24
1 1 < a 20 0Yo 1
~--------------------------------~---~--~~~--~-~-P-~!1:-c~!l:-----------~-------------------------~------------------------------------------~
!1 R e trm·t d e cmsson
· !1 Le retrait d
maXImal au ! ASTM-C326 !
. 1 ( ) 1
, go;
< a ;o
!1
1 1 cours e 1a cmsson 1 2003 1
f-------------------------------+-------------------------------------+------------------------+------------------------------------------1
1
! ! ! ASTM-C6 7 ! !
i Efflorescence et i Présence de sels i (2003), i Pas d'efflorescence
i
i sels solubles i hydrosolubles iNF_EN-772-5 i i
1 1 1 (2002) 1 1
~--------------------------------~--------------------------------------!..~------~------- ---------~------------------------------------------...!
i1
i1
Relargage des polluants
1
i NEN- 1
i Comparaison avec les
i
1
Dans le but de comprendre plus en détails les caractéristiques des briques cuites à base
de rejets miniers, une caract érisation minéralogique et microstructurale a été réalisée.
Les phases minérales ont été déterminées à l 'aide d 'une diffraction des rayons X (DRX)
couplé avec des observations au microscope électronique à balayage et une analyse
MEB-EDS. Il était question parfois de connaitr e les phases porteuses des polluants
inorganiques. Cela est d 'une importance primordiale pour pr édire le comportem ent des
polluants problém atiques lors des tests de lixiviation. Le MEB a ét é utilisé aussi pour
72
La durabilité des briques cuites est un facteur très contrôlé par les briquetiers. La
présence de sels solubles dans les matières premières peut provoquer la formation des
taches blanches à la surface des briques. Cela étant indésirable, les briquetiers ont
trouvé une solution qui consiste à ajouter des carbonates de baryum. Ce réactif permet
en effet de complexer les sulfates sous forme de sulfates de baryum connus pour leur
stabilité. Or, il est à signaler que cette solution n'est pas toujours efficace. Dans cette
étude, la norme ASTM-C67 (2003) a été utilisée pour l'évaluation des possibilités
d'efflorescence alors que la norme NF_EN -772-5 (2002) a été utilisée pour la
détermination de la teneur des sels solubles actifs.
Une étude des polluants inorganiques susceptibles d'être lixiviés à partir des briques
cuites à base de rejets miniers a été réalisée. Le relarguage des contaminants a été
évalué par le biais de quatre tests : le test standard Néerlandais NEN-7375 (2004), le
test Américain TCLP (US-EPA, 1311), le test Canadian CTEU-9 (MA-100-
Lix.com.l.1, 2010) et le test sur la dépendance vis-à-vis du pH; EPA-1313 (2012).
L'ensemble de ces tests ont été réalisés pour étudier le comportement des briques dans
différentes conditions; durant leur durée de vie (brique dans la construction) et à la fin
de leur vie (déchet de construction). Ces différents tests permettent en effet d'étudier
73
Ce test a été réalisé sur les échantillons de briques qui présentaient la recette optimale
en termes de température de cuisson et du taux de substitution.
lixiviation
r-<+-+-- Brique
Barreau
Support en
magnétique
plastique
• Dépendance au pH
Le principe du test de la dépendance au pH utilisé dans cette étude a été tiré et adapté
de la méthode 1313 (liquid-solid partitioning (LSP) as a function of extract pH) (EPA-
1313, 20 12). La méthode EPA-1313 permet de fournir une évaluation de la mobilité
des contaminants en fonction du pH final en utilisant un rapport solide-liquide (S/L) de
1:10. Cette méthode permet également d'étudier le pouvoir tampon des matériaux testés
selon le même rapport solide-liquide. L'acide nitrique (HN03) et d'hydroxyde de
potassium (KOH) sont les solvants utilisés dans ce test. Le temps de contact entre la
solution de lixiviation et l'échantillon solide dépend principalement de la taille des
particules du matériau étudié; plus le matériau est fm, plus court est le temps de contact.
Il se compose de neuf extractions parallèles de particules d'un matériau solide de taille
réduite dans un acide dilué ou d'une base. Dans cette étude, les échantillons étudiés ont
été séchés à 60 o C jusqu'à ce qu'aucun changement de poids n'ait été observé. Une
75
quantité suffisante de blocs cuits était préparée, broyée et tamisée à un tamis de 2 mm.
Cette granulométrie a été choisie afin de fournir un plus grand contact entre
l'échantillon et la solution de lixiviation. Un échantillon représentatif de chaque
matériau a été homogénéisé dans la mesure du possible et divisé en petits échantillon
représentatif d'environ 10 g. Après cela, un minimum de douze extractions parallèles
de chaque échantillon dans des solutions de lixiviations avec des pH différents ont été
effectuées. Une quantité de 10 g de chaque échantillon (séché et broyé) a été placé dans
des erlenmeyers et une quantité de 100 ml de la solution de lixiviation a été ajouté à un
rapport solide-liquide de 1:1 O. Dans ce test, la solution acide a été préparée en utilisant
un mélange d'acide sulfurique (H2S04) (46%) et de l'acide nitrique (HN03) (54%) et
mélangé avec de l'eau déminéralisée pour obtenir une solution de 2N. Ce mélange a été
préparé afin de simuler les pluies acides (MA-100-Lix.com.1.1, 2010). La solution
basique a été préparée à partir d'un mélange d'hydroxyde de sodium (NaOH) et de l'eau
déminéralisée pour obtenir une solution de lN. Une quantité pré-calculée de solutions
acides ou basiques ont été ajoutés afin d'obtenir une solution de lixiviation avec une
valeur de pH initiale bien définie. La gamme des valeurs de pH étudiée varie entre 2 et
13. Les échantillons ont ensuite été placés dans un agitateur rotatif et on a agité pendant
une période de 72 heures (Figure 3.13). Le pH des solutions a été mesuré au tout début
du test (avant ajout d' échantillon) et à 30 min, 24heures, 48 heures et 72 heures après
l'addition des échantillons. À la fin de ce test (après 72 heures de contact), les
échantillons ont été filtré s; en utilisant un filtre de 0,45 ~-tm et les lixiviats ont été
acidifiés avant l'analyse ICP-AES.
76
Une étude des dégagements gazeux au cours de la cuisson des briques a été réalisée.
Cette étude a été réalisée dans le but d ' évaluer l'impact que pourrait avoir le procédé
de cuisson de briques sur l'environnement. Pour ce faire, un système de condensation
des gaz susceptibles d'être émis lors de la cuisson a été développé (Figure 3.14). Le
principe étant de capter ces gaz sous forme de poudre condensée sur les parois internes
du tube en verre et les analyser en termes de leur composition chimique. Cette étude a
été également réalisée en se basant sur des calculs théoriques des bilans de matières.
Les émissions des polluants gazeux (C02, S02, HCl, HF, etc.) lors de la cuisson ont
été quantifiées en utilisant l'équation suivante (Coronado, 2014):
Mwi 100 . .
yi= 10000 * Amj * ( 100- LOI* C~- C})
Avec, i = composé polluant (C02, HCl, HF, S02, etc.); j =élément constituant le
composé polluant (C, Cl, F, S, etc.), yi = émission (en mg du composé i par kg du
produit de céramique); LOI(%)= pertes au feu à la température de cuisson de chaque
produit; Mwi = masse molaire du composé polluant; Amj = masse atomique de
77
l'élément; Crj =concentration de l'élément G) dans les matières premières, and Cfj =
concentration de l'élément G) dans le produit cuit.
Four t ubulaire
Système de (950-lOSOoC)
condensation des gaz
Flux d'air
3.6 Références
Préambule:
RÉSUMÉ DÉTAILLÉ
Les résultats de caractérisation ont montré que les deux rejets de calamine sont
composés essentiellement de CaO, Fe2Ü3 et de faibles teneurs en Si02. Les rejets
CPMT présentent une teneur importante en éléments promoteurs de fusions (Na20,
K20, PbO) qui présentent l'avantage d'améliorer les mécanismes de vitrification et
81
frittage des produits dérivés. Après cuisson, il a été observé que la teneur en CaO et
Na20 a légèrement augmenté. D'un point de vue minéralogique, les résultats des
analyses DRX ont montré que les deux rejets sont composés essentiellement de gypse
(CaS04.2H20), quartz (Si02) et calcite (CaC03) avec une différence significative en
termes de teneur. Les TCPMT sont beaucoup plus riches en gypse. Les observations
aux microscopies optique et électronique à balayage ont montré la présence de
certaines phases amorphes que la DRX n'a pas pu détecter. Ces phases amorphes sont
sous deux formes des hydroxydes de fer. La première forme contient des traces de zinc
et l'autre est plutôt riche en fer. Au cours du procédé de cuisson, plusieurs
transformations minéralogiques ont eu lieu; le gypse s'est transformé en anhydrite
(CaS04), les deux formes d'hydroxydes de fer se sont transformées en magnétite
(Fe3Ü4) et hématite (Fe2Ü3) et les carbonates (calcite et dolomite) ont décomposés. Ces
transformations ont eu lieu à des températures caractéristiques pour chaque minéral.
Ces températures ont ét é en accord avec les résultats obtenus par les autres chercheurs
qm ont travaillé dans la même matière. Ces transformations influencent
significativement l'évolution des propriétés physiques et mécaniques des produits de
céramiques dérivés. En effet, la décomposition des minéraux lors de la cuisson
provoque des dégagements gazeux qui mènent vers la formation d'une quantité
importante de pores. Ces derniers sont connus pour être des zones de faiblesse des
produits de céramiques et engendrent une chute des résistances mécaniques. À la fin
de la cuisson, de nouvelles phases comme l'augite (Ca(Fe,Mg)Si206) et la gehlenite
(Ca2AhSi207) se forment.
Les résultats des observations au MEB ont montré que les mécanismes de vitrification
et de frittage étaient plus performants dans le cas des produits de céramiques à base de
CPMT. La résistance à la flexion de ces derniers est sept fois plus importante que celle
des produits de céramiques à base des TCPMT. La porosité accessible et l'absorption
82
ABSTRACT
Because ofthe physical, chemical and environmental risks related to industrial wastes
and the high consumption of finite natural resources in the construction industry, this
paper presents an ecological and sustainable way to manufacture ceramic products
using calamine hydrometallurgical processing wastes. This process generates a by-
product called herein calamine process tailings (CPMT). Moreover, a sample oftreated
calamine process tailings (TCPMT) with low amounts of lead was also studied. The
aim of this study is to characterize both wastes in order to assess the feasibility oftheir
reuse potential as ceramic alternative materials. The effect offiring temperature on the
chemical, mineralogical, environmental behavior and the physical and mechanical
properties of ceramic samples as well as the characterization of the fumes released
during firing process are assessed. The results showed that increasing firing
temperature enhances the flexural strength of ceramic samples and decreases their open
porosity and water absorption. The TCPMT ceramic samples showed very different
physical and mechanical properties in comparison with those made with CPMT. These
latter samples present high flexural strength values and very low level of water
absorption when fired at 1050°C. This difference might be attributed to high amounts
of glassy phase produced in CPMT fired samples. Moreover, the amount of leached
metals is reduced significantly after the thermal treatment. However, arsenic, which
was in a non-leachable form in the green samples, was found to be leached when
tailings are fired. The SEM-EDS analysis of condensed fumes evolved during the
thermal treatment shows that lead is slightly volatilized.
84
4.1 Introduction
One of the ongoing worldwide concerns, from an economie and environmental point
of view, is the management of high amounts of industrial and mine wastes daily
generated. This concern continuously grows due to different reasons: (i) the scarcity of
available spaces to dispose wastes, (ii) the negative environmental impact of sorne
wastes, (iii) the increasing pressure on disposai alternatives, and (iv) the high rate of
finite natural resources consumption ( clays silts, sand, aggregates, etc.) mainly as
construction materials. These finite resources are becoming increasingly scarce and
many govemments across the planet try to limit their exploitation. For example, the
Chinese government has already forbidden in many regions the production of solid
bricks using natural clay (Yang et al., 20 14). In the recent decades, the need to develop
reliable, economie and feasible environmental methods is increasingly growing. An
emerging key approach to solve this question was developed recently and defined as
industrial ecology. This latter aims at establishing closed loop cycles in order to
mtmmtze wastes generation and optimize energy and materials consumption
(O'Rourke et al. , 1996). Wastes are then considered as alternative materials that could
feed other industries.
Zinc is one of the non-ferrous metals widely used in various applications: galvanizing
industries, batteries and rubber manufacturing industries, cosmetics, construction and
renovation, etc. The production of zinc in Morocco is estimated at 91600 tons in 2012
(MEMEE, 20 12). Zinc is extracted mainly from sulfides and oxidized zinc ores.
Currently, a hydrometallurgical process, using sulfuric acid, is used to produce 75% of
the world's zinc from roasted zinc sulfide (Montanaro et al., 2001). In this case, the
zinc extraction process produces large amounts of wastes containing mainly iron
hydroxides/oxides in the form of jarosite (KFe3(S04)z(OH)6), goethite (FeOOH) or
hematite (Fez03) (Asokan et al., 2010; Pelino et al. , 1996; Romero and Rinc6n, 1997).
85
However, before considering the valorization of any waste, sorne challenges related to
transportation, processing and commercialization ofthe valorized products should be
dealt with. Transport costs present the biggest challenge for waste producers and
potential consumers. That is why it is crucial to consider possible options for reducing
these costs. The use of these tailings as fine aggregates to manufacture mortar and
concrete (cement based products) was assessed in the first place. However, results of
this study were not encouraging. Characterization tests showed that sorne constraints
linked to the hydration mechanisms were observed. This was explained bythe presence
of sorne pollutants such as Zn and Pb which are considered as setting retarders. So, it
was important to find another way of valorization.
In this study, the feasibility to produce ceramic materials from calamine process mine
tailings is assessed. Ceramic industry was chosen due to high demand on ceramic
products and because Marrakech city is one ofthe main centers ofpottery and ceramic
production in Morocco. Nevertheless, no study has been made to characterize and
determine the sintering behavior of CPMT for investigating their potential reuse as
ceramic materials. Due to their content in fluxing agents (K20, Na20, Pbü); which can
decrease the sintering temperature, promote the formation of silicated liquid and reduce
the costs offiring process (Grimshaw and Searle, 1971; Quijoma et al., 2014), these
wastes may be used as ceramic materials. This study aims at providing a physical,
chemical, mineralogical and environmental characterization of unfired and fired
tailings, an analysis oftheir thermal behavior during firing process, an assessment of
the physical, mechanical and environmental properties of fired samples and finally a
characterization of the released fumes during the production process.
A representative saJnple of CPMT was collected fi·om the tailings daJn with a moi sture
content of 20 wt.%. After the recovery of lead sulfide by flotation process, a
representative saJnple of TCPMT was collected. The saJnples had agglomerated
aggregates and were therefore dried atlow temperature (60°C), deagglomerated, sieved
to produce <200J.lm particles saJnples, homogenized, separated and sealed in plastic
bags until they were tested.
calamine ore
~
: calamine Process Mine
leaching (HzSO•) - oxidat ion
Tailings (CPMT)
4.2.2 Methods
The major elements were determined by X-ray Fluorescence (Bruker, Tiger Model)
and expressed as oxide weight percentages. Traces analysis was performed using an
ICP-AES deviee (Perkin Elmer Optima 3100 RL) following a HN03/Bf2/HF/HCl
digestion and Na202/NaOH fusion for silica determination. Total sulfur (S) and total
inorganic carbon (C) were determined by induction fumace analyser (ELTRA CS-
2000).
The mineralogical composition offired and unfired samples was determined by X-Ray
diffraction (Bruker AXS Advance D8), using CuKu1 radiation with a fixed counting
time of 4s in the range from 5° to 70° with steps of 0.02° in 28. The samples were
micronized in isopropanol, dried and disoriented before analysis. The DiffracPlus EVA
software was used to identify mineral species and the TOP AS software was used to
quantify the abundance of identified mineral species. Given the mineralogical
complexity of the wastes and the presence of amorphous minerais, the mineralogy was
further investigated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) (Hitachi S-3500N) on
polished sections coupled with an energy dispersive spectrometer (Silicon Drift
Detector X-Max 20 mm2 from Oxford), which allowed to determine the stoichiometry
of mineral phases. The texturai and pore characteristics offired samples were observed
using the SEM and its secondary electron imaging.
laser particle size analyzer (IS0-13320, 2009). The specifie gravity (Gs) ofwastes was
measured with a Micromeritics Accupyc 1330 helium gas pycnometer.
The quantitative phase analysis of the sintered samples at 500, 800 and 1050°C was
performed by TOP AS 4.2 pro gram based on Rietveld analysis. It is a structure analysis
new generation software where profile fitting techniques (Single line fitting, Indexing,
whole powder pattern decomposition, Ab-initio structure determination in direct space
from powder and single crystal data, Rietveld Structure Refinement (RSR) and
quantitative Rietveld analysis) are used. In this study, the combining of RSR and
quantitative Rietveld analysis are adopted. This technique was used also by Tamer
(2013) in order to quantify the phases present in carbonates rocks. The analysis was
conducted by X-Ray diffraction (Bruker AXS Advance D8 equipped with a copper
anticathode, scanning over a diffraction angle (28) range from 5° to 70°, with scan
settings of0.002° 28 step size and 1 s countingtime per step ). The samples were milled
with isopropanol for 15 min in a planetary hall mill in order to ensure a particle size
90
inferior to 10 ~-tm. The resulting slurry was sufficiently oven dried at 60°C and
powdered using a porcelain mortar and pestle. However, it should be noted that the
amorphous content measured in this study may include the glassy phase with non-
diffraction phases such as intrinsic defects or grain boundary regions.
Moreover, the environmental behavior of unfired and fired samples was assessed
according to the Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure, TCLP (US
Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) Method 1311 ). Extraction fluid No.1 was
used to evaluate the mobility of inorganic species. After filtration, the leachate was
collected, acidified for preservation and analyzed by ICP-AES. The characterization of
the released gases was realized using an apparatus composed of a horizontal tubular
fumace coupled with a condenser system. The composition of the condensed products
was determined by SEM-EDS.
4.3 Results
The particle size distribution ofwastes powders is shown in Figure 4.2. The CPMT and
TCPMT consist essentially of 86 vol.% and 94 vol.% of fine particles (< 63 ~-tm)
respectively. The silt fraction (2-63 ~-tm) is almost identical in both tailings, 66 vol.%
(CPMT) and 68 vol.% (TCPMT). CPMT is slightly coarser than TCPMT; this
difference may be explained by the secondary grinding used before the flotation
process. CPMT required to be finely grinded to ensure a high lead recovery rate. The
specifie surface area of CPMT is greater than that of TCPMT, 21.24 m 2/g and 18.65
m 2/g respectively. The specifie gravity values are very similar, 2.67 g/cm 3 (CPMT) and
2.66 g/cm 3 (TCPMT). These values are high compared to theoretical specifie gravity
of gypsum (2.3 g/cm 3). This can be explained by the presence of impurities in the
calamine tailings (silicates, carbonates, metallic oxides and sulfides, discussed later on
in the paper). Regarding the plasticity, calamine tailings are considered as non-plastic.
91
Even with a high quantity of <2 J.lll1 fraction in both wastes, It was difficultto determine
their plasticity due to the lack of clay minerais.
- - cP MT --+-- TCPMT
100
80
! ! ! !!!!!! . . . ...... ! ! !!!!!! ! ! !! !!!!
~ - nT!TiTi! .!T!TiTi! ! 1 i !Tn!
0
~ 60 - i- H-i-i-H·H- !- i-i+ H·i·H- i- i-j-i-i-!+i:- - i- H-i-i-H·H- !- i- H+H+
_ i_ j_i_i_i.i.!.i.!-f-i- i_Li.i.i.!.i_ i_ i_j_i_i_·: :-i-!_i_i_i.i.!.i.!-W-i-~~i.i.~
.."'>
"'
3 40 ! ! ! ! ! !!!i ! ! ! ! !!!i! ! ! ! . :i! ! ! ! ! ! !!!i ! ! ! ! ! !!i
E
::J
1 ! ! Il!!!! 1 1 1 111111 .. li il 1 ! 1 111111 1 1 111111
0 -~-~-!TIT!l r-H-1-!-!-HH-- 1 • ·i-i-iiii-i-i-j-i-ii"j-i ï-[-ï-i-~ri·ii·
20 - !- H-!-!.i+H- !- H-!-i.i... :-H-i~-H-ii-!-H-!-!.i+H-!-H+H+~
_ !_i_!_!_!_U_i !__i _i · -···.!__UJJJj !.!i__!_i_!_!_!_U_i !__i _Ul.L!.! i
! ! ! ! i !iii . i! !ii!i ! i ! ! ! i!i! ! ! ! ! ! i!i! ! i i!! ii!
0
0 0.1 10 100 1000
The chemical analysis was performed on unfired and fired calamine tailings (1000°C)
(fable 4.1). The major oxides present in the CPMT and TCPMT respectively are
calcium oxide (CaO) (21. 7, 23.5wt. %), sulfur oxide (expressed as S03) (27.15, 23.90
wt. %), iron oxide (expressed as Fe203) (13.5, 13.3 wt.%) and silica (Si02) (12.2, 13.4
wt. %). Th ose oxides contribute to more than 74 wt.% in weight for both the wastes.
High content of CaO and S03 suggests thal a calcium sulfate mineral is present in high
amounts. Alkaline and alkaline-earth oxides (MgO, Na20 and K20) occur in significant
amounts; 3.5 wt.% and 2.5 wt.% for CPMT and TCPMT respectively. In order to
facilitate the comparison of calamine tailings with typical ceramic raw materials, a
temary diagram was prepared based on a review of literature (Ajam et al., 2009;
Alonso-Santurde et al., 2012; Chen et al., 2011a; de la Casa and Castro, 2014; Demir
92
et al., 2005; Eliche-Quesada et al., 2012a; He et al., 2012; Lin, 2006a; Mezencevova et
al., 2012; Quijoma et al., 2012; Romero et al., 2008) and showed in Figure 4.3. The
chemical composition ofboth studied tailings shows that silica content is in a very low
level compared to the content requested in usual ceramic materials. This could affect
the formation of the glass y phase. The presence of high amounts of network modifier
oxides (CaO, Mgü, Na20) may reduce the network stability and glass viscosity (Little
et al., 2008).
Lead content is revealed to be much lower in TCPMT (0.8 wt.%) in comparison with
CPMT (1.8 wt.%). This was predictable due to the flotation of lead sulfide. Zinc
content decreased slightly after flotation from 2.2 wt.% (CPMT) to 2.1 wt.% (TCPMT)
due to a possible entrainment during flotation. The content of the other minor trace
elements in the calamine tailings was lower than 620 ppm (Table 4.1 ). The loss on
ignition is almost identical in both tailings ( 18. 8 wt.%, 19.7 wt.% ). After thermal
treatment, it is highly reduced due to a good decomposition of gypsum and carbonates.
93
:e=
Q CaO 21.7 23.51 23.5 26.33
Na2 0 1.94 2.43 0.89 1.35
"'Q
5Q=- so 3 27.15 31.39 23.90 29.14
1..1 K20 0.52 0.6 0.49 0.56
";
Ti0 2
·a
1..1
0.1 7 0.15 0.18 0.15
j! Pz05 0.08 0.12 0.08 0.1 2
u MnO 0.35 0.37 0.28 0.2 7
Cr20 3 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.04
LOI 18.8 0.44 19.7 0.01
Trace elements (mg/kg)
Mo 62 48 63 48
~
-= u
....
(3 Cl rJ'J.
...
Cd
Co
Cr
80
120
130
123
107
243
85
118
144
144
115
159
·- -0!'~1'!
5Q;l:l::
As 477 552 493 616
-= ~
u 5" Cu 385 515 353 482
Q
1..1 Pb 18380 18800 8637 9529
Zn 22320 15540 21490 15820
94
100%Si02
Ceramic
raw materia ls
Calamine
mine tailings
Based on XRD analysis (Figme 4.4), gypsum (CaS04.2H20) is the main mineral in the
calamine tailings; it is associated with sorne impmities of quartz (Si02) and calcite
(CaC03). Bassanite (2CaS04.(H20)) is obsetved in the case of CPMT. According to
the chemical composition analysis and their high amount (e.g., iron oxides!hydroxides
(13.5 wt.%), other minerais were predicted but did not appear in the X-ray powdet·
diffraction pattern; this suggests that the iron oxides/hydroxides are in the form of
amorphous minerais undetectable by XRD. This finding is supported by SEM-EDS
analysis (Figure 4.5) which highlights the presence of two types of iron hydroxides.
The first one is an iron-rich spheroid grain phase which could be amorphous, with a
composition close to wustite one. The second form has alower iron content (67 wt.%),
95
characterized by irregular shape and contains other chemical components such as Zn,
Al, Si and Mn. This mineral is suggested to be an amorphous ferric hydroxide Fe(OH)3.
(a) G
G CaS04,2H20 Gypsum
B CaS04,0.5H20 Bassanite
Q Si02 Quarb
G
~~~~~~~~~·'-~~~~~·~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~·~
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
An
(b) An CaS04 Anhydrite
M Fe304 Magnetite
H Fe20s Hematite
A Ca(Fe,Mg)Si.O. Augile
C CaC03 Calcite
Q Si02 Quartz
M Q An H
An
G
B G G Q G C PMT
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
(c) An
An Casa.. Anhydrite
M Fe:~04 Magnetite
H Fe:zOs Hematite
Au Ca(Fe,Mg)Si20e Augite
C CaCOs Calcite
Q Si02 Quartz
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
2-Theta-Scale
Figure 4.4 Crystalline phases present in: (a) raw calamine tailings, (b) CPMT
and (c) TCPMT treated at different temperatures ( 500, 800, 1 050°C).
97
Figure 4.5 Lead, zinc and iron bearing mineral phases in the studied calamine
tailings.
Figure 4.6 displays a summary of the formed phases during firing process as identified
by XRD and quantified by TOPAS 4.2 program based on Rietveld analysis. The
amounts of anhydrite, hematite and quartz decrease when the temperature increases
from 800 to 1050°C. This observation may be explained by the decomposition of
98
anhydrite and hematite and the incorporation of silica from quartz in other amorphous
and crystalline phases. In the same range (800-1050°C), the amount of magnetite is
seen to change with increasing firing temperature which confirms that it reacts with
other minerais and gives rise to new ones. Augite is one of the resulting minerais from
the reaction between quartz, anhydrite and iron oxides. The reaction between CaO and
Siü2 could exp lain the formation of gehlenite observed in the case of CPMT samples,
what is confirmed by other authors (Alia et al., 1999; Cultrone et al., 2004). The
formation of gehlenite only in the case of CPMT might be explained by its high content
in flux oxides (N a20, K20, Pbü), though the se elements do not be long to the gehlenite
composition. These oxides enhance the production of high amounts of liquid phase in
CPMT which may improve from a kinetic point of view the formation of gehlenite.
Also, it is observed that the amount of the glassy phase is important in the CPMT
sintered samples. The difference between CPMT and TCPMT in terms of fluxing
components may explain the difference of glassy phase formation. This finding is
supported by the firing shrinkage and density results (Figure 4.9) which confirm that
the densification and sintering mechanisms are improved in CPMT sintered samples.
After thermal treatment, various transformations took place. Renee, heavy metals
bearing phases may change and affect the ir leaching behavior. Figure 4. 7 summarizes
the lead and zinc bearing minerais in fired calamine tailings samples. According to
SEM-EDS analysis, lead oxide (Pbü) and zinc sulfur (ZnS) disappeared after thermal
treatment. This finding was predicted and is supported in the literature. It is known that
lead oxides compounds (Pbü, Pbü2, Pb203, Pb3Ü4) decompose in temperatures range
between 400-600°C (Menad et al., 1999). Lead is mainly associated with newly formed
allumino-silicate glassy phase whereas zinc is strongly combined with iron oxides.
Also, ZnS decomposes in high temperature leading to the formation of Znü and the
volatilization of S02 (Menad et al., 1999; Schultze et al., 1995). However, because Zn
was found largely associated with iron bearing minerais and less with sphalerite, it was
99
difficult to observe by SEM the presence of Zn in the form of ZnO. Zn was highly
associated to iron bearing minerais. Moreover, sorne spherical particles appear, what
propose that they have been existing under the form of liquid, usually, this kind of
facies occurs in fumes.
(a) 100
80
~ 60
....r::
....r::QI 40
0
u
20
0
25 500 800 1050
Temperature ("C}
(b) 100
80
'....*r::' 60
....c
CIJ
0 40
u
20
0
25 500 800 1050
Temperature ("C}
F1gure4.7 Lead and zinc occurrences in fired calamine mine tailings samples
(950-1 050°C).
The TG/dTG curves of calamine tailings (Figure 4.8) showed four weight loss steps.
The first mass loss from 60 to 200°C (CPMT) is related to the dehydration of gypsum
(CaS04, 2Hz0) into anhydrite (CaS04). The double successive weight losses at 148°C
and 158°C might be imputed to the decomposition of gypsum to bassanite (CaS04,
0.5Hz0) and theninto anhydrite III (CaS04) (Popescu et al., 1985; Seufert et al., 2009;
Suydom and Potgieter, 1999). The third mass loss in the range 250-350°C could be
attributed to the dehydroxylation of iron hydroxides resulting in the development of
magnetite and hematite. In this range of temperature, the u·ansformation of anhydrite
III into anhydrite II may occur (Popescu et al., 1985). The weight loss at 650-850°C
charactetizes the thennal decomposition of calcium and magnesium carbonates present
asimpmitiesinthe drywaste. Near940°C and 1030°C, the mass ofCPMT and TCPMT
respectively is further reduced. This may be explained by the decomposition of
anhydrite and the sublimation of PbS observed initially in the calamine tailings.
Usually, the decomposition of anhydrite struts at 1180-1230°C for natural gypsum
(Kontogeorgos and Founti, 2012; Popescu et al., 1985; Sebbahi et al., 1997). However,
impurities (CaO, NazO, KzO, ZnO and PbO) in calamine tailings may start up the
decomposition of anhydlite at lower temperatures.
101
- CPMT ----·TCPMT
0 .5
95
1
1
_1 .. 0.4
--..
~
90
Ill
Il 1
,, 1
::
, ,
'
1
' ......... __
.................... _______ ..... __ 0.3
.c
~
tiO
85
-------
--------------........,,
0.2
"'",
80 -- ------------------- 0 .1
..,,"-~
1
75 p:::.:.=.~-,--..::::::::::::::::..._____;::::.="""""~-~~~:::._~~~- --..,..----=--4 0
0 150 300 450 600 750 900 1050
Temperature ("C)
The main physical and mechanical properties of fired samples at different temperatmes
are presented in Figme 4.9. The increase of firing temperatme from 950 to 1050°C
leads to increase firing shrinkage, loss on ignition, flexural strength and apparent
density, while open porosity and water absorption decreased significantly.
CPMT and TCPMT fired samples present very different properties. The flexural
strel\,oth was increased in the case of CPMT from 4.6 (950°C) to 23.3 MPa (1 050°C)
while it was increased to reach a maximum of 3.1 MPa with TCPMT fired samples.
Simultaneously, open porosity and water absorption decreased significantly when
increasing the firing temperatme. This behavior is more pronounced with CPMT fired
samples where open porosity and water absorption decreased to reach respectively 5
wt.% and 2 wt.% at 1050°C. However, unlike CPMT fired samples, TCPMT fired
102
samples present high values of open porosity (36 wt.%) and water absorption (22
wt.%). The higher porosity in TCPMT fired samples results from the great gas release
following the decomposition of sulfate and carbonates during the firing process. Loss
on ignition results supports this finding. The lower open porosity values observed in
the case of CPMT fired samples may be explained by the formation of vis cous liquid
phase which fill the pores and enhance the sintering mechanism. As widely
demonstrated in the literature, the liquid phase flow formed during firing process is an
important factor that reduces the open porosity and facilitates the mass transport
performance (Grimshaw and Searle, 1971; Quijoma et al., 2014). Hence, the sintering
mechanism and crystal growth are enhanced. This is illustrated in Figure 4.10 where
the glass y phase and good sintered grains are observed particularly in the case of CPMT
sintered samples. The increase of sintering temperature leads to the reduction of
porosity and the formation of glass y phase which tends to fill the pores. However, less
glassy phase was observed in the case of TCPMT sintered samples as confirmed by the
quantitative phase analysis r esults (Figure 4.6).
Moreover, the density was increased with increasing firing temperature and reaches a
maximum of 2.25 g/cm 3 and 1.69 g/cm3 at 1050°C for CPMT and TCPMT fired
samples respectively. This difference can be explained by the increase of the glass y
phase amount and the viscous flowrate in the case of CP MT. This mechanism results
in material densification.
103
~
~
:!...
:!... 40 c: 28
0
;?;> :;:;
'(ii a.
e0 .. ..
"~., , ....
a.
30
·... ....
' ' •,
~
.0
<Il
21
c:
Cl)
20 ' ' •, .... 14
a. '··...'• Cl)
0 10 '•
····-.. . ~
0 0
950 1000 1050 950 1000 1050
(Ù
Q.
~
25
/
. 28
..
....-~···..-···
/
~
:5 20 / :!...
/
Cl)
21
C> •'
c: •'
•' C> ....• ...-····
]!
~
15
...,• c: 14
/ ·;:::
"ffi 10
-#~--· .:::
.... IJ)
~
x ..·#
Cl)
il:
....... ~
·;:::
ü:
0 0
950 1000 10 50 9 50 1000 1050
30 3,0
~
:!... "'~
c: 26 E
.,0
~
(J
2,5
'2
.2'
22 È ....
c: ~ 2,0
0 18 "'c:
Cl)
"'"'0 0
1,5
..J 14
10 1,0
950 1000 1050 950 1000 1050
Figure 4.10 SEM secondary electron images of CPMT and TCPMT samples
fired at different temperatures.
104
In order to study the influence of thermal treatment on the calamine mine tailings
leaching behavior, the American Characteristic Leaching Procedure test TCLP, method
1311, was used. The leaching tests (Table 4.2) showed that the content in Pb, Zn and
Cd in the calamine tailings leachates before firing treatment exceed the regulatory
limits fixed by the US-EPA (2009) for granular wastes in landfill. The other elements
As, Ba, Cr and Ni are below these limits. After thermal treatment, the leaching ofthese
elements was significantly reduced. This is supported by the SEM observations which
confirm that the main problematic metals, namely lead and zinc, are immobilized
within the alumino-silicate glassy matrix. It is also observed that the CPMT fired
samples present lower heavy metalleaching in comparison with TCPMT ones . This
difference may be attributed to the important quantity of alumino-silicate glassy phase
produced in the case of CPMT and to its lower open porosity. However, the mobility
of arsenic, which was in a non-leachable form in the green samples, was increased with
the thermal treatment in both investigated mine tailings samples, and overpass the
regulation limits. The results are in agreement with the findings of Nordmark et al.
(2011) who observed that the As mobility was increased a:fter thermal treatment of
contaminated soil; they found that As release is affected by the increasing
crystallization of initially less crystalized or amorphous Fe oxides during the thermal
treatment. In otherwords, arsenic is known to have a pronounced affinityfor Fe oxides.
However, the increasing of the firing temperature enhances the oxides crystallinity and
reduces the proportion of available sorption sites for As (Comell and Schwertmann,
2003; Nordmark et al., 2011; Sorensen et al., 2000) which leads in fine to its high
mobility. Moreover, this behavior may also be explained by the transformation of
arsenide minerais into arsenates which are more soluble.
105
Table 4.2 Leaching concentration of metals ().lg/1) from unfired and fired
calamine tailings.
Element Atomic %
0 38.56
s 29.56
Fe 0.59
Pb 31.29
4.4 Conclusion
Calamine processing wastes were charactetized in order to assess their potential reuse
as ceramic material. This type of waste is mainly composed of CaO, Fe203 and low
amounts ofSi02. The CPMT presents higher amounts offluxing agent oxides (Na20,
K20, PbO) which enhance the sintering and densification of the derived :fired products.
The amounts of CaO and Na20 increase slightly after thermal treatment. The
mineralogical XRD analysis shows that gypsum (CaS04.2H20), quartz (Si02) and
calcite (CaC03) are the main crystalline phases present in the calamine process mine
tailings. When fired to high temperatmes, various transformations take place. Gypsum
is transfmmed into anhydrite (CaS04), amorphous iron hydroxides are transformed
into magnetite (Fe304) and hematite (Fe203 ), and carbonates minerais are decomposed.
These transformations affect significantly the physical and mechanical propetties of
fired samples due to the amount of gas released which leads to high amounts of pores.
At 1050°C, new phases such as augite (Ca(Fe,Mg)Si206) and gehlenite (Ca2AbSi20J)
are formed.
107
The sintering and densification process was more pronounced in the case of CPMT
fired samples. The flexural strength ofCPMT fired samples at 1050°C was seven times
higher than that of TCPMT ones. The open porosity and water absorption were
decreased significantly with the thermal treatment while density increased.
The leaching test indicated that Pb, Zn and Cd were mobile in the unfired calamine
tailings. After thermal treatment, the ir mobility was significantly reduced. Arsenic was
found to be leachable in the fired samples. This behavior may be explained by the
enhancement of the iron oxides crystallinity and/or a change from arsenides into
arsenates and make it more mobile in the fired matrix. Because ofthe increase of As,
Pb and Zn mobility after thermal treatment, it will be unsafe to use calamine tailings in
this form as ceramic materials. It will be necessary either to define an optimum of
substitution of natural clay by these tailings in order to dilute the As leaching risks or
to incorporate adsorbents (magnetite on a zeolite or perlite matrix) in the raw materials
before using as ceramic materials. The incorporation of adsorbents in the production
of ceramics is increasingly studied as a valuable alternative for the stabilization of
oxyanions and other heavy metals (Block et al., 2015). Other possibilities may consist
of recovering calcium carbonates and elemental sulphur from calamine tailings or
recovering Zn and Pb and then evaluate the use ofthese tailings in other domains such
as cement and plaster. These elements may not be suitable for the hydration of
cementitious phases.
4.5 Acknowledgements
We are grateful for the financial support from the International Research Chairs
Initiative, a program funded by the International Development Research Centre,
Canada (IDRC) and supported by the Canadian Research Chairs Program. The authors
108
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CHAPITRE V
Préambule:
RÉSUMÉ DÉTAILLÉ
Les résultats de caractérisation ont montré que la substitution des argiles par les
TCPMT provoque une réduction de la résistance mécanique des briques et une
augmentation de leur porosité ouverte et donc leur taux d 'absorption d'eau. Cela a été
expliqué par la décomposition du gypse et des carbonates qui laissent derrière une
porosité importante. Il a été montré aussi que l'augmentation de la température de
cuisson provoque une amélioration de la résistance à la flexion et de la densité des
115
Les briques monolithiques à base de 30% des TCPMT ont été évaluées pour leur
comportement environnemental à l'aide du test Néerlandais NEN7375. Les résultats
de ce test ont montré que la lixiviation des polluants inorganiques a significativement
été réduite. Les concentrations de tous les polluants inorganiques relargués sont en
dessous des limites fixées l'organisation 'Building Materials Decree' . Par contre, les
résultats du test Américain TCLP ont montré que le zinc devient mobile quand les
briques seront devenues des déchets de construction et de démolition. Un travail
supplémentaire est requis pour immobiliser le Zn.
ABSTRACT
This paper pro vides an efficient alternative way to conserve natural elays and tore duce
both fired bricks costs production and wastes amounts generation. It aims to substitute
natural clay by treated calamine processing wastes (TCPMT) to manufacture value
added fired bricks. Different mixes containing up to 40% of TCPMT were pressed,
dried and fired at various temperatures (900, 950, 1000 and 1050°C). The fired bricks
were characterized for their physical, mechanical, mineralogical, microstructural,
environmental and durability properties. The results show that the increase of
temperature allows the enhancement of mechanical strength, the reduction of water
absorption due to the decrease of accessible pores amount and the enhancement of
potential contaminants immobilization. The mechanical strength of bricks decreases
with the addition ofTCPMT due to the increased formation of pores and the apparition
of sorne coarse grains which are considered as regions of weakness of the studied
bricks. The leaching behavior of reference and selected optimum bricks, assessed
according to a tank leaching test (NEN 7375), shows that almost toxic elements (Pb,
Zn, As, Cr, Mo, Ba, Cd, Cu) are immobilized in the sintered bricks. Finally, the
experimental approach outcomes show the possibility to produce bricks containing up
to 30 wt.% of TCPMT with the required engineering and environmental properties
(water absorption, open porosity, firing shrinkage, bulk density, efflorescence and
leaching tests) when fired at 1050°C.
118
5.1 Introduction
Despite its socio-economic benefits, the mining industry is widely criticized for its
negative environmental impacts because of its chemical (ex. ac id mine drainage) and
physical risks (ex. dams failure ). Mining activities pro duce high amounts of wastes
with potential harmful effects on the environment if these wastes are not properly
managed (Benzaazoua et al., 2008). The current disposai options are generally realized
on the mine site: impoundments on land, backfill in the open pit or in the underground
mine, dispos al in deep lakes, offshore marine disposai or reprocess for secondary metal
recovery before disposai (Benzaazoua et al., 2006; Ritcey, 2005). The management of
mine wastes outside the mine site is a novel promising alternative to reduce the amount
of wastes produced by this activity and consequently the harmful impact on
environment. In this framework, the industrial ecology approach is an environmental
and friendly sustainable solution to resolve these issues. The objective of this approach
is the transformation of one industry by-products to a feedstock of another one. This
approach may lead to production costs reduction and environmental performance
improvement taking into account economie and achievable factors (Cerceau et al. ,
2014; Nabih et al., 2014; Yuan and Shi, 2009). In other words, solid wastes are
considered increasingly as secondary or alternative raw materials in various industries.
Consequently, the environmental impacts of solid wastes are reduced and the virgin
resources (elays, shales, etc.) extensively used as building materials are preserved.
iron minerais such as jarosite and goethite. Unlike these wastes, calamine processing
mine tailings produced by a hydrometallurgical process, using sulfuric acid, are mainly
composed of gypsum and less amounts of iron minerais (Taha et al., 20 15b ). Gypsum
is the result of the decomposition of carbonate minerais in the presence of sulfuric acid.
Various studies have displayed the feasibility of using gypsum wastes to produce:
cement and concrete materials (Garg et al., 2009; Shen et al., 2013), plaster products
(Marinkovi et al., 2004; Singh, 2005), ceramic blocks (Godinho-Castro et al., 2012),
lightweight products (San-Antonio-Gonzâlez et al., 2015) and other building materials
(Degirmenci, 2008). It is also used to synthesize nanostructured hydroxyapatite for the
removal of Pb and Cd from wastewater (Yan et al., 2014) and calcium carbonate and
elemental sulphur (de Beer et al., 20 15).
The use of wastes to manufacture fired bricks is widely studied in the literature and
many reviews are available (Bories et al., 2014; Monteiro and Vieira, 2014; Muîioz
Velasco et al., 2014; Zhang, 2013). Zhang (2013) was the first to make a literature
review about the use of different types of wastes to produce bricks. After that, critical
updates were provided by Muîioz Velasco et al. (20 14) and Monteiro and Vieira
(2014). At the same time, the use of pores forming agents to produce eco-friendly
porous bricks was developed by Bories et al. (2014). However, in our knowledge, only
two papers on the use of gypsum wastes to manufacture sintered bricks are published
(Ajam et al., 2009; Emrullahoglu Abi, 2014). These studies show that low amounts of
wastes may be added to the bricks. it is highlighted that the addition of gypsum wastes
leads to the decrease ofthe mechanical strength and the increase ofporosity of derived
bricks. However, the reasons behind the decline of the mechanical strength taking into
consideration the microstructural and mineralogical transformations after sintering and
the durability and environmental behavior of gypsum wastes based bricks are slightly
discussed.
120
In a recent work (Taha et al., 2016); the potential use oftreated calamine processing
mine tailings (TCPMT) as alternative materials in the manufacture of ceramic products
has been assessed. It was reported that it is unsafe to use these tailings at a ratio of
100% in ceramic products and sorne recommendations were suggested. Amongst the se
recommendations, the use of these tailings as an additive material to manufacture
ceramic products may be an efficient solution. The research question is about the
feasibility of elays substitution by treated calamine processing mine tailings (TCPMT)
to manufacture fired bricks. The origin of the idea cornes from the vicinity between the
mine site and a brick manufacture in Morocco. Owing to the thermal insulation, fire
resistance and acoustic properties that gypsum wastes may ensure, treated calamine
processing mine tailings (TCPMT) (rich in gypsum) may be used as an alternative
material to manufacture fired bricks. The project aims in providing another source of
alternative materials in order to reduce the extensive use of finite natural resources
(clays) in brick making industry. The use of TCPMT, considered as hazardous
materials in its current form, through brick making willlead to decrease its amount and
then its negative environmental impact on the environment. Therefore, it is aimed to
characterize the used raw materials and the bricks ( containing different proportions of
TCPMT) sintered at different temperatures (900, 950, 1000 and 1050°C) in order to
determine the optimal sintering temperature and substitution proportion of clays by
TCPMT. For this reason, the physical, mechanical, microstructural and durability
properties of fired bricks are assessed. It is aimed also to verify the capacity of the brick
making process to immobilize the contaminants from TCPMT. The results of this study
may respond to the increased demand on insulating products in Morocco especially
with the new regulation for thermally isolated buildings.
Morocco. The TCPMT was obtained after lead sulfide recovery process described in
details in (Taha et al., 2016). A reference material (RM) with physical and chemical
characteristics representative of clays used in the manufacture of fired bricks in
Morocco is used. All raw materials were dried at 60°C, grinded to pass by a 200 11m
sieve, homogenized and sealed in plastic bags until their further characterization and
use.
The methods section de scribes the methodology used to assess the feasibility of using
TCPMTto manufacture fired bricks. The first part ofthis section describes the technics
used to characterize the RM and TCPMT, the second part is devoted to the process
used to manufacture fired bricks and the last one presents the overall tests conducted
on fired bricks from a physical, mechanical, environmental and durability point of
VleW.
The methodology developed in this study is described in Figure 5 .1. The raw materials
were blended and homogenized to pro duce mixes with 0, 10, 20, 30 and 40 wt.% of
TCPMT (based on dry weight) (Table 5.1). RM was used to compensate the proportion
substituted by the TCPMT. The mixes are designed respectively, in an ascending order
of TCPMT proportion, Mo, M10, Mzo, M3o and M4o. Reference samples Mo were
prepared to assess the effect ofusing TCPMT on fired brick samples properties. Barium
carbonate is used in order to bond the soluble sulphates and to prevent the formation
of white scum known as effiorescence phenomenon. A required amount of water was
used to manufacture green samples. The mixes were pressed under 6 MPa, using a
hydraulic uniaxial press, to produce laboratory brick samples in two forms; rectangular
prism proofs 100 x 20 x 12 mm and cylindrical blocks 5.4 mm 0 x 38 mm high. The
green samples were dried at ambient atmosphere, in the shade, during 24h and in an
electric oven at 60°C during another 24h. The dried samples were then fired in a muffie
fumace (Nabertherm©) with a ramp rate of 60°C/h from ambient temperature to 200°C
followed directly by a ramp rate of 120°C/h from 200°C to the desired sintering
temperatures 900, 950, 1000 and 1050°C. The soaking time was fixed at 3h for all
samples.
Apparent density, water absorption, and apparent porosity of fired bricks were
measured according to ASTM-C373 (1999) on the basis of Archimedes' method. The
specimens are placed in a pan of distilled water, boiled for 5 hours and soaked for an
additional 24h. The specimens are then weighed before and after testing and each
property are measured according to the corresponding procedure. Firing shrinkage was
measured in accordance with ASTM-C326 (2003) using a caliper. Flexural strength
was investigated, using an univers al testing machine (Zwick Roell) with a load capacity
of30 kN, according to ASTM-C674 (1999). The durability offired bricks was assessed
using the efflorescence test achieved using ASTM-C67 (2003). The samples are
partially immersed in distilled water for 7 days and bricks surface was visually
observed for potential efflorescence. Moreover, the durability of bricks was assessed
based on soluble salts release through the European standard test NF_ EN -772-5 (2002).
The microstructure and pores texture of bricks was carried out by SEM. The leaching
tests were performed on both cylindrical monolithic ceramic blocks according to the
Dutch standard test, NEN -73 7 5 (2004 ); which is a norm consisting of 64 days leaching
and on grinded materials according to the toxicity characteristic leaching procedure test
(TCLP) (USEP A 1311 ). The leaching tests have be en performed on the reference and
selected optimal recipe samples.
124
Fi ring
• Different temperatures: 900, 950, 1000 and lOSO"C
• Heating rate: l "C/ min to 200"C and then 2"C/ min to final temperature
• Soakingtime : 3 hours
Physical, mechanical,
environ mental and durability Microstructural and
characterization
mineralogical characterization
Water absorption , pores distribution,
XRD, FTIR, SEM-EDS, etc.
fi ring shrinkage, flexural strength,
metalleaching, efflorescence, etc.
The physica1 and chemica1 properties of raw materia1s are summarized in Table 5.2.
The specifie gravity and specifie surface area are practically simi1ar for both materials.
TCPMf are considered as non-plastic due to the difficulty to determine its plasticity
limit. This materia1 cou1d not be rolled into a 3.2 mm thread and breaks into small
threads. RM presents the desired plasticity for optimal extrusion to manufacture fired
bricks with a plasticity limit (22.1 wt.%) in the range: 15-25 wt.% and a plasticity index
(18.8 wt.%) in the range: 15-30 wt.%. The XRF analysis shows that TCPMf is mainly
125
composed of CaO (23.5 wt.%), iron oxides (expressed in Fe203) (13.3 wt.%) and little
amounts of Si02 (13.4 wt.%) and Ah03 (2.3 wt.%). Too low amounts of silica and
alumina could affect significantly the mechanical strength of TCPMT based fired
bricks. In fact, silica is known to form the skeleton of ceramic bodies while alumina
allows improving their mechanical strength through its transformation into mullite
during the firing process. The presence of flux agent oxides (Na20, K20) would
improve the fusion of grain particles at low temperatures and enhance the formation of
the glass y phase. High amounts of he avy metals such as Zn (2.14%) and Pb (8.63%)
are observed. RM consists of Si02 (61.6%), Ah03 (15.6%), Fe203 (6.3%) and high
levels of alkaline and earth alkaline oxides. The final color of fired bricks depends
mainly on the mineralogy and chemical composition ofthe raw materials.
TCLP leaching analysis data is presented in Table 5.3. Concentrations of only zinc,
lead and cadmium leached from TCPMT are above the US-EPA thresholds for granular
wastes in landfill while all the other elements are in the required limits. Therefore, this
126
Table 5.2 Raw materials major oxides (%)and trace elements (ppm)
compositions.
TCPMT RM
Specifie gravity (g.cm-3) 2.66 2.63
2
Specifie surface area (m g- 1) 18.65 19.81
P1asticity limit (%) 22.1
P1asticity index(%) 18.8
Si02 13.4 61.6
AhÜJ 2.3 15.6
--=..,
'$.
Fe2ÜJ
MgO
CaO
13.3
1.1
23.5
6.3
3.2
2.7
"'
""0
-~
Na20 0.9 3.0
0 SOJ 24. 6
:....
";'
0 K20 0.5 2.8
~ Ti0 2 0.1
P205 0.1 0.1
MnO 0.3 0.1
LOI 19.7 4.0
As 493 <DL
Cd 85 .3 <DL
....."' Co 11 8 39
..,_
=
='-;' Cr 144 151
~~ Cu
.., ~ 353 45
~ ë Mo 62.7 32
~-
E-<
:.... Hg 1.4 <0.01
Pb 8637 33
Zn 21490 <55
127
100,00 0,60
0,50
95,00 ',.,o:i*' Gypsum ~ Bassanite
1 û
.::.....
~
90,00
'*'
~
N
....ai
0,40
..:;"'
~
..
~
..t:
Bassanite ~ Anhydrtite
$
bD
'Qj
85,00
-s"'
..t:
bD
"Qj
0,20 ~
"tl
-~"'
80,00
0,10 Cl"'
75,00 0,00
0 150 300 450 600 750 900 1050
Temperature (•q
As Ba Cd Cr Mo Pb Zn
p.tg/1 p.tg/1 ,...g/1 ,...g/1 !l-g/1 p.tg/1 p.tg/1
RM 30 1130 6 1.5 < DL 10 119
TCPMT < DL 190.5 4535 5.5 < DL 32450 250500
Regulated limit • 5000 100000 1000 5000 5000 2000
DL; Detection limit
* US-EPA limit
bricks is presented in Figure 5.3. Results show that sintering temperature has an
important effect on the dimensional changes and weight loss of TCPMT bricks.
Increasing sintering temperature and TCPMT proportion leads to the intensification of
both parameters values. The firing shrinkage increased to reach a maximum of 6.3%
for M40 based bricks, which represents an increase of 31.3 % compared to the
reference brick Mo (4.8 %) at a sintering temperature of 1050°C. Moreover, a
significant growth offiring shrinkage of 543.9% and 204.6%, respectively for Mo and
M4o bricks, is noticed when the sintering temperature is increased from 900 to 1050°C.
The increase of firing shrinkage with the sintering temperature is explained by the
sintering mechanisms resulted from pore filling by liquid phase flow. This finding is
in accordance with the results obtained in the literature and in agreement with clay
brick ASTM standards which require a value offiring shrinkage lower than 8%. The
increase of LOI with the incorporation of TCPMT is explained by the decomposition
of gypsum, iron hydroxides and carbonate minerais as shown by TGA results.
129
-ê
~
8
Good quality bricks
................................................................................................................................ ~
tiO
•
•.. •
tV
~ 6
c:
·;:
~ ·• •
Cil
tiO 4
c:
·;:
• • •
ü:
2 •
.... ;;,,;.,, ..-.-..::..
• .... .....::.::.. ·''"'"'~~ ···
0
0 10 20 30 40
15
•
-ê
c:
12
0 9
:ec:
.2!1
c: 6
0
Cil
Cil
_,0 3
0
0 10 20 30 40
Figure 5.3 Sinteling shrinkage and loss on igrùtion results of sintered bticks
(Enor bars are plotted but do not appear due to their smali range).
Water absorption and apparent porosity results are highlighted in Figure 5.4. Water
absorption depends mainly on the accessible open porosity in the sintered samples.
High amounts of open pores results in an important water abs01ption rate and
consequentlyhighrisks oflong term degradation ofthe blicks. Figure 5.4 and 5.6 show
that sintering temperature and TCPMT proportion in bticks influence significantly the
130
open porosity and water absorption rates. Porosity and water absorption rates decrease
significantly with increasing sintering temperature and grow with TCPMT addition.
By a way of illustration, a growth of sintering temperature from 900 to 1050°C,
decreases the porosity of the samples MO and M40 respectively from 40% and 45%, to
25% and 38%, which representa reduction of 37.5 % and 15.5 %for the respective
samples. However, at 1050°C, the open porosity is increased from 25.12 % to 38 %
when 40% of the RM is substituted by TCPMT, roughly 59% greater than the MO
bricks. The se results meet early expectations by the fact that thermal treatment leads to
gypsum, iron hydroxides and carbonate minerais decomposition which results in gas
release and then open pores accessibility. Moreover, the results of water absorption
confirm the outcomes of open porosity. It is noticed that at a sintering temperature of
1050°C, water absorption rate increases from 12% for the reference brick to 21% for
M40 brick samples, which represents roughly an increase of 74%. As a primary
conclusion, bricks containing up to 30% of TCPMT and sintered at a temperature of
1050°C are in compliance with ASTM C62 standards, which r equire water absorption
and porosity rates less than 20% and 40% respectively.
The mechanical strength is a key factor to assess the quality offired bricks. It is known
that during sintering of ceramic bodies, new crystalline and amorphous phases are
formed. Thus, the mechanical strength of sintered bodies depends, inter alia, on the
quantity and quality of these phases. Figure 5. 5 reports the flexural strength and
apparent density of bricks as a function of sintering temperature and TCPMT addition.
131
..
:;;
Q.
0
Ill
25
..
~
ftl
20 ......................................................................................:..a ·::::.....·.: ~ ...................... ï Good
0.1
ftl
~ ., ·· · ! . i quality
3: 15 ';'bricks
10 '
0 10 20 30 40
50
44
.-
ë 38
~
..
'ijj
0
i
32
,
0
Q.
26 ...
20
0 10 20 30 40
TCPMT proportion (wt.%)
Figure 5.4 Water absorption and open porosity variation of sintered blicks.
On one hand, the flexural strength of bricks is remarkably enhanced with the increased
fuing temperature (Figure 5.6). Increase rates of approximately 195% and 158% are
respectively observed in the sintering temperature ranges (900-1000°C) and (1000-
10500C) for the reference btick. The values ofthese increased rates are affected by the
prop01tion added ofTCPMT. The strong increase offlexural strength with the sintering
temperature may be explained by the enhancement of the vitli:fication process which
132
tends to fill the pores and reduce the weakness regions in the sintered bricks. On the
other hand, the addition of TCPMT results in a decline of the flexural strength. At
1050°C, it decreases from 17 MPa for the control sample Moto 4 MPa for M4o bricks.
This can be explained mainly by the increase of porosity with TCPMT addition which
is considered as a mechanical strength defect source. Bricks containing up to 40% of
TCPMT are in accordance with the flexural strengths of bricks found in the literature
(Gencel et al., 2013; Quijoma et al., 2012).
Like the flexural strength, the density is considerably improved with the increase of
sintering temperature from 900 to 1050°C (Figure 5.6); it goes up from 1.49 to 1.74
g.cm-3 for the M40 bricks. The density increase is a direct result of the enhanced
sintering and densification mechanisms. This verdict is largely supported in the
literature. However, the incorporation of TCPMT reduces the density of sintered
bricks. It goes clown from 2 g/cm3 for the control sample MO to 1.74 g/cm3 for M40
at 1050°C, with a decrease rate of 13% . This suggests that TCPMT addition decreases
the mechanisms of densification and pore-filling processes. The density increases with
the decrease of open porosity and vice versa.
133
····• mw goooc
• ····· 9Sooc ... 1000°C ... .... 10SOOC
20
-;-
a. 16 !
-...
:E
~
12
!
QO
..
c
~ !
-:;;
..
ii
::1
><
8
~
~
1
~
il:
4 !1
• - __ _.•
1 '
• ••* -
-·
............................................ .......... .......... &
•
0
0 10 20 30 40
2,2
--
"'E
2,0
,
<J
~ ! .. .. ...
l: 1,8
, •
;&.
'iii
c
~
Q
1,6 ! ;;;;:· ,;;,;;;<••••••"M••·- ·- .. , ,.
ll
1,4
0 10 20 30 40
TCPMT proportion (wt.%)
Flgure 5.5 Flexural strength and apparent density results of sintered bricks.
134
..
o.
15
~
.§
2,0
..
~
.<:
c
10
>
·"
~
~
1,8
~
'C
'é
n;
i f======:::=:.__._-
~
~
u:
900
--
1,4 +-----~---~------j
950 1000 1050
50
45
~ 40
1
>
35
0
5o.
c 30
~
c.
0
25
900 950 1000 1050 900 950 1000 1050
Figure 5.6 Evolution offlexural strength, apparent density, open porosity and
firing shrinkage with sintering temperature for calamine wastes based fired bricks.
The relationship between the different brick samples properties sintered at 1050°C is
highlighted in Figure 5.7. It can be noticed that there is a good correlation between the
flexural strength and open porosity (r2 =0.964), the apparent density and open porosity
(r2 =0.938), the flexural strength and apparent density (r2 =0.890) and finally between
the open porosity and loss on ignition (r2 =0.976). These results support the previous
assumptions regarding the decrease of flexural strength with increasing porosity, the
decrease of apparent density with the growth of porosity which in turn depends on the
loss on ignition. However, the correlation between these properties could be affected
by other factors such as the microstructural properties of bricks. The later may explain
the decline of the flexural strength with the addition ofthe TCPMT.
135
20 2,1
1
"'
c..
~ 15 ~
u
2,0 •
..c: z-
bo
<: • ••.,
..
10 <: 1,9
~ "'C
ti
~ 5
<:
~ 1,8
•
.,"" R' = 0,9645 "'a.a. R' = 0,938
il: <[
0 1,7
20 25 30 35 40 20 25 30 35 40
Porosity {%) Open porosity(wt. %)
20 40
~
"'
/
c..
~ 15 1
35
..c:
bo z-
~
<:
10
·;;;
0
6a.
30 •
ti
~ .,<:a. •
.,""
5
• R' = 0,8904
0
25
R' = 0,9761
il:
0 20
1,6 1,8 2,0 2,2 0 5 10 15
Apparent density (gfcm3) loss on ignition (wt. %)
The color of sintered bricks is one of the factors that affect the bricks quality. Multiple
colors are developed by brick industries (red, yellow, grey, etc.) to meet the growing
market demand. The nature of the desired color is affected and controlled by the
chemical elements in the raw materials. Therefore, it was important to assess the
variation of the color in calamine wastes based bricks. The review documentation
suggested that the final color of bricks depends significantly on the mass ratio of
Fe203/Ab03 in calcium-poor clay and Fe203/CaO in calcium-rich clay (Bormans,
2004). Also, it is known that during the sintering process, particularly in oxidation
atmosphere, the transformation of Fe 2+ to Fe3+ increases and the reddish color is
accordingly enhanced. Generally, hematite (Fe203) gives a red color and magnetite
(Fe3Ü4) is responsible of the grey color. Likewise, the yellow color is caused by high
136
calcium content. In other words, the final color of bricks depends mainly on the
chemical composition of raw materials, there content, the degree of oxidation and
sintering atmosphere. The visual examination of sintered bricks shows that the
incorporation of TCPMT in the mixes modifies the reference brick color from red to
light yellow (Figure 5.8). Iron oxide is responsible of the red color in :tvio bricks and the
yellow color in :l'vlto bricks is attributed to the increased calcium content provided by
TCPMT.
In order to clarify the effect of the addition of TCPMT on sintered brick properties,
FTIR and XRD analysis were performed on fin ely grinded powders of sintered bricks
and SEM observations were investigated on fractured bricks. The main crystalline
phases formed during the heating process are presented in Figure 5.9. The XRD
spectrum (Figure 5. 8-a) highlights the formation of new crystalline phases in :who
sintered samples such as anhydrite (CaS04), magnetite (Fe3Ü4) and augite
(Ca(Fe,Mg)Si2 0 6 ) which do not exist in the reference brick. The formation of augite is
the result of the reaction between siliceous and calcium minerais. This finding is
137
confirmed by the decrease of quartz p1c intensity with the addition of TCPMT.
Moreover, a significant change in pic intensity is observed also with the increase of
sintering temperature (Figure 5.8-b). When sintering temperature rises, quartz pic
intensity decreases while augite and magnetite pics intensity grows. At 1050°C, the
increase of magnetite pic intensity could be explained by the transformation of a part
of hematite to magnetite. The appearance of anhydrite, magnetite and hematite with
the addition of TCPMT could be explained respectively by the decomposition of
gypsum and iron hydroxides oxidation.
The addition of TCPMT increases the CaO content in the brick matrix. CaO, known as
a network modifier oxide, leads to the disruption of silicate network and the formation
of non-bridging oxygen groups (Si-0-NBO) (Yang et al., 2013). Furthermore, the
silicate network may be disrupted also due to the presence of ZnO, which is another
network modifier oxide. These transformations could explain also the variation of
mechanical properties of bricks containing TCPMT.
138
M M
MO Ab Q Q H H Q
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
(b)
Ab H
An M
1oso•c M Q
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
2-Theta-Scale
Figure 5.9 Main crystalline phases in (a) mixes Mo and M3o fired at 1050°C
and (b) in mix M3o fired at different temperatures.
Figure 5.10 shows the SEM obseiVations for the Mo and M3o brick samples sintered at
different temperatures (950, 1000 and 1050°C). Both of samples exhibited practically
similar tendency of porosity and glassy phase formation as a function of temperature.
The increase of temperature from 950 to 1050°C decreases the amount of pores due to
the increased formation of liquid phase which tends to fill the pores.
139
REF TCPMT-30
u
0
0
Ll'l
en
u
0
0
0
0
.-1
~
0
Ll'l
0
.-1
(c)
Figure 5.11 SEM micrographs of Mo (a) MJo (b) brick samples :fired at 1050°C.
containing TCPMT is assessed. In the Figure 5.12-a, one may observe a broad
symmetry band (1300-900 cm-1) centered at about 1030 cm-1 in the MO sintered bricks
spectra. This band is widely found in FTIR spectra of clay bricks and is assigned to Si-
0-Si stretching vibrations. The double pic in the regions 802-792 cm- 1 and 550-400
cm- 1 are attributed respectivelyto Si-0 bending vibrations and Si-0-M (M = Al3+, Fe 2+,
Fe 3+ or Mg2+ in the octahedral sheets) deformation modes (Che and Glotch, 2012). The
small peak at 540 cm- 1 confirms the results obtained by XRD and reveals the presence
of iron oxide responsible ofthe reddish color of Mo sintered bricks. When the TCPMT
is added, significant molecular structure modifications take place. It is clearly observed
that the increased addition of TCPMT leads to the apparition of new bands at 2135,
1166, 1095, 680, 615 and 596 cm- 1. These peaks are related to sulfates vibrations.
Furthermore, one may recognize an important broadening ofthe band centered at 1030
cm- 1 in Mo sintered samples where a shoulder is gradually strengthened, forward far
infrared region, with the increased amount of TCPMT. This behavior highlights a
rearrangement of the silica network (Pisciella and Pelino, 2008). This finding support
XRD results which confirms the formation of new phases resulted from complex
chemical reactions between siliceous and calcium components which gives rise to new
phases such as augite (Ca(Fe,Mg)Si206). Also, it is observed that the intensity of Si-0
bands is gradually reduced. However, in the Figure 5.12-b, the M3o sintered samples at
950°C show two broad peaks centered at about 1030 and 1140 cm- 1 which are assigned
respectively to silicate and sulfates vibrations (Anastasiou et al., 2006). The increase
of sintering temperature leads to the overlapping of the se peaks and the appearance of
one broad big peak. This may be associated with the silica network reactions.
142
(a) (b}
2600 2400 2200 2000 1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 2600 2400 2200 2000 1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400
Wavenumber(cm-1) Wavenumber{cm-1)
Figure 5.12 FTIR spectra of (a) fired brick samples at 1050°C and (b) M3o fired
brick samples at different temperatures.
To inspect the environmental be havi or of sintered bricks, two methods were used. The
first follows the Dutch diffusion test NEN-7375 (2004), which consists of simulating
the heavy metals leaching duringthe life service ofthe sintered bricks. The second one
consists of the assessment of the mobile heavy metals from sintered bricks at their end
of life service according to the toxicity characteristic leaching procedure test (TCLP)
(US-EPA 1311).
The results ofthe diffusion test NEN-7375 realized on the Mo and M3o based bricks
(1050°C) are presented in Table 5.4. All the elements leaching results under the
detection limit are not reported in the table. These results are compared with the
thresholds fixed by the Dutch Building material Decree (BMD). Results show that the
leaching of heavy metals and metalloids is slightly increased with the addition of
TCPMT while the sulfates are significantly increased. This latter finding was expected
due to the high amount of calcium sulfates in TCPMT. All the nitrites, nitrates,
chlorides and fluorides are under the detection limits.
In order the long term behavior of sintered bricks when considered as construction and
demolition wastes, a TCLP test was assessed. The TCLP test results are compared to
the US-EPA thresholds and presented in Table 5.4. Pollutants such as As, Ba, Cd, Cr,
Mo and Pb are under the regulatory limits, while Zn fail s to meet the requested limits.
Table 5.4 Total results of the soluble salts, Dutch test NEN 7375 and TCLP test
of Mo and M3o fired bricks at 1050°C.
Regulation limit * 435 6300 12 1500 540 150 1275 2100 4500000
TCLPtest
As Ba Cd Cr Cu Mo Pb Zn Sulfates
):!g.L-1 ):!g.L-1 ):!g.L-1 ):!g.L-1 ):!g.L-1 ):!g.L-1 ):!g.L-1 ):!g.L-1 ):!g.L-1
MO 60 353 3 136 < DL 56 301
MJO 1190 73 66 494 < DL 1090
------------------------------------------- ----------- -----------~------------ ----------------------------------------------------------------- -
7770
Regulation limit ** 5000 100000 1000 5000 5000 2000
DL Detection limit
* Dutch Building Material Decree (BMD, 1999)
** US-EPA limit
5.4 Conclusion
density is found to be 9 to 15% lower than the density of reference bricks. The
environmental behavior (NEN 7375) of selected monolithic bricks showed that the
leaching of almost all heavy metals is significantly reduced and all of them are under
the requested limits. However, zinc is found to be leachable in the grinded bricks,
which simulate the end of life of bricks. Further work has to be done to stabilize the
bricks when demolished.
5.5 Acknowledgements
This work was financially supported through the International Research Chairs
Initiative, a program funded by the International Development Research Centre,
Canada (IDRC) and supported by the Canadian Research Chairs Pro gram. The authors
thank also the research centre REMINEX-MANAGEM (Morocco), for the great help
concerning the valuation of its by-product outcome of Calamine hydrometallurgical
process.
146
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CHAPITRE VI
Préambule:
RÉSUMÉ DÉTAILLÉ
Les différents mélanges ont été pressés pour obtenir des briques au mveau du
laboratoire qui ont été séchées et cuites à une température, précédemment optimisée,
de 1020°C. Les briques cuites ont subi par la suite des tests de caractérisation en termes
de leurs propriétés physiques (porosité ouverte, absorption d'eau, densité, retraite de
cuisson), mécaniques (résistance à la flexion), minéralogiques et microstructurales. Le
microscope électronique à balayage a été utilisé pour observer la microstructure des
briques après cuisson. La durabilité des briques a été également évaluée à l'aide des
tests de sels solubles et d'efflorescence.
Les résultats de cette étude montrent en effet que l'incorporation des TCPMT dans les
mélanges de briques cuites engendre une augmentation de la porosité et de l'absorption
d'eau et une diminution de la résistance à la flexion et de la densité apparente. En
contrepartie, l'ajout du verre recyclé provoque en quelques sortes, une augmentation
de la résistance à la flexion et une réduction de la densité apparente des briques cuites
contenant jusqu' à 30% des TCPMT. L'utilisation du verre recyclé n ' a pas permis
d'obtenir les résultats attendus en termes de diminution des taux d'absorption d'eau et
d 'amélioration de la résistance mécaniques. En effet, lorsque les deux résidus sont
utilisés en même temps, des quantités importantes de gaz sont libérées au cours du
processus de cuisson. Ces gaz sont le résultat de la décomposition des sulfates et des
carbonates présents dans les rejets du procédé de calamine. Les observations au MEB
ont permis de montrer la présence de bulles d'air piégées dans des pores fermés,
conduisant à la diminution de la densité apparente. Ce comportement peut être attribué
à l'augmentation du volume poreux connu sous le nom de phénomène de gonflement.
À la lumière des résultats obtenus dans cette étude, les briques cuites ayant des
propriétés physiques et mécaniques appropriées peuvent être produites à partir de
mélanges contenant jusqu'à 30% en poids de TCPMT et 10% de GW.
155
ABSTRACT
In this work, the recycling feasibility of treated calamine processing mine tailing
(TCPMT) with glass wastes (GW) for the production of fired bricks is investigated.
TCPMT was added into mixtures at a ratio of 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and 50%
while glass waste was added separately for each formulation at ratios of 0%, 5%, 10%
and 15% of the dried mass ofbrick mixtures. The mixes ofshale for brick (ShB), which
consisted as the reference material, and both wastes were prepared, pressed, dried and
fired at previously optimized temperature of 1020°C. Physical, mechanical and
durability properties offired bricks were determined. The microstructural properties of
fired bricks were investigated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and the total
porosity was assessed according to ASTM standard. The results show that the
increasing substitution proportion of ShB by TCPMT leads to an increase of the
porosity and water absorption and to a decrease offlexural strength and density (lighter
weight bricks). At the same time, the experiments showed that the addition of glass
wastes into the mixtures enhances the mechanical properties offired bricks. However,
when more than 15% of GW is used, a white scum constituted of a sodium sulphate
appears at the fired brick exposed surface. Thus, fired light bricks with suitable physical
and mechanical properties could be obtained from mixtures containing up to 30%
TCPMT and 10% ofGW.
156
6.1 Introduction
Nowadays, different additives are used in bricks making (glass waste, fly ash, grog,
etc.). Amongst these additives, glass waste (GW) has been widely studied in the
literature (Demir, 2009; Tucci et al., 2004; Turgut, 2008). Different sources of glass
waste may be distinguished; beverage containers, windows glass, electronic deviees,
etc. In brick making, waste glass is used particularly for its capacity to produce high
amounts of liquid phase during firing leading to simultaneously decrease the firing
temperature and improve the mechanical strength of derived bricks (Dondi et al., 2009;
Tucci et al., 2004). The enhancement of the mechanical strength is due mainly to the
formation of glassy phase which tends to fill the porosity (solid weakness zones) and
157
to improve the sintering mechanisms. Several parameters control the efficiency of the
sintering mechanism such as chemical composition, particle size distribution, specifie
surface area, presence of impurities, etc. Therefore, several tests are realized to
determine the optimal parameters to obtain good quality bricks.
micronized different color botties, was supplied by a glass recycling company. The
natural shale (ShB) was supplied by a local brick plant and serves as the reference
material. The methodology followed in this study to characterize the raw materials, to
manufacture and characterize the technological and durabilityproperties offired bricks
is described in Figure 6.2.
(
32' 32'
)
31'
l :::::::;~!!!!!!!!l!!!!!!!!!!l..,--_L~--L..~~----L:::.J
31'l lo:;;;;;;;;;:;;r=
10' 9' a·
~ Calamine mine site Tensift watershead
The raw materials were dried, blended and homogerùzed prior to the production of
laboratory fired bricks. A total of twenty fom different ShB/TCPMT/GW mixtures
were prepared in order to investigate the effect of the addition ofTCPMT and GW on
the propetties of derived bticks. For each mix containing a proportion of TCPMT,
designed as Mo, M10, M2o, M3o, M4o and Mso, an amount ofO, 5, 10 and 15% of GW
was separately added (based on ruy weight ). The tested mixes are reported in Table
6.1. The driedmL'Ces were blended with 20 wt.% ofwaterand a little quantity ofbarimn
carbonate. Barimn carbonate is used in order to bond the soluble sulphates and to
prevent as possible the white scmn formation known as efflorescence phenomenon.
Then, the mixes were pressed onder 6MPa, using a hydraulic unia'\ial press, to produce
160
laboratory green bricks (100 x 20 x 12 mm3 ). The green bricks were dried in a non-
controlled atmosphere at room temperature for 24h and then in an electric oven at 60°C
for another 24h. The dried bricks were then fired in a muille fumace (Nabertherm©)
with a heating rate of 48°C/h from ambient temperature to an optimal selected
temperature of 1020°C. The bricks were maintained at this temperature for 5h and then
cooled according to the fumace inertia.
Table 6.1 Mixes prepared for the production of laboratory brick samples.
1
Methodology 1
1
-), { -),
Raw materials Bricks samples Fired bricks
characterization manufacturing 1
characterization
1 Shale
Mixingwith water
Treated calamine process
mine tailings (0-50%)
G
- l-a s-s -w-as-te-s-(0---15-%-o)-----,~ c~~~~~~~~~~-~-~~~~mm
.
1 -
Figure 6.2 The experimental approach diagram for the manufacture offired
bricks.
The physical, chemical and metals leaching characteristics of the raw materials are
presented in Table 6.2. The physical results highlight the presence ofhigh amounts of
fine particles in the TCPMT in comparison with the ShB. The GW present a high
proportion ofparticles (92 wt%) in the range 2-63!lffi. From a chemical point ofview,
TCPMT is mainly composed of calcium oxide (CaO) (23.5 wt%), silica (SiOz) (13.4
wt%) and iron oxide (Fez03) (13.3 wt%). The fluxing agents (KzO, NazO) amount is
estimated at 4.57 wt% in the ShB, at 1.4 wt% in the TCPMT and at 7.81 wt% in the
GW. The low amounts of silica and alumina, compared to ShB for brick, might affect
significantly the physical properties ofTCPMT based fired bricks. Quartz is known to
162
form the skeleton of ceramic bodies and alumina allows improving raw materials
plasticity. The use of GW may improve the fired bricks properties due to its high
content in fluxing agents. Relatively high amounts ofzinc (2.14 wt%) and lead (0.86
wt%) are observed in the TCPMT sample. When heated to a temperature of 1000°C,
TCPMT present a high loss on ignition of 19. 7%, while ShB material and GW lose less
matter, 6.41 wt% and 0.47 wt% respectively.
The results of the leaching test realized according to TCLP test are presented in Table
6.2. It is highlighted that the concentrations of only zinc, lead and cadmium leached
from TCPMT are above the US-EPA thresholds for granular wastes in landfill (US-
EP A, 2009). The reference ShB is seen to be in accordance with these limits.
The thermal behavior ofTCPMT is illustrated in Figure 6.4. Four weight loss steps are
observed. The double successive weight losses at 148°C and 158°C might be imputed
respectively to the decomposition of gypsum (CaS04, 2H20 ) to basanite (CaS04,
O.SH20) and then to anhydrite III (CaS0 4). The third loss in the range 230-320°C may
be attributed to the iron hydroxides dihydroxylation and to the polymorphie
transformation of anhydrite III to the anhydrite II (Popes cu et al., 1985). The last weight
loss in the range 640-800°C can be affected to the carbonate minerais decomposition.
163
ShB TCPMT GW
Physical properties 3 2.54
Specifie gravity (g.cill · ) 2.72 2.66
Specifie surface area (ill 2 g·1) 15.53 18.65 0.382
<2)-!ill (%) 3.5 26 4
2-63 ).!ill(%) 23.4 68 92
> 63 ).!ill(%) 73.1 6 4
Major oxides (wt. %) Si02 57.45 13.4 74.07
AbOJ 15.21 2.3 1.97
Fe2ÜJ 6.28 13.3 0.44
MgO 3.79 1.1 1.26
Na20 1.03 0.9 7.19
K20 3.54 0.5 0.62
CaO 2.83 23.5 13.56
Ti02 0.69 0.1 0.14
P205 0.16 0.1 0.02
SOJ 0.85 24.6 0.2
LOI 6.45 19.7 0.47
Trace elements (ppm) As 52 493
Ba 349 215
Cd <5 85.3
Cr 91 144
Pb 121 8637
Zn <55 21490
Metals leaching (TCLP) As 5000 * 30 < DL
(~Jg.L-1) 100000*
Ba 1350 190.5
Cd 1000 * 1,5 4535
Cr 5000 * 9 5.5
Pb 5000 * 45 32450
Zn 2000 * 335 250500
*Regulation liillit (US EPA liillits)
164
O Shale OTCPMT
1 1
Gypsum
Anatase J
1
Calcite ~
Ankerite ::::J
Albite 1
Chio rite
1
Muscovite
Quartz ------.1 1
0 20 40 60 80 100
Proportion{%)
98
----:::---------
,---=-----~-~-~
- ~
- -
= -~-~
-...-
-
-- --- ---- -- -
0.5
96
94
0.4
g 92 - - - ---1
....
J: 90 0.3
.!!.0
QI
s 88
···. 0.2
86 ·············· ............. ......
~
84
"········... 0.1
82
80 w~s._...::··:·:.r=:::::.=.:::.:.::::=~--::::::::::::;;;:;;:;;Fk~:::::.__~;;;,
- ;· ;;;
oo·;"":.;:·":.:.:;""::.:.:"
;:: ..
·:.:.:;· = =J. 0.0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Temperature (•C)
The main physical and mechanical properties of the laboratory fired bricks are
presented in Figure 6.5. The substitution of ShB by TCPMT and GW affects
significantly the fired bricks properties. The increased addition of TCPMT tends to
increase the open porosity and water absorption while the flexural strength and density
are affected differently and tend to be reduced. Otherwise, GW improves the flexural
strength of fired bricks.
By digging in the details, it is clearly noticed that the increase in the water absorption
rate and open porosity of the fired bricks by increasing the proportion of TCPMT can
be explained by the decomposition of gypsum and carbonate minerais present in the
TCPMT. This decomposition leads to gas release and then to higher values of porosity
in the fired brick bodies. The water absorption increased rapidly from 8.73±1.06% to
25.56±1.22% for the fired bricks produced respectively from the mixes MO and M50.
Moreover, it is noticed that the increased addition ofGW leads to higher values of open
porosity and water absorption when the proportion of TCPMT is less than 30%. This
could be explained by the increase of open pores amounts induced by the gas flow
channels from the interior to the exterior of brick bodies. The movement of gas is
affected by the viscosity of the liquid phase formed during firing process. Figure 6.6
shows sorne bubbles at the surface of the bricks containing 15% of GW which are in
the form of entrapped gas pockets. However, when more than 40% of TCPMT is
incorporated, the addition of GW leads to different effects and se ems to decrease water
absorption and apparent porosity.
In relation to weight properties, fired brick densities are observed to decrease from
2.05±0.05 g/cm3 for the reference mix MOto 1.58±0.02 g/cm 3 when 50% of TCPMT
is incorporated. These results are expected since the addition of TCPMT increases the
amounts of volatile matter which leads to highly porous bricks. The increasing
166
• •
..
10 % GW _ . _ 15%GW 10 % GW _ . _ 15 % GW
2.2 30
~
m- •
- •
r:: 25 -.-•
..
E 0
u
......
2.0
• ·~ 20 . •
.-.--
~
>
·~
1.8
0
"'
..a 15 ·'
..1
..."'Q;
r::
Cil 10
a 1.6
"'
~
•
1.4
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
10 20
~
~ c 15
Cil 0
0.0
"'
.:.:
6
• :-c2
.!: 10
.!!.Il
..e 4 c
"'0.0 0
VI
·ê VI
ü: • ······· ..... . .......········· .....0
0
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
16 50
"'
0..
2 12
t
• §: 40
.r::
....c: ....... • >
.~ 30
~ 8 "'~
ti 0
• ,• _, Il.
20
~
:::1
x
Cil
;:;:
4
0
0 10 20 30
__
·--·
•
40
•
•
50
r::
Cil
Il.
0
10
0
•
0 10 20 30 40 50
Figure 6.5 Physical and mechanical properties evolution with the addition of
treated calamine processing mine tailings (TCPMT) and glass wastes (GW).
167
Figure 6.6 Entrapped gas pockets at the surface of bricks containing 15% of
glass wastes (GW).
The firing shrinkage increased with increasing the added amount ofTCPMT. However,
this parameter behavior with the addition of GW does not follow a logic trend and it
seems to be affected by the amount of TCPMT added to the brick. As a general rule,
glass leads to the increase of firing shrinkage and the enhancement of mechanical
strength due to lower values of water absorption and higher bulk density (Dondi et al.,
168
2009). Such trend of mechanical strength improvement and density increase was
effectively observed in bricks containing up to 30% of TCPMT. After that, increasing
GW addition seems to affect significantly the firing shrinkage particularly for bricks
containing 15% of GW. The strange behavior of firing shrinkage with the addition of
GW could be related to an unknown effect of TCPMT.
Conceming the flexural strength, there is a strong dependence with the proportion
added of TCPMT and GW is clearly visible. The flexural strength is seen to be reduced
with the incorporation ofTCPMT. The important values ofthe flexural strength were
observed in the reference bricks while the lowest were observed in the mixes containing
50% of TCPMT. The mechanical strength of ceramic products decreases usually with
the increase of porosity. Moreover, this behavior could be attributed to the complex
mineralogical transformations occurring during the firing and cooling processes. SEM
observations show that sorne coarse grains in the form of crystals are formed when
TC PMT is added t o the bricks (Figure 6.8). Those crystals were not identified in the
reference bricks . The presence of such coarse grains may be explained by their
refractory character which inhibited their reaction with the surrounding phases during
the heating process. One m ay observe that these grains are w eakly bounded to the
surrounding phases resulting in the formation ofweak grain bridges . These regions are
generally consider ed as r egions ofweakness when the ceramic products are stimulated
by an extem al force.
169
Figure 6.8 Combined BSE SEM and X -mapping images of crystals formed
with the addition of treated calamine processing mine tailings (TCPMT) to brick
structure.
The results showed also that the flexural strength depends significantly of the amounts
of GW added. Unlike the TCPMT, the increased addition of GW enhances the flexural
strength for all the mixes. As shown in Figure 6.9 (same scale SE SEM images), the
addition of GW contributes to the formation ofhigh amounts of glassy phase in samples
containing 15% of GW. However, less glassy phase is observed in samples without
GW addition. Owing toits low fusion temperature, GW fine particles dissolve in the
mixes and contribute to the vitrification and densification mechanisms. Increasing GW
addition to 15% leads to the enhancement of flexural strength by filling the pores with
glassy phase.
170
~
0
1-
:?:
a..
u
1-
~
0
<t
1-
:?:
a..
u
1-
mineralization of salts (Morillas et al., 2015). In contact with water, soluble salts
contained in fired bricks migrate to the surface and when dried, an unpleasant white
deposit appeared. In this study, it was observed that the incorporation of GW affects
significantly the mobility of active soluble salts; these salts affect the brick body
surface quality. Efflorescence test shows that only in the case where 15% of GW is
added, a white scum on the surface of all fired bricks is formed (Figure 6.10). The EDS
analysis shows that it is question of a sodium sulfate (NazS04) (Figure 6. 10). The white
scum persists even after washing it off. The formation of the sodium sulfate may affect
negatively the durability of fired bricks. It is known that this salt is a high damaging
salt (Shahidzadeh-Bonn et al., 2010) and its crystallization may cause significant
damage to fired bricks.
Figure 6.10 SEM-EDS analysis of the sodium sulfate observed on the surface of
bricks containing 15 wt% of glass wastes (GW).
6.4 Conclusions
The combined use of treated calamine processing mine tailings (TCPMT) and glass
wastes (GW) as alternative materials in fired brick making was investigated in this
study. The main conclusions are :
172
The incorporation ofTCPMT in the matrix offired bricks tends to increase both
water absorption and open porosity which leads to decrease the flexural strength and
apparent density;
The addition of glass wastes (GW) leads to a certain extent to the increase of
the flexural strength and the decrease of the apparent density offired bricks containing
up to 30 wt% of TCPMT;
The use of glass wastes (GW) powder may not present the expected results of
enhanced sintering, lower water absorption and increase of bulk density wh en gypsum
rich wastes are used. When both wastes are used, high amounts of gases, released
during firing process by TCPMT, may be entrapped in closed pores leading to the
decrease ofbulk density. This behavior may be attributed to the pore volume expansion
known as bloating phenomenon.
The efflorescence test shows that the addition of 15% of GW leads to the
formation of sodium sulphate (Na2S04) on the fired bricks surface. It is recommended
to use less amounts of GW in order to prevent the formation of white scum on bricks
surface.
Based on the results obtained in this study, fired light bricks with suitable physical and
mechanical properties may be produced from mixtures containing up to 30 wt% of
TCPMT and 10% ofGW.
6.5 Acknowledgements
This work was financially supported through the International Research Chairs
Initiative, a program funded by the International Development Research Centre,
Canada (IDRC) and supported by the Canadian Research Chairs Pro gram. The authors
173
thank also the research centre REMINEX-MANAGEM (Morocco), for the great help
concerning the valuation of its by-product outcome of Calamine hydrometallurgical
process.
6.6 References
Mymrine, V., et al., Oily diatomite and galvanic wastes as raw materials for red
ceramics fabrication. Construction and Building Materials, 2013. 41(0):
p. 360-364.
Huang, S.-C., et al., Production oflightweight aggregates from mining residues, heavy
metal sludge, and incinerator fly ash. Journal of Hazardous Materials,
2007. 144(1-2): p. 52-58.
Zhang, L., Production of bricks from waste materials -A review. Construction and
Building Materials, 2013. 47(0): p. 643-655.
Monteiro, S.N. and C.M.F. Vieira, On the production of fired clay bricks from waste
materials: A critical update. Construction and Building Materials, 2014.
68(0): p. 599-610.
Mufioz Velasco, P. , et al., Fired clay bricks manufactured by adding wastes as
sustainable construction material - A review . Construction and
Building Materials, 2014. 63(0): p. 97-107.
Bories, C., et al. , Development of eco-friendly porous fired clay bricks using pore-
forming agents: A review. Journal of Environmental Management,
2014. 143(0): p. 186-196.
Demir, 1., Reuse of waste glass in building brick production. Waste Management &
Research, 2009. 27: p. 572-577.
Turgut, P., Limestone dust and glass powder wastes as new brick material. Materials
and Structures/ Materiaux et Constructions, 2008. 41(5): p. 805-813.
Tucci, A., et al. , Use of soda-lime scrap-glass as a fluxing agent in a porcelain
stoneware tile mix. Journal of the European Ceramic Society, 2004.
24(1): p. 83-92.
174
Dondi, M., et al., Recycling PC and TV waste glass in clay bricks and rooftiles. W aste
Management, 2009. 29(6): p. 1945-1951.
Kaddami, A., REMINEX-MANAGEM, Morocco Oral communication. 2013.
Taha, Y., et al., Manufacturing of ceramic products using calamine hydrometallurgical
processing wastes (revision process). Journal of Cleaner Production
2016.
ASTM-C326, American Standard and Testing Materials, C326-03 (ASTM). Standard
Test Method for Drying and Firing Shrinkages of Ceramic Whiteware
Clays. 2003.
ASTM-C373, American Standard and Testing Materials, C373-88 (ASTM). Standard
Test Method for Water Absorption, Bulk Density, Apparent Porosity,
and Apparent Specifie Gravity ofFired Whiteware Products. 1999.
ASTM-C674, American Standard and Testing Materials, C674-88 (ASTM). Standard
Test Methods for Flexural Properties of Ceramic Whiteware Materials.
1999.
ASTM-C67, American Standard and Testing Materials, C 67 (ASTM), 2003. Standard
Test Methods for Sampling and Testing Brick and Structural Clay Tile.
2003.
US-EPA, Hazardous Waste Characteristics. A User-Friendly Reference Document.
October 2009. 2009.
Popescu, M. , A. Simion, and V. Matei, Study of thermal behaviour up to 1550° of
materials containing calcium sulphate. J. Thermal Analysis, 1985.
30(2): p. 297-303.
Taskiran, M.U. , N. Demirkol, and A. Capo glu, A new porcelainised stoneware material
based on anorthite. Journal of the European Ceramic Society, 2005.
25(4): p. 293-300.
Quijoma, N., et al., Recycling ofWaelz slag and waste foundry sand in red clay bricks.
Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 2012. 65(0): p. 1-10.
Morillas, H., et al., Nature and origin of white efflorescence on bricks, artificial stones,
and joint mortars of modem houses evaluated by portable Raman
spectroscopy and laboratory analyses. Spectrochimica Acta Part A:
Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy, 2015. 136, Part B(O): p.
1195-1203.
Shahidzadeh-Bonn, N., et al. , Damage in porous media due to salt crystallization.
Physical Review E: Statistical, Nonlinear, and Soft Matter Physics,
2010. 81.
CHAPITRE VII
Préambule:
RÉSUMÉ DÉTAILLÉ
La valorisation et la réutilisation des stériles de charbon est une façon innovante pour
résoudre les problèmes liés à ce type de déchets. En raison de sa teneur élevée en
minéraux aluminosilicates, les stériles de charbon peuvent être utilisés efficacement
comme m atière première pour les matériaux de construction et du bâtiment. Cela
conduira à la conservation des ressources naturelles non renouvelables largement
utilisées dans le domaine de la construction. L'utilisation de stériles de charbon dans la
brique cuite est l'un des moyens de gestion les plus durables et efficaces. A l'échelle
industrielle, deux usines de briques en Chine et en Pologne produisent annuellem ent
des millions d'unités de briques à partir des stériles de charbon. À l'échelle du
laboratoire, les études montrent que la combustion de quantités élevées de charbon peut
augmenter la porosité des briques cuites m enant à un taux d'absorption d'eau élevée et
une détérioration de la performance de durabilité à long terme des briques cuites. Pour
cette raison, il est difficile d'atteindre des taux de substitution d'argile naturelle
importants par les stériles de charbon contenant une teneur élevée en charbon.
177
En effet, il est visé dans cette étude de réaliser une approche conceptuelle de
récupération du charbon restant dans les stériles de charbon de Jerada (CMWR) et de
fabrication des briques cuites à partir de rejets de flottation appelés résidus miniers de
charbon (TCMT). L'étude explore également la faisabilité de fabrication des briques à
partir des CMWR sans l'élimination du charbon. L'objectif état de déterminer un taux
de substitution optimal des argiles naturelles par des CMWR et TCMT.
Après une caractérisation approfondie des matières premières, les résultats des tests de
laboratoire ont confirmé la faisabilité de la réutilisation des stériles de charbon
(CMWR) et des résidus (TCMT) pour la production de deux produits à valeur ajoutée.
Le premier est un concentré de charbon d'anthracite avec une valeur calorifique de plus
de 27 millions de BTU/t, une teneur en soufre inférieure à 1% et une teneur en cendres
inférieure à 10%. Le second est produit de briques cuites contenant jusqu'à 100% des
déchets de charbon (CMWR et TCMT). Ces briques répondent aux exigences des
normes de construction ASTM. Les résultats ont montré qu'il est possible de produire
des briques avec une résistance mécanique nettement supérieure à celle de la brique de
référence à partir des résidus TCMT. D'un point de vue environnemental, la
récupération du charbon par flottation a permis une réduction significative des
émissions de C02 et de S02 de 79,76% et 67,92% respectivement. En outre, les
178
quantités de métaux lessivés à partir des blocs monolithiques et des granulats de briques
à base de CMWR et TCMT sont en dessous des exigences fixées par le décret des
matériaux de construction et la réglementation US-EPA.
En conclusion, la collaboration entre les différents acteurs comme les usines de briques
(consommateurs potentiels de déchets), les opérateurs de construction privés et publics
(client de briques), les centrales thermiques (client de charbon) et tout engagement des
parties prenantes (institutions gouvernementales locales, régionales et nationales,
internationales, etc.) est une obligation pour encourager l'utilisation de CMWR. Cette
manière de faire présente plusieurs avantages tels que la conservation de l'énergie, la
réduction des émissions et de la conservation des ressources naturelles non
renouvelables. En outre, cette façon durable de gestion de déchet est une technologie
prometteuse en particulier au Maroc où la demande de briques de charbon est assez
élevée. À l'heure actuelle, de nouveaux projets sont lancés pour répondre aux
programmes du gouvernement marocain en matière de stratégie nationale du tourisme,
lutte contre la pénurie d'infrastructures de logement et aussi la transition vers les
bâtiments thermiquement isolés. Il est évident que la nouvelle réglementation en termes
des exigences de propriétés thermiques conduira à la production de nouvelles usines
de produits de briques afin de répondre à la demande du marché de plus en plus
importante.
179
ABSTRACT
The mining industry is globally criticized for generating large amounts of solid wastes
often with a potential environmental impact. This study presents a feasible approach of
recovering residual coal from coal mine waste rocks (CMWR) reusing the derived
tailings to produce ecofriendly fired bricks. The first step aims at the production ofhigh
grade anthracite coal concentrate using a physical treatment method which consists of
consecutive stages of crushing, grinding and froth flotation. The second step of the
process consists of the mixture of the decarbonated tailings, called treated co al mine
tailings (TCMT), with a small amount of water, pressed and fired at 1020°C for the
production of ecofriendly bricks at laboratory scale. Fired bricks containing no other
raw materials than CMWR and its derived TCMT have been produced showing in both
cases very interesting omamental looks. The study assesses the effects of removing
coal from the CMWR on the physical and technical properties of the derived fired
bricks. The removal of coal from CMWR enhances the quality of fired bricks by
increasing its flexural strength and decreasing the open porosity and water absorption.
In addition, the results show that this integrated process reduces the amount of
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and allows a sustainable production offired bricks.
180
7.1 Introduction
The industrial ecolo gy is considered an emerging integrated tool to guide the economie
industries to use materials and energy in a sustainable way and to reduce wastes
generation. It aims at establishing closed loop cycles (recycling and reuse) instead of
open loop systems (linear economy) to minimize the potential impacts of urban and
industrial activities on the environment. The industrial ecology considers industrial
wastes as by-products or alternative materials that may feed another industry
(O'Rourke et al., 1996). The best way to reduce wastes generation is to determine an
optimal management way from the first industry design stages. However, many
logistical (ex. distance between feeder and consumer) and technical (ex. technology
not adapted) problems are encountered in the reality. Therefore, govemments,
industrials, scientists and decision makers should get involved to find new effective
ways to better manage the unceasingly produced wastes.
Coal is still one of the fossil energy sources that has been used for centuries, since the
Industrial Evolution, to power the economy of various countries. Since then,
govemments realized that the use of coal was the key toward industrialization and
consequently coal mines were greatly developed. However, coal mine activity is
criticized for its harmful environmental impact and especially for the large amount of
wastes produced during the coal mining and processing. For example, in China, the
world' s largest consumer of co al, 4. 5 billion tons of wastes are stockpiled in hundreds
of dumps (Fan et al., 20 14). Various risks are related to the se wastes; (i) geotechnical
instability of the waste heap slope and erosion (Song et al., 2015), (ii) spontaneous
combustion of coal gangue and then explosion accidents, which results sometimes in a
number of fatalities and injuries (Ciesielczuk, 2015; Liu et al., 1998), (iii) acid
generation and metals release, which may affect the soil and the quality of ground and
surface waters (Banerjee, 2014; Battioui et al., 2013; Chugh and Behum, 2014), (iv)
air pollution caused by dust, which results in alterations to ecosystems and disturbances
181
to habitats (Adibee et al., 2013) and finally (v) visible impact on the esthetic of
lands cape (Bian et al., 2009).
In Morocco, the consumption of coal has increased since 1984 and the local production
has started to decline. As illustrated in Figure 7.1, from 1995, coal production showed
a remarkable fall and reached its minimum in 2001. During the same year, Morocco
stopped coal production due to the anticipated closure ofthe Mine "Charbonnages du
Maroc" located in Jerada (Northeast of Morocco). Afterwards, Morocco's coal
consumption is mainly based on imports from other countries, particularly from South
Africa. The total recoverable coal in Morocco is estimated at 134 482 million short
tons; 90 093 million short tons are in the form of recoverable hard co al; anthracite and
bituminous and the remaining reserves are in the form of recoverable lignite (44 092
Million Short Tons) (ElA, 20 12). The exploitation of these reserves of coal may deal
with Morocco needs forthousands ofyears. Afterthe closure, illegal and unsafe mining
activity has not stopped growing in the hills surrounding the town. More than 2000 ex-
coalminers, left without new jobs, continue to extract the remaining co al using unsafe
traditional methods characterized mostly by unsanitary and dangerous conditions.
Statistics estimates that 10 to 100 tons of anthracite co al is daily produced and
subsequently sold to nearby brick making industries, traditional fumaces and steam
baths known as Moroccan Hammam.
Currently, large amount of coal mine wastes are landfilled in different places in the
proximity of Jerada, Morocco (Figure 7.2). Two types of dumps are distinguished. The
first one is an old big impoundment in the form of a cone-shaped heap (Figure 7.2-a).
It extends on a 15 ha surface are a and presents a height of 9 5 rn (Darmane et al. , 2009).
The second type consists of recent and less high dumps (Figure 7.2-b, c, d). These
wastes consist of coal mine waste rocks (CMWR) (15 to 20 million tons) and coal mine
tailings (CMT) (near 5 million tons). Currently, the govemment and local authorities
182
are p1aruùng to transform this mine site into a mining museological park (l'oriental,
2011). However, this project has not yet seen the light.
Various environmental impacts related to these wastes are reported in the literature.
The presence of high concentrations of sulphates in the groundwater due to the
oxidation of pyrite present in these wastes (Battioui et al., 20 13; Bendra et al., 20 11).
An example ofsulphates deposit is presented in Figure 7.2-d. Moreover, the proximity
of coal domps to the city contributes to damage the aesthetic sunoundings.
~
~
"'0c
.
0
6000
5000
•1 .. • ... -• .... • •
.c
"' 4000 • ••t
~
c • • ••
"'"' 3000
• • • li •
:1
0
.c
••••• • li
2000
1-
• • •• •
· -· -·. -
. ~ ·li Q· ,. ~ .
~ •li .. ...
1000
•
0
.. .. -
. , .'11
'
•... -
1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000 2004 2008 2012
Vears
The valorization and the reuse of coal mine wastes is an up-and-coming altemative
way to address the mine wastes issues. Due to its high content in aluminosilicate
minerais, coal mine wastes may be used efficient!y as a feedstock for constmction and
building materials. This willlead to the conservation of :finite natural resources used
extensively in the constmction field. The literature review shows that CMWR can be
183
used as a filler in hot mix asphalt (Modarres and Rahmanzadeh, 2014), cement
(Belkheiri et al., 2015; Qiu et al., 2011), concrete (Wang et al., 2015), ceramic and
refractories (Li and Han, 2006), bricks (Jin-Ho Jung et al., 2005; Yoo et al., 2005),
lightweight aggregates (Haibin and Zhenling, 2010), dye for paint and enameling
(Darmane et al., 2009), and other applications.
(a)
Figure 7.2 Coal mine waste rocks dumps in Jerada city, Morocco; (a) old coal
waste rocks, (b and c) recent coal waste crocks, (d) white salts deposits in the
proximity of coal wastes.
The use ofCMWR in brick making industry is one ofthe most sustainable and efficient
management ways. At the industrial scale, two brick plants in China (Fan et al., 2014)
184
and Poland (Stolecki, 2003) produce, annually, 160 and 20 million pieces of bricks,
respectively, from CMWR. Laboratory Scale Studies have shown that the combustion
of high amount of coal particles may increase porosity proportion in fired bricks,
leading to high water absorption rate, which deteriorates long term durability
performance of fired bricks (Lafhaj et al., 2008). So, it is difficult to reach important
natural clay substitution rates when coal wastes containing high coal content are used.
Substitution rates of30% and 50% were reached respectively by (Yoo et al., 2005) and
(Lemeshev et al., 2004). That is why the aim of this study is to recover the remaining
coalin CMWR by froth flotation and then to manufacture fired bricks from flotation
wastes called treated (decarbonized) co al mme tailings (TCMT). The study also
explores the feasibility of manufacturing fired bricks from CMWR without the
elimination of coal and to determine an optimum substitution rate of natural shales.
A representative sample of CMWR was collected from the dumps, nearby Jerada city,
which had been piled up for more than 85 years. The amount of landfilled CMWR is
estimated at approximately 25 million tonnes. Due to its high content in carbon (more
than 6 wt. %) in the form of anthracite coal, CMWR sample underwent a pre-treatment
process tore co ver the remaining coal using a froth flotation process. High coal content
may le ad to the deterioration of fired bricks properties due to the formation of coarse
pores. The methodology used is illustrated in Figure 7.3. Once coal was recovered, a
second type ofwaste is produced; called herein treated coal mine tailings (TCMT). The
shale for brick (ShB) (reference material) was supplied by a local brick making facility.
The wastes and shales were passed through a 2 mm sieve, dried at low temperature
(60°C), homogenized, and preserved in sealable plastic bags.
The grain size distribution was performed using a laser analyzer (Malvem Mastersizer).
The specifie gravity (Gs) was identified with a helium gas pycnometer (Micromeritics
Accupyc 1330). The plasticity and liquidity limits were evaluated using Atterberg
limits method according to ASTM-D4318 (2000). The major and trace elements were
analyzed using respectively an X-ray Fluorescence (Bruker, Tiger Model) and a
digestion (HN03/Bn/HF/HCl) followed by inductively coupled plasma with atomic
emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES) (Perkin Elmer Optima 3100 RL). The crystalline
phases present in wastes and shales were determined bythe X-Ray diffraction (Bruker
AXS Advance D8), Cu Ka radiation. The DiffracPlus EVA software was used to
identify mineral species and TOP AS software to quantify the abundance of all
identified minerais. The Thermal behavior was investigated by thermogravimetric
analysis (TGA) (TA Instruments® Q600 SDT), using alumina crucibles in an air
atmosphere with a heating rate of 10°C/min. Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectra
were recorded using a Bruker IFS 55 spectrometer operating in the range 4000-400 cm·
1
. The toxicity characteristic leaching procedure test (TCLP) (US-EP A 1311) was used
to evaluate the leaching behavior of all the studied samples.
Anthracite coal was recovered from CMWR usmg consecutive practical steps of
crushing, grinding, washing and froth flotation to reach the desired recovery yield.
Flotation tests were carried out at room temperature in a modified capacity batch
flotation cell. Diesel and methyl iso-butyl carbinol (MIBC) were used respectively as
collector and frotherto recover coal. The procedure is described in Figure 7.3. Detailed
results are not presented in this study and will be the subject of a detailed separated
paper. The properties of the recovered coal will only be presented. Once recovered,
coal concentrate product was characterized for its particle size distribution using a laser
analyzer (Malvem Mastersizer), its calorific value using a calorimeter (Parr, 6400), its
total inorganic Carbon content using induction fumace analyser (ELTRA CS-2000)
186
and finally its ash content using thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) (TA Instruments®
Q600 SDT). The ash content is the weight percent of material remaining after coal
sample is totally bumed out at 815°C for two hours.
The leaching tests were performed on both cylindrical monolithic fired bricks
according to the Dutch standard test, NEN-7375 (2004) and grinded materials
according to the toxicity characteristic leaching procedure test (TCLP) (USEP A 1311 ).
The leaching tests have been performed on the reference and selected optimal recipe
samples.
188
The emissions of gaseous pollutants (C02, S02, HCl, HF, etc.) during the firing process
are estimated using the Equation 1 (Coronado, 2014).
Mwi 100
yi = 1oooo * - - * c100- LOI * cir - c~ )
Amj
Where, i = polluting compounds (C02, HCl, HF, S02, etc.); j = constituting elements
(C, Cl, F, S, etc.) of the polluting compounds, yi= emission (in mg of compound i per
kg of ceramic produced); LOI (%) = loss on ignition at the sintering temperature
1020°C of each material; Mwi = molecular weight of the polluting compounds; Amj =
atomic mass of the element; Crj =concentration of element (j) in the raw material, and
Cfj =concentration of element G) in the fired product.
Crushing Grinding
Flotation
tailings
Before heatmg
~ -
fine coal
CMWR
ooncentrate
189
P hysical characterisation
The fineness of partieles and particle size distribution are of big importance in the brick
making. The fineness of partiel es ens ures bricks with a better surface quality, provides
a high aesthetic appearance and high mechanical strength due to the possibility of
sintering at lower temperatures (Samara, 2007). The particle size distribution is shown
in Figure 7.4. The first goal was to prepare coal gangue in a way to obtain almost
similarproperties as the reference material (ShB). This is why ShB and CMWR present
practically a comparable grain size distribution. Due to the second grinding process
realized on CMWR during the flotation pro cess, it was envisaged that TCMT presents
a fine particle size distribution. The Dso for ShB and CMWR varied in 300-400 )lm
range while that in TCMT was less than 15 ).!ffi. Furthermore, it was observed that the
proportion of clayey particles (<2)lm) was more important in TCMT (10 wt.%) than
tho se in CMWR (4 wt.%) and ShB (3 wt.%).
190
100
. ....-. ~:r::==-:--....~=,..__
-..-... ~..........
97 '.· .,. .....:........ t t ~~.,',,, . 1
0.40
94
1 .. ,......... ~lr...........,.............-:-..........._,_,~i"-~-------- r 0.32
82 +~··~/_·~~:·~~.:~\·4···~-·~·~..·~·..=···--+-~~~r-_,==~~~~~--~--+ ooo
0 85 170 255 340 425 510 595 680 765 850 935 1020
.
Temperature (•q
Figure 7.4 Particle size distribution of coal waste rocks (CMWR), treated coal
mine tailings (fCMf) and shales for brick as reference material (ShB).
The other physical properties are presented in Table 7.2. The specifie surface area was
practically similar in TCMf and ShB while it was lower in CMWR sample. The
plasticity index ofwastes was considerably important in the case ofTCMf. This was
due to the presence ofhigh amount of clayey materials.
Chemicai Characterisation
The chemical composition of raw materials is highlighted in Table 7.2. Coal wastes
(CMWR and TCMf) are composed mainly of the same amount of oxides Si02 (54-
57%), AbOJ (17-190/o), Fe203 (8-9 %) and alkali; Na20 (0.6-0.7 wt.%), K20(2.7-3
wt %) and alkali eruth; MgO (1.2-1.4 wt.%), CaO (0.8-1 wt %) oxides. In compru·ison
191
with the reference material, coal wastes presented similar content in silica and higher
amount in terms of alumina and iron oxides (expressed as Fez03). However, ShB
presented high proportion of modifier oxides (KzO, CaO and Mgü). Carbone was
significantly important in CMWR (6 wt.%) in comparison with that in TCMT (1.4
wt.%) and ShB (0. 8 WT.% ). The presence of carbon in raw materials is favorable due
to its capacity to reduce the required sintering temperature for bricks making. This is
ensured by the produced energy during the combustion of coal. However, the presence
of high amount of carbon is not encouraged environmentally because it increases the
concentrations of greenhouse gases emissions. The coal recovery by froth flotation
allowed the reduction of carbon content in the CMWR sample by more than 77 %.
192
Mineralogical characterization
Figure 7.5 Optical microscopy observations of coal mine waste rock (CMWR)
sample.
Thermal behavior
During the thermal process of brick making, vanous physical, chemical and
mineralogical transformations took place. Due to the decomposition of sorne minerais
195
0.00
85 170 255 340 425 510 595 680 765 850 935 1020
Temperature t•q
Figure 7.6 The TG/dTG analysis of CJ\1\.VR, TCMT and ShB samples.
Environmental behavior
The leaching of heavy metals from studied materials was assessed according to the
American Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP-method 1313, USEPA).
196
The Extraction solution No.l based on acetic acid was used to evaluate the mobility of
most concem contaminants. The results of metals leaching behavior versus the
thresholds for granular wastes in landfill are illustrated in Table 7.2. The amounts of
leached metals (Ba, Cu, and Zn) from TCMT sample are slightly important in
comparison with those from CMWR and ShB samples. This could be explained by the
increased specifie surface area and the particle size fineness of TCMT. The leaching of
lead is similar in both coal wastes. Generally, it is evidenced that almost all of the
contaminants are below the required levels for granular wastes in landfill (US-EPA,
2009). Therefore, coal wastes could be considered nonhazardous wastes.
Anthracite coal is known for its high heating value per ton. It allows, when bumed,
reaching an energy production of more than 13 500 BTU/lb. It gives off more he at than
any other combustible material. This property makes anthracite the cleanest, efficient,
and the most comfortable source of energy. The detailed results of froth flotation
process used in this study are not the subject of the current paper. Only the properties
of the recovered coal concentrate are presented (Table 7.3). Coal recovered by froth
flotation allowed the recovery of more than 60% of the residual coal in the CMWR.
The characterization results indicate that very fine coal (D90 < 52 11m), composed of
very low amount of ash and sulfur, provides a high gross calorific value greater than
13 500 BTU/lb.
One of the aims of this work is to determine the extent to which the shale materials can
be substituted by coal wastes. Therefore, six mixtures containing up to 100% of each
type of coal wastes were prepared. The impact of the addition of coal wastes was
assessed by testing the required parameters related to the manufacturing process such
as; firing shrinkage, flexural strength, open porosity, apparent density, water
absorption, and loss on ignition. The evolution of the engineering properties of coal
wastes based fired bricks depending on the waste proportion is presented in Figure 7.7.
According to the nature of the waste added, physical properties presented different
tendencies.
- Firing shrinkage increased with the addition of both CMWR and TCMT. It is
observed that this parameter was significantly affected if the mixture consisted of 60
wt.% of coal wastes. For 60 to 100 wt.% mixtures, the firing shrinkage was slightly
affected but was somewhat important in TCMT fired samples. The increase of firing
shrinkage with the addition of coal wastes reflects the enhanced sintering process,
which tends to densify the brick mass and increase its volume reduction.
- Water absorption varies in the range between 7% and 13% for all the studied
brick samples. The lowest water absorption rate was observed for the reference brick
(8 wt.%), and the highest one for the sample containing 100% of CMWR (12 wt.%).
Generally, water absorption increased with the addition of both coal wastes. The
increase in water absorption rate is explained by the increase in open porosity of bricks
with the addition of coal wastes. The bricks with 100% of TCMT presented low values
of water absorption ( 10%). High values of carbon in CMWR (6 wt.%) against a value
of 1.4 wt.% for TCMT may exp lain, among other parameters, the difference in open
porosity and then in water absorption rate between CMWR and TCMT fired bricks.
This is due to the decomposition of organic matter (coal), which leads to gas release
198
and high porosity. Furthermore, this difference may be attributed also to the
vitrification and sintering processes, which were significantly enhanced in TCMT
bricks (Figure 7.11 ). This mechanism led to the decrease in the number of pores in this
sample. The examinations of porosity of brick samples using the mercury intrusion
porosimetry is illustrated in Figure 7.8. This analysis revealed that the spectrum of
pores distribution was narrower in TCMT bricks than in CMWR and ShB ones. After
a second intrusion of mercury in the studied brick samples, the porosity showed a
different trend. It clearly supported the difference of pores between TCMT and CMWR
bricks. It is evidenced that CMWR brick samples contained pores with larger diameter
in the ranges (0.05-14 ~rn) and (42-71 ~rn), while the high proportion of pores in
TCMT bricks were located in the range (0.05-4 ~rn). One can also see the difference
of pores distribution between the first and second mercury intrusion. It was observed
that pores diameter shifted towards larger pores in the case of CMWR while it was
slightly different in TCMT bricks. This suggested the heterogeneity of pores in CMWR
bricks and a homogeneity of pores in TCMT ones. In other words, these results
confirmed the presence of trapped porosity in the studied samples with pores having
larger radii hidden by finer pores. Also, it is important to mention that the amount of
trapped porosity was greater in CMWR bricks than in TCMT and ShB ones. This
finding was supported by the tomography analysis (Figure 7.9), which identified the
larger pores in CMWR based bricks.
- It was observed that the flexural strength was significantly affected by the type
of the coal waste added. It is observed that the flexural strength increased from 9 MPa
for the reference brick to 11 and 16 MPa for bricks containing 60 wt.% of CMWR and
TCMT respectively. Between 60% and 100% of CMWR and TCMT, the flexural
strength increased with TCMT addition and decreased with CMWR addition. The
flexural strength of bricks containing 100% of TCMT is 83% greater than the one of
the reference brick. The enhancement offlexural strength with the addition of TCMT
199
may be explained by the high bonding interactions between particles which was
improved with the fineness ofTCMT particles and its plasticity. The presence ofholes
with different diameters, which are considered the regions of great weakness, may
explain the reduction of flexural strength in CMWR bricks. The formation of a glassy
phase that is known to enhance the mechanical strength of ceramic bodies may also be
the reason behind the enhancement of the mechanical strength in TCMT bricks. The
fineness of partieles in TCMT could be also another reas on. It is known that fin er the
raw materials particles, better is the surface contact and diffusion phenomena, which
are involved in sintering process.
- The density also varied with the type ofthe coal waste. The addition of60 wt.%
ofCMWR decreased the density of the reference brick by about 7%. This finding was
predicted due to the removal of organic matter during the firing process of bricks,
which left pores inside the fired bricks matrix. When more than 60 wt.% of CMWR
was added, the density is slightly affected. However, a different trend of density was
perceived when TCMT was added. An increase of 6% in density is perceived w hen
70% of TCMT is added to the mixture and a decrease of 3% is observed when up to
100% of TCMT is added. The increase of density in the mixes MT60 and MT70 might
be explained by the enhancement of vitrification process which tends to fill the pores
in the se mixes. Otherwise, the decrease of density in the mixes MT1 00, where it
reached 1.97 g/cm 3, was attributed to the increase ofporosity in TCMT bricks.
- As expected, the loss on ignition increased with the incorporation of coal
wastes. It reached high values with the incorporation ofCMWR (13%) while it reached
low values for MTlOO (9%) and MO (7%) bricks. This is attributed to the content
difference in organic matter (coal) in the studied samples.
200
15 ~----------------------------~ 2,4
,:;"'
~
E
~
c 12 s~ 2,2
t--~~---~
0 ?;>
~ 'iii
c
~ 9 Ill 2,0
.0 "0
t'O
....Q) ë
~ 1,8
f + ! !
~
t'O
a.
CSL< 20% .'( CSL > 1.5 g/cm3
],6
Rel 60 70 90 100 Rel 60 70 80 90 100
M,-----------------------------, 15
;ë' • •
~ 21 ~
c
12
• •
&;-
'iii
e 1l!
;
'ë
0 •
0
a. .Ql
c ~---·-·
c
~ 15
0
Vl
•
Vl
0 0
CSL < 40% ....J
12 L-----------------------------~ 3
Rel 60 70 80 90 100 Rel 60 70 80 90 lOO
g 4
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 10 100
(b)
6
g 4
c
0
·;;; 3
~ "
-=c
~ 2
N
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 10 100
30
Tp - 14.3%
~ 25
~
ô
~
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·~
e
20
15
n-::::.. Tp: Trapped
0
Q. 10 porosity
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
XRD characterisation
During the firing treatment, various mineralogical transformations take place and give
rise to new crystalline and amorphous phases. After determination of formed
crystalline phases, a semi-quantification of the selected samples phases formed at
1020°C using TOPAS software was performed. The results are presented in Figure
7.10. The mineralogical examination results revealed that quartz (Si02) was the
predominant phase in all the studied samples. Remaining phases were albite
(NaA1Si30s), hematite (Fe2Ü3), spinel (Mg0Ab03), anhydrite (CaS04) magnetite
203
(Fe3Ü4) and mtile (fi02). The thetmal decomposition of pyrite and the dihydroxylation
of amorphous iron phases not detected by XRD in the raw samples might be
responsible for the apparition of hematite and magnetite. The formation of anhydrite
may be attributed to the contact between calcium rich minerais (ex. calcite) and sul fur
oxide gas es caused by the decomposition of sulphide minerais (ex. pyrite). The
disappearance of muscovite minerais may be responsible of the apprui.tion of spinel
phase (WF and RE, 1951). It is reported that muscovite starts to decompose into
vitreous phase and into mullite starting :from 800°C (Cultrone et al., 2001).
Nevertheless, it is noted that the mineralogical composition of ali studied samples was
mostlythe same with sorne minor differences in tetms of quantity. As a conclusion, the
physical and mechanical properties difference among the studied samples was highly
influenced by the vitreous phase content.
160
140
59.5
--'*- 120
z
0 lOO
~
0 80
a. 61.6
~
a. 60
7.8
1.6 0.9
40 5.7
SEM characterisation
In order to evaluate the relationship between the final properties of CMWR, TCMT,
and ShB based bricks with the microstructure, SEM observations were conducted on
each sample surface fracture (Figure 7.11 ). A big difference of microstructure could be
noticed among the different studied bricks. Sorne irregular and large pores were
observed in the case of CMWR bricks resulting from the buming of organic matter.
This form of porosity existed only in the case of CMWR bricks. These pores were
considered regions of weakness and resulted in mechanical strength reduction. It was
also observed the formation of sorne small spherical particles in sorne porous regions
(Figure 7.11d). These particles form a sort of fine network and characterized by its
richness in Mg, Ca, S, Fe, and less Si and Al. This form of porosity was reported in the
literature in which pore forming wastes are used to manufacture fired bricks with
reduced thermal conductivity (Eliche-Quesada et al., 2012; Sutcu and Akkurt, 2009).
In contrast, smaller and smaller number of pores was perceived in the TCMT bricks.
Indeed, typical spherical pores (Figure 7.11 e ), resulted from the liquid phase flow
during the sintering process, were observed in TCMT bricks. Also, a compacted and
bonded mass with almost no inter-particulate pores were also observed as shown in
Figure 7.11f. The diffusion phenomena during the sintering process, which provides
the strengthening of ceramic materials, may explain the formation of grain boundaries
due to interface reactions. This mechanism led to the densification of the mass and the
reduction of porosity as confirmed by the physical properties in Figure 7. 7.
205
Figure 7.11 SEM nùcrographes of coal nùne waste rock (C:MWR) (a to d) and
treated coal nùne tailings (TCMT) ( e and f) bricks.
206
FTIR characterisation
During thermal treatment, various transformations, depending on the mineral and the
organic content, took place and affected significantly the properties of fired bricks.
Therefore, the molecular structure of unfired and fired samples was investigated, and
the FTIR spectra are presented in Figure 7.12. The results highlight the disappearance
of pics which centre approximately 1433 and 1448 cm· 1 related to aromatic C=C
deformation and stretching vibrations. This confirms the total combustion of organic
matter. Also, the bands at 1461 and 2518, related to carbonates C03 in ShB sample,
vanished after firing treatment. Moreover, it was observed that the broad symmetry
band (1300-900 cm- 1), centered at about 1000 cm· 1 in all raw materials is transformed
into two broad peaks centered at about 1020 and 1140 cm· 1 . These pics were assigned
to Si-0-Si (silicates) and S-0 (sulfates) stretching vibrations, respectively. This finding
was supported by XRD results that confirmed the formation of new phases such as
anhydrite (CaS04). The pics at 1990, 1866, 1880, 1675, 1606, 1524, 1490, 799 and 692
cm· 1 were also assigned to quartz vibrations while those at 3620 and 3400 cm-1 were
ascribed to hygroscopie water of clay minerais.
207
__ll_l_ hL
3800 3400 3000 2600 2200 1800 1400 1000 600
Wavenumber (cm-1)
(b)
CMWR-1020 ----------- TCMT-1020 - - ShB-1020
"'....
.,"'~
0
N
~ "'"'.... "'
N
' ii
ii "'i
i
Cil
u
c:
Ill
..c
"'0
.J:l · -' ,,·------ - .. ...__ ...______________ ~ .. ~·~' ,
<(
. _ ....... . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 . . . .....•
Figure 7.12 FTIR spectra of (a) unfired and (b) fired samples.
208
The leaching of heavy metals from selected fired bricks was assessed using the tank
leaching test (Dutch test NEN 7375, 2004) and the toxicity characteristic leaching
procedure (TCLP) (US-EP A 1311 ). Gas release during the firing pro cess was estimated
using the equation 1. The durability of bricks was also assessed by means of the
efflorescence test ASTM-C67 (2003) and Soluble salts release (EN 772-5). The results
of all these tests are presented in Table 7.4.
The results of this test indicated that the leaching of heavy metals and sulfates from
selected fired bricks were under the limits fixed by the Building Material Decree
(BMD, 1999). Important concentrations of sulfates were observed in the case of
CMWR fired bricks. It is worth mentioning that coal flotation has a beneficiai effect
and allows the decrease in the concentration of sulfates; by more than 75% and almost
all the other elements except lead and molybdenum.
The end of life of fired bricks was evaluated according to the toxicity characteristic
leaching procedure. The mobility of he avy metals depends on several factors such as
the firingtemperature, the mineralogy composition and pH ofthe leach solution. In this
study, the leach solution number one was used (pH=4.93±0.05) with a solid-liquid ratio
of 1:20. Heavy metals mobility results are presented in Table 7.4. It is noted that the
mobility of As and Zn were increased after the thermal treatment while all the other
elements mobility was significantly reduced. All concentrations were in agreement
with the limits for non-hazardous waste that are fixed by US-EPA regulation.
209
efflorescence test showed that few little white points were observed only in the case of
CMWR fired bricks. Soluble salts test highlighted the high amount of calcium and
sulfates released from the control brick (ShB) with a respective mobility of (206 mg/L
and 52mg/L) in comparison to those found in the case ofTCMT (92 mg/Land 26 mg/L)
and CMWR (157 mg/Land 41 mg/L) fired bricks. Again, it is important to underscore
the benefits of coal flotation which led to significantly reduce the amount of calcium
and sulfates by more than 41 and 36% respectively. Hence, bricks containing 100% of
CMWR and TCMT met the requested limits for good quality bricks in terms of (Na+ +
K+) < 60 mg/L and Mg2+ < 30 mg/L.
The firing conditions used by fired clay bricks industries (850-1 050°C) are usually
sufficient to ensure the total decomposition of organic matter, carbonate minerais, and
sulphides, leading to the emission of C02 and S02. Due to the existence of such
minerais in the studied samples as shown by the mineralogical study (coal and pyrite),
it was important to assess the gas emissions during the firing process. An estimation
of the amount of greenhouse gases released during the firing process is presented in
Table 7.5. Only carbon and sulfur were studied to evaluate the effect of coal recovery
from CMWR on the emissions rate. Results show that C02 emissions from CMWR
bricks were significantly higher than those from TCMT and ShB. This is attributed to
the high amount of carbon in CMWR sample. Moreover, it was noted that the amount
of acidifying gases (S02) were practically similar in the case of CMWR and ShB
samples while they were significantly lesser in TCMT sample. The coal recovery by
flotation resulted in a significant reduction of co2 and so2 emissions by 79.76% and
67.92% respectively. The reduction of S02 emissions is explained by the flotation of
sulphides included in coal particles (Figure 7.7).
211
Table 7.5 Gas emissions during the firing process of selected samples (CMWR,
TCMT and ShB).
According to the results of this study, two main scenarios may be proposed to best
manage the coal mine wastes in a sustainable and efficient way (Figure 7.13). The first
scenario aims at the production of bricks directly from CMWR while the second
scenario consists of the production of two value added potential products : fine coal
concentrate and high mechanical strength bricks. The selection of the optimal scenario
is govemed by technical, economie and environmental parameters. A real techno-
economic feasibility study is needed to better assess the feasibility and viability of each
scenario. What is certain is that, from a technical and environmental point of view, it
is possible to produce both types of bricks and high quality fine anthracite coal. The
benefits of the adoption of one of the scenarios are presented below:
- Using the second scenario by combining coal recovery, and red bricks
production will allow a feasible and cost-efficient coal wastes recovery. It will be
important to develop a dewatering system to reduce the moisture content in coal
concentrate and flotation wastes to provide the humidity required in coal products and
brick making plants. To our knowledge, efficient technologies are currently being
developed or are already in use in various developed countries.
212
- It will be possible to produce a fine coal concentrate product which can be used
loc ally by thermal power plants (one is already in the vicinity of CMWR site), fluidized
bed boilers, pulverized coal boilers, cement industry, etc. The development of an
alternative energy resource from coal wastes could be a sustainable solution for Jerada
industrial brownfield land. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that other techniques such
as fine coal flotation columns or agglomeration process are recently being developed,
which allow enhanced coal recovery yields. The recovery of coal will also contribute
to the reduction of the greenhouse emissions (ex. brick making plant) by reducing
significant quantities of C02.
- It may allow the reuse of the full amount of coal wastes impoundments, leading
to a cleaner site easy to reclaim. It will be possible to produce more than 18Mt of bricks
with high mechanical strength (scenario 2), or bricks with an important insulation
capacity (scenario 1).
- With a treatment capacity of 600t/day, the CMWR dumps would disappear in
100 years. As a result, the negative environmental effects induced by the land
occupation are a of C MWR can be reduced.
213
Brick quality
• Po rosity : 23% Isolation bricks
• Water absorption: 12 "
• Mechanical strength : 8.5 MPa
Coal quality
01 (BTU/Ib): > 13500 Power thermal plants
Carbon:> 90%
Su lfur : < 1%
Figure 7.13 Simplified scheme illustrating the main proposed scenarios to best
manage coal mine wastes in a sustainable and efficient way.
7.4 Conclusion
The feasibility to recover coal and produce fired bricks from coal mine waste rocks
was investigated in this study. After a thorough characterization of raw materials,
conducted laboratory tests confirmed the feasibility of reusing coal mine waste rocks
from Jerada city (Morocco) for the production of two value added products. The first
one consisted of fine anthracite coal with a calorific value of more than 13 800 BTU/lb,
sulfur content less than 1%, and ash content less than 10%. The second one consisted
of high quality fired bricks containing up to 100% of co al wastes (CMWR and TCMT)
which were in agreement with ASTM requirements. It was found that it was possible
to produce bricks from TCMT samples with higher mechanical strength than the
reference brick. From an environmental point of view, the coal recovery by froth
flotation resulted in a significant reduction of COz and SOz emissions by 79.76% and
67.92% respectively. Also, the amount ofleached metals from monolithic and ground
214
CMWR and TCMT fired bricks were respectively under the limit requirements fixed
by the Building Material Decree and the US-EPA regulation.
The collaboration between different actors like brick making plants (potential wastes
consumers), private and public construction operators (bricks client), thermal power
plants (coal client), and stakeholder engagement (local, regional, and national
governmental institutions, International, etc.) is a must to encourage the use ofCMWR.
This manner of doing will lead to various benefits such as energy conservation,
emission reduction, and finite natural resources conservation. Furthermore, this
ecofriendly and sustainable way is a promising technology particularly in Morocco
where brick coal demand is pretty high. Currently, new projects are being launched to
meet the Moroccan government programs in relation to national tourism strategy,
addressing the housing infrastructure shortage and also the transition towards thermally
isolated buildings. It is obvious that the new regulation in terms ofthermal properties
requirements willlead to the production of new and more fired bricks products in order
to respond to market increasing demand.
7.5 Acknowledgements
This work was financially supported through the International Research Chairs
Initiative, a program funded by the International Development Research Centre,
Canada (IDRC), and supported by the Canadian Research Chairs Pro gram. The authors
thank gratefully the geo-resources laboratory of the Nancy University, and particularly
Sandrine Mathieu for the SEM, Barres Odile for FTIR, and Morlot Christophe for
Tomography analysis support.
215
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CHAPITRE VIII
Préambule:
RÉSUMÉ DÉTAILLÉ
Des quantités élevées de rejets miniers sont produits continuellement partout dans le
monde. Les possibilités de recyclage de ces rejets dans la fabrication de briques cuites
est une solution environnementale prometteuse. Plusieurs études ont été réalisées dans
ce sens. Cependant, peu d'attention est accordée à l'impact environnemental des briques
cuites à base de rejets miniers. En effet, le comportement environnemental des briques
à base de stériles (CMWR) et résidus de charbon (TCMT) est évalué dans cette étude.
Ces deux types de rejets miniers ont été étudiés dans le chapitre VII pour leur capacité
à être utilisés dans la fabrication de briques cuites. Les résultats de ce chapitre ont
montré la possibilité de fabrication de briques cuites à base de 100% des stériles
CMWR et des résidus TCMT. Les schistes pour briques (ShB) sont utilisés pour la
fabrication de briques de référence.
cycle de vie globale des briques à base de stériles de charbon sélectionnés: (i) pendant
la durée de vie (NEN 7375 et essai de dépendance au pH) et (ii) à la fin de la vie (TCLP
et essai d'extraction d'équilibre CTEU-9) des briques.
Les résultats de test TCLP ont montré que la mobilité de l'As et du Zn a augmenté après
le traitement thermique, tandis que la mobilité de tous les autres éléments a
considérablement été réduite. Par contre, les concentrations de tous les métaux et
métalloïdes sont en accord avec les limites pour les déchets non dangereux fixés par la
réglementation US-EP A.
Les résultats du test de lixiviation en monolithe montrent que la lixiviation des métaux
lourds et des sulfates de tous les échantillons étudiés sont en dessous des exigences
fixées par le décret de matériaux de construction (BMD, 1999). D'un autre côté, les
résultats du test de dépendance au pH montrent que le pH de tous les échantillons cuits
se stabilise à un pH compris entre 8 et 8,5. Les échantillons cuits présentent une
capacité de tampon élevée dans des valeurs de pH très acides et basiques, alors qu'elle
est très faible dans les valeurs de pH intermédiaires. La mobilité des métaux tels que
As, Co, Ni, Zn, Pb, Cr et Sb a tendance à diminuer avec l'augmentation du pH (acide à
des valeurs de base), tandis que le Mo montre une tendance différente.
222
ABSTRACT
High amounts of mine wastes are continuously produced all over the world. Recycling
possibility of these wastes in fired bricks making has been studied and showed
promising results. However, little attention is given to the leaching behavior of mine
wastes based fired bricks. This paper presents the results of leaching and geochemical
behavior of fired bricks containing different types of coal mine wastes. The leaching
behavior of heavy metals and metalloids such as Cr, Pb, Cd, As and Zn was
investigated during the overalllife cycle of coal mine wastes based fired bricks: (i)
during the service life (NEN 7375 and pH dependence test) and (ii) at the end of life
(TCLP and equilibrium extraction test CTEU -9) of bricks. The results showed that
heavy metals and metalloids release is highly reduced after thermal treatment and are
immobilised in the glass matrix of the fired bricks. Moreover, it is also highlighted that
the pH of all the fired samples is seen to change and stabilize in the range 8-8.5. The
mobility of heavy metals and metalloids such as As, Co, Ni, Zn, Pb, Cr and Sb tends
to decrease with the increase of pH (from acidic to basic values) while Mo shows a
different trend.
223
8.1 Introduction
The leaching behavior of contaminants from wastes based fired bricks is less treated in
the literature. Due to the absence of a homogeneous protocol to be adapted in order to
study the leaching behavior of wastes based construction products and particularly
wastes based fired bricks, various leaching tests are still used by different authors
depending on their country standards. The most used tests can be classified in two
categories. The first category consists in the evaluation of contaminants release from
224
bloc/monolithic products using diffusion leaching tests such as the Dutch test (EA NEN
7375) (NEN-7375, 2004). The second category consists in the assessment of the release
of contaminants from ground wastes based bricks such as the American test TCLP;
Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP US-EPA) (US-EPA, 2009) and the
European test; Compliance Leaching Tests for Granular Materials (EN 12475; 1-3).
Another type consists at studying the leaching behavior of contaminants from granular
wastes subjected to different pH controlled solutions (pH between 2 and 14); called pH
dependence tests. The results of each test are usually compared with the thresholds of
elemental concentrations, established by the respective standards. Generally, the first
category is used to assess the leaching be havi or of bricks during the ir usefullife service
and the second for their behavior at the end oftheir usefullife (demolition waste ).
The aim ofthis study is to understand the leaching behavior offired bricks containing
100% of two types of coal wastes: coal mine waste rock (CMWR) and treated coal
mine tailings (TCMT). A reference brick containing only natural shales (ShB) for brick
is used as a reference brick. The leaching tests conducted in this study are realized on
both raw materials (CMWR, TCMT and ShB) and fired bricks.
Three raw samples were used in this study to manufacture bricks. A reference material
consisting of shales for bricks (ShB) and two types of coal wastes; coal mine waste
rocks (CMWR) and treated coal mine tailings (TCMT). The shale for brick (ShB)
(reference material) was supplied by a local brick making plant. A representative
sample of CMWR was collected from the dumps, nearby Jerada city, Morocco. This
site contains more than 20 million tons of coal wastes. These wastes represent various
risks related to its chemical, physical and mechanical stability. TCMT is the result of
the decarbonation of CMWR by froth flotation. Coal was recovered from CMWR and
225
the resulting tailing TCMT was used to manufacture good quality bricks. The presence
of coal may lead to the formation of high amounts of pores in the structure of bricks
due to its decomposition during the thermal treatment. The raw materials were passed
through a 2 mm sieve, dried, homogenized and preserved in sealable plastic bags before
testing. The grain size distribution was performed using a laser analyzer (Malvem
Mastersizer). The specifie gravity (Gs) was measured with a helium gas pycnometer
(Micromeritics Accupyc 1330). The plasticity and liquidity limits were evaluated using
the Atterberg limits method according to the ASTM-D4318 (2000) norm. The major
elements were analyzed using an X-ray Fluorescence Analyzer (Bruker, Tiger Model).
The trace elements were determined with a multi-acid digestion (HN03/Bn/HF/HCl)
followed by the analysis by Inductively Coupled Plasma with Atomic Emission
Spectroscopy (ICP-AES) (Perkin Elmer Optima 3100 RL). The crystalline phases
present in the wastes and in shales were determined by-Ray diffraction (Bruker AXS
Advance D8), Cu Ka radiation. The DiffracPlus EVA software was used to identify
mineral species and TOPAS software to quantify the abundance of all identified
minerais. The physical, chemical and mineralogical properties of these samples are
presented in the Table 8.1.
226
- ·-"'
~
-~ t:
~
2-20 )..lill(%)
> 20 )..lill(%)
22
74
16
82
45
45
"'>.c..
~ Specifie gravity (g.cill·3) 2.64 2.73 2.72
..c 0
p., loo Specifie surface area (ill 2 g- 1) 13.84 15.76 15.53
c.. Plasticity liillit (%) 13.46 15.69 10 .41
Plasticity index(%) 6.25 12.51 5.64
Si02 57.45 56.75 54.20
15.21 17.68
- AhOJ 18.80
'$.
0
Fe2ÜJ 6.28 8.94 8.90
..... MgO 3.79 1.28 1.34
z, Na20 1.03 0.68 0.64
""0
"'
~
~
Co
Ni
23
53
32
86
29
92
~
~
u
Cu 29 72 34
~
loo Cd <5 <5 <5
~
Zn <55 <55 <55
As 52 <5 <5
Quartz 36 30 42
-; ~
u-
- Chlorite
Muscovite
13
29
10
51
12
37
·-~0=
- ·-
~;t:
loo
~ "'
0
Albite
Calcite
13
2
4 4
·-= sc..
~ 0
Pyrite 1 1
u
Ankerite 4 2
Anata se 2 2
227
CMWR and TCMT were investigated in a recent study for their recycling in
manufacturing bricks (Taha et al., 2015). The results ofthis study allowed concluding
that bricks of good quality can be manufactured at a ratio of 100% of CMWR and
TCMT samples. The previously optimized formulations and processes adopted in the
study of(Taha et al., 2015) were used in the current study. The mixtures (Table 8.2) of
raw materials and water were homogenized, mixed and pressed under 6 MPa using a
hydraulic press to manufacture cylindrical blocks measuring 5.4 mm of diameter and
38 mm high. These blocks contain up to 100% of ShB, CMWR and TCMT. The green
samples were then dried at room temperature during 24h followed by a controlled
drying process in an electric oven at 60°C during 24h. Once dried, the bricks were fired
in a muille fumace (Nabertherm©) with a ramp rate of30°C/h and held at the optimal
temperature 1020°C during 5h.
The engineering properties offired bricks are presented in Table 8.3. The mechanical
strength was investigated, using a universal testing machine (Zwick Roell) with a load
capacity of 30 kN, according to the ASTM-C674 (1999) norm. The apparent density,
water absorption, and apparent porosity of fired bricks were measured according to
ASTM-C373 (1999). The firing shrinkage was measured according to ASTM-C326
(2003).
228
Multiple mineralogical transformations take place during the firing process of bricks
leading to the formation of new crystalline and amorphous phases. The table 8.4
presents the amount of the phases identified by EVA software and quantified by
TOPAS software after XRD analysis. The mineralogical results revealed that quartz
(Si02) is the predominant phase in all the studied samples. Sorne minerais (ex.
muscovite, pyrite (FeSz), anatase (Ti02), calcite (CaC03 )) disappear during the process
and other minerais are formed (ex. spinel phase (Mg0Ah03), anhydrite (CaS04),
hematite (Fez03), magnetite (Fe3Ü4) and rutile (Ti Oz)). Albite (NaAlSi30s) has seen its
amount increases after the thermal treatment. Moreover, it is reported that high
amounts of glassy phases were observed in the case of TCMT-1020. In general, the
mineralogical composition of all studied samples is mostly similar and minor
differences in terms of quantity are observed.
229
The experimental approach followed in this study is described by the diagram in Figure
8.1. The specifie objectives were to characterize the leaching behavior of (1) the raw
materials (ShB, CMWR and TCMT) and (2) the fired bricks (at 1020°C) designed as
ShB-1020, CMWR-1020 and TCMT-1020. The leaching behavior ofraw materials is
assessed according to TCLP and CTEU-9 (described in sections 2.3.1 and 2.3.2)
methods. Afterthe manufacture of respective brick blocks of ShB, CMWR and TCMT,
the leaching behavior of these blocks was evaluated according to two categories of
tests; on granular bricks (grinded bricks) (TCLP, CTEU-9 and pH dependence test) and
on monolithic blocks (NEN 7375) as described in Figure 8.1.
230
Crushing Grinding
Flotation
tailings
--··~
pH dependence
TCLP CTEU-9 NEN 7375
test
~-w/--~- ·
~:R
8.2.4.1 TCLP
The raw materials were tested in their initial form (inferior to 2 mm) while brick blocks
were grinded to pass by a 9.5 mm sieve as requested by the TCLP test method. It is
aimed to assess the ef:ficiency of thermal treatment to immobilize the contaminants in
the :fired bricks matrix. The targeted samples were placed in lL botties containing 400
mL of the extraction solution at a solid-liquid ratio of 1:20. The botties were then
placed in a rotary system and agitated with a speed of 30 rounds/minute during 18h.
The leaching solution N°l, with a pH value of 4.93, was used to accelerate the
extraction of metals from all the samples. This leaching solution was selected after
realizing a pretest consisting in an assessment of metals mobility. After leaching, the
231
samples were filtered; using a 0.45 ).lill filter and the eluates were acidified at 2% HN03
before ICP-AES analysis.
8.2.4.2 CTEU-9
CTEU-9 was inspired from the method B9 developed by the Investigation of Test
Methods for Solidified Waste Evaluation-A Cooperative Program; Equilibrium
Extraction provided by Environment Canada (MA-100-Lix.com.1.1, 2010). This
method is used to evaluate the mobility of leachable metals in normal water in order to
assess the valorization feasibility of non-dangerous wastes by
stabilization/solidification scenarios. The samples were dried and grinded to pass by a
150 ).lm sieve before testing. A quantity of 40 g of each sample was placed in botties
and a quantity of 160 mL of deionized water was added. A solid-liquid ratio of 1:4 is
used in this test. The botties containing samples and the extraction solution were placed
in a rotary system and agitated during 7 days ± 2 hours with a speed of 30
rounds/minute. After leaching, the samples were filtered using a 0.45 ).lm filter and the
eluates were acidified at 2% HN03 before ICP-AES analysis.
The pH dependence test used in this study was modified from the method 1313 (liquid-
solid partitioning (LSP) as a function of extract pH) (EPA-1313, 20 12). The method
1313 aims to provide an assessment of contaminants mobility as a function of final
extract pH at a liquid-to-solid ratio (LIS) of 1: 10. This method allows also studying the
buffering capacity ofthe tested materials at the same liquid-to-solid ratio. It is a good
method to evaluate the leaching of targeted contaminants at equilibrium conditions.
Nitric acid (HN03) and potassium hydroxide (KOH) are the solvents used in this test.
The extract contact time depends mainly on the particle size of the studied material;
the more the material is finer the shorter is the extract contact time. It consists of nine
parallel extractions of a particle-size-reduced solid material in dilute acid or base and
232
reagent water. In the current pH dependence test, the studied samples were dried at
60°C until no change in weight was observed. A sufficient quantity offired blocks was
prepared, grinded to pass through 2 mm sieve, in order to provide a greater contact
between the sample and the reagent water. A representative sample of each material
was homogenized and divided into small representative samples of approximately 1Og
of weight. After that, a minimum of twelve parallel extractions of each material in
different pH reagent water was conducted. A quantity of 10 g of the grinded dried
sampl es was placed in Erlenmeyer flasks and a quantity of 100 mL of the reagent water
was added at a solid-to-liquid ratio of 1:1 O. In this test, an acidic re agent was prepared
using 54% of sulfuric acid (H2SÜ4) and 46% of nitric acid (HN03) and then diluted
with deionized water to obtain a solution of 2N. This mixture was prepared in order to
simulate as best as possible the acidic rains (MA-100-Lix.com.l.l, 2010). The basic
reagent was prepared from a mixture of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and then diluted by
deionized water to obtain a solution of lN. A pre-calculated quantity of acid or base
solutions was added in order to obtain the reagent water with the targeted initial pH
value. The range of pH values varies between 2 and 13. The samples were then placed
in a rotary shaker and stirred for a period of 72 hours. The pH of the solutions was
measured before the addition of the solid samples and at 0.5, 24, 48 and 72 hours after
the addition of the samples. After leaching, the samples were filtered using a 0.45 11m
filter and the eluates were acidified before ICP-AES analysis.
The tank leaching test (TLT) or the diffusion test (DT) is mostly used to evaluate the
leaching of inorganic components from moulded or monolithic products totally
immersed in pH neutral water in a closed reactor. It consists to submerge the tested
product in a sort that all sides are in contact with water according to the Dutch standard
EA NEN 7375 (NEN-7375, 2004). The volume of extraction solution (pH neutral
water) added depends mainly on the geometry area of each sample. Deionized water
233
was used as leachant and a liquid/solid area ratio of 10 cm3/cm2 was fixed to all the
studied samples. Monolithic samples of 5.4 mm diameter and 38 mm high were tested
and a quantity of water in the range 815-850 mL was added. The cylindrical samples
and the leachant solution were placed on support at 2 cm from the bottom of an HDP
botties to ensure the contact of all sides of the solid media with water. Sequential
extractions and renewals of the eluates at 0.25, 1, 2.25, 4, 9, 16, 36, and 64 days were
considered. The leaching solution was continuously stirred during the test with a
magnetic stirrer. The eluates were filtered in a membrane filter with a pore size of O. 45
IJ.m. The pH and conductivity of the leachates were firstly measured and the
composition in targeted elements is analysed by ICP-AES after acidification of the
leachant solutions.
Leaching tests were conducted on raw materials, monolithic and grinded blocks. It aims
to assess the efficiency of the thermal treatment to immobilize the contaminants present
in the raw materials.
It is observed that the leaching of heavy metals (As, Ba, Co, Cr, Cu, Mo, Ni, Pb and
Zn) from raw materials presents generally low concentrations at the diverse simulated
conditions. By digging in details, according to CTEU-9 test, one may observe that the
leaching of heavy metals from fired samples (ShB-1020, CMWR-1020 and TCMT-
1020) is slightly superior when compared to unfired samples. The amounts of he avy
234
As Ba Cd Co Cr Cu Mo Ni Pb Zn Sulfates
1 mg.L· 1 mg.L· 1 1 mg.L· 1 1
Unit mg.L· mg.L· 1 mg.L· mg .L· 1 mg.L· 1 mg.L· 1 mg.L· mg.L· 1
DL 0.06 0.001 0.003 0.004 0.003 0.003 0.009 0.004 0.02 0.005 0.09
CTEU-9 (pH 7)
ShB <DL 0.062 <DL <DL <DL <DL 0.018 <DL <DL <0.005 235.5
CMWR <DL 0.018 <DL <DL <DL <DL <DL 0.007 <DL 0.021 1989
TCMT <DL 0 .022 <DL <DL <DL <DL <DL <DL <DL 0.009 102 .9
~------------------~---------- - ----------------------~----------~------------------------ ----------- - ---------------------------------~--------------
ShB-1 020 <DL 0 .25 1 <DL <DL 0.03 <DL 0 .056 0.007 <DL 0.018 1554
C MWR-
<DL 0.265 <DL <DL 0.011 <DL 0.098 0.005 <DL 0.012 1155
1020
TCMT-
<DL 0 .24 <DL <DL 0 .013 0.012 0 .086 0.008 <DL 0.013 945
1020
TCLP (pH 4.9)
ShB <DL 1.35 <DL 0.094 0.009 0.1 22 <DL 0.059 0.045 0.335 86.87
C MWR <DL 0 .051 <DL 0.134 0.007 0.087 <DL 0.1 79 0.09 0.536 425.38
TCMT <DL 0.662 <DL 0.146 0.009 0.818 <DL 0.213 0.065 1.1 7 21.63
-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.~--------------------------------- -.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.~-------------.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-- ------------ - ---------- -.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.~.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-~.-.-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-
ShB-1 020 0.156 0.126 <DL 0.094 0.006 0.06 <DL 0.006 <DL 1.1 8 374.45
C MWR-
1.35 0.1 17 <DL 0.134 <DL 0.08 <DL 0.016 <DL 1.64 297.47
1020
TCMT-
1.27 0.13 1 <DL 0.146 <DL 0.09 <DL 0.012 <DL 1.35 184.23
1020
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Limit * 5 100 1 5 5 2
DL detection lirnit
* Regulalioo hm1t (US EPA lrrmts)
8.3.2 Leaching behavior of mine waste based fired bricks: Tank leaching test (TLT)
235
The TLT results of fired blocks are presented in Figure 8. 2. The pH values of almost
fired samples were alkaline and vary generally between 8 and 11 for the first six
extractions. Afterwards, it decreases significantly and changes between 7 and 8.2. The
pH value was slightly important during the whole test period in the case of CMWR-
1020 sample. TCMT-1020 showed lower and mostly constant pH values varying
between 8. 8 and 9. 4 during the first six extractions and de creas es later ranging between
7.2 and 7.4. The pH trend for ShB-1 020 (reference material) is roughly similar to the
one ofCMWR-1020 but with lowerpH values. In terms ofconductivity, CMWR-1020
presents higher values and tends to increase from 193 to 730 ).lS/cm while low values
were observed with ShB-1020 (130-673 ).lS/cm) and TCMT-1020 (80-428 ).lS/cm). The
difference in pH and conductivity behaviors between the three samples is highly
explained by the nature of the released elements (anions and cations). As shown in
Figure 8.2, Ca, S, Si, Mg, Fe and Zn were progressive! y released as a function oftime.
In general, CMWR-1020 presented higher Ca and S release during the whole test
period. The similar trend of Ca, S (sulphates form) release and conductivity is a good
key factor which suggests that conductivity is highly influenced by the se two elements.
It is proposed also that Ca and S are released from the same soluble mineral at the test
conditions. Similarly, the release ofK and Nais seen to present roughly the same trend
for all the different fired brick samples. TCMT-1020 and CMWR-1020 presented
higher release amounts of Na and K than the reference brick sample (ShB-1020). This
could be related to the formation of more soluble compounds in the case of coal wastes
based bricks. The mobility of Zn is seen to be very low with a peak of less than 0.08
mg/L for all the samples. TCMT-1020 sample presented the lowest Zn release (<0.04
mg/L). The Si release was important in the case of CMWR-1020 than the other
samples. This could be related to its high amount in silicate minerais and also to its
high porosity compared to the other samples. It is known that higher values of porosity
may lead to higher release values due to the important contact surface. The behavior of
236
As, Cd, Cr, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sb, Se and Ti is not presented in Figure 8.2. This is due to the
very low amount released or because their concentrations are below the detection limit.
This could be caused by the incorporation of those metals into stable and less soluble
mineral phases (ex. silica or iron phases).
The cumulative amounts of released metals during the whole period test were
calculated and presented in Figure 8.3. The highest elements concentrations released
during the whole test were observed with Ba (67-176 mg/m 2), Mo (3-10 mg/m 2 ) , Zn
(8-15 mg/m2 ) and sulphates (4611-7650 mg/m 2). The release ofthe other elements is
significantly low or below the detection limit. The results of this test stipulate that the
leaching ofheavy metals and sulphates from all the studied samples are under the limit
requirements fixed by the Building Material Decree (BMD, 1999). TCMT -1020
presents low values of sulphates release.
237
• _,__ 900.0
•• -·••
Êu
...•
10.0
••
ù5
8.0 • ·~ • .a
~
>
600.0
• •
·-·
l: 8.0
Q.
40
,tc
~
300.0 ··- •
•..____: _-- --&.. -...........
.. .&.
._./
........·· -----·
-·
0
2.0
u •
0.0 0.0
0 25 2.25 16 32 64 0.25 2.25 16 32 64
180
. ShB-1020 . CMVvR-1020 . TCM T- 1020
180
--. ShB-1020 - +--- CM~-1020 ___.__ TCMT-1020
160
180
• 140 •
.... •
· ~ •·
.
140 "--
~ ~
É.
120
100 • • É.
120
100 • •
~
... ~
u 80
... / ----. 80 ... __. ~-
·-
en
60
40
20 •
0.25
• •
• : ---/
2.25
·--- 16 32 64
60
40
~L!-
0.25
•
_ _f_~/
2.25
•
16
/
32
............
64
35
--.- ShB-1020 - +- CM'Ml-1020 ---+-·· TCMT- 1020
3.0
" ShB-1020 . CM\'W- 1020 --e --·· TCMT-1020
•
~
3.0
2.5
..---·--. .,_
'
~
2.5
2.0
/;· .
!• --.. . ...-----;--,
:
É.
"'
2.0
1.5
1•
!•
"".• É.
~ 1.5
·-
•
·- •
. .----::::::. - •
10
.-
1.0
0.5
00
1="--· • 1 ... -· • 0.5
0.0
• t
-
• • •
64
0.25 2 25 16 32 64 0.25 2.25 16 32
0.08
0 07
••
,..
0.06
~ ~ • • •
É.
c
0.05
0.04
É.
• •/
N
• ëï;
·/ ·
0.03
0.02
0.01 ,...'
....---;---.l/ • • - -t "' •
.,.,. ,• .
-?'-
•
000
0.25 2.25 16 32 64 0.25 2.25 16 32 64
Figure 8.2 Evolution of pH, conductivity and Ca, S, K, Na, Zn and Si release
during the tank leaching test.
238
1000000
100000
N'
..
E
--...
.§_
10000
.------
6300
1500
2100
.------
1: 12 75 .------
0
10 00
~
540 525
.------
43 5
1: 150
Q)
u 100
1: qqq
0
u ~~ ~
12
10
As Cd 5042 -
Elements
Figure 8.3 The cumulative amounts of released metals during the whole period
of tank leaching test
The evolution of final pH as a function of the initial pH solution and the trend of pH as
a function of time are highlighted in Figure 8.4. Moreover, the release of inorganic
contaminants from the studied samples as a function of final pH is presented in Figure
8.5. The value of final pH has an important influence on the mobility of metals. As
shown in Figure 8.4, the value of the pH solution varies as a function of ac id/base added
and time of contact with the solid matrix. It is observed that the buffering capacity of
each sample depends significantly on the initial pH of the extraction solution. The
ability of the fired samples to resist to the change of pH is seen to be important only in
extreme values of pH (inferior to 2 and superiorto 12). In the range of pH values 2. 5
to 12, the pH of all the fired samples is seen to change and stabilizing at a pH between
8 and 8.5 for all the samples. In other words, the fired samples present higher buffering
capacity in very acid and basic pH values while it is very low in intermediate pH values.
When the initial pH of the extraction solution is in the ranges 1.5-2.5 and 11.5-12.5,
the final pH is seen to change dramatically in the pH ranges from 2 to 8 (for initial pH
239
acid solutions) and from 12 to 8 (for initial pH basic solutions). It is suggested that this
behavior depends mainly on the nature of the released components. Moreover, it could
be considered as an informative tool on the dissolution of sorne phases in the pH ranges
between 1.5-2.5 and 11.5-12.5. The leaching behavior of inorganic components as a
function of pH is presented in Figure 8.5. The mobility of Si, Al and Ca is seen to be
very important in the acidic region, while high amounts of Na are released in the basic
region. In contrary, the mobility ofK is increased in both acidic and basic regions while
a minimum of mobility is observed in th9e pH neutra} region. The mobility of rn etals
such as As, Co, Ni, Zn, Pb, Cr and Sb tends to decrease with the increase of pH.
However, this trend is not observed in the case of Mo which shows a high mobility in
basic pH region reaching its maximum at pH superior to 12. This finding was also
observed by Coronado (2014). In general, high amounts of released metals (As, Co,
Ni, Zn, Pb, Cr, Sb and Mo) are observed in the case ofCMWR-1020 and TCMT-1020
samples while low amounts were observed in the reference sample (ShB-1020).
However, when it is question of Si, Al and Mn mobility, the ShB-1020 is observed to
be in the front line. The mobility of Ca and S (presumably in the form of sulphates) are
important in the case ofCMWR-1020.
10 12 14
Initial pH
Figure 8.4 Final pH evolution as a function of(a) initial pH and (b) time.
240
.. ShB-1020 • CMWR-1020
• TCMT-1020 .. ShB-1020 • CMWR-1020
• TCMT-1020
0.035
••, •
3.5
O.Q30
•
O.Q25
•
'--. • •
2.5
..
:;
.....
.s 1.5
:;
.....
ë'
0.020
0 .015
~ \ ---· - ~\ 8 0.010
0.5
\ 0.005
\
0.000
10 12 14 10 12 14
pH pH
- - . - ShB-1020
• CMWR-1020
• TCMT-1020
-· ShB-1020
• CMWR-1020
• TCMT-1020
• ... ------··•
0.060
••
0.120
... .. ·-
0.100 0.050
~~
..
0.040
..
0.080
:;
..... / :;
.....
. il
0.060 / O.Q30
.s .s
~
0 0.040
z O.Q20
O.Q20 ~
..........._
- --- 0 .010
0.000 0.000
10 12 14 10 12 14
pH pH
.. ShB-1020
• CMWR-1020
• TCMT-1020 .. ShB-1020
• CMWR-1020
• TCMT-1020
4 .50 0.160
4.00
3.50
0.140
0.120
•
3.00
.. •
.sc..
:; 2.50 :; 0.100
..... ..... o.oso
2.00
1.50
.s-" 0.060
N 0.. 0.040
1.00
0.50 O.Q20
0.00 0.000
10 12 14 10 12 14
pH pH
.. ShB-1020
• CMWR-1020
• TCMT-1020 .. ShB-1020
• CMWR-1020
• TCMT-1020
0.040 0.040
O.Q3S
0.030
•• O.Q35
0.030
:;
.....
0.025
0,020
•• :;
.....
O.Q25
0.020
!-" 0.015 ! 0.015
Ill
0.010 0 0.010
0.005 0.005
0.000 0.000
10 12 14 10 12 14
pH pH
18
·- ShB-1020
• CMWR· 1020
• TCMT-1020
• ShB-1020
• CMWR-1020
• TCMT-1020
800
16 700
14
• 600
..
12
:::r
.......
~
10
..
:::r
.......
~
500
400
300
Ill
" z 200
100
10 12 14 10 12 14
pH pH
800
•- ShB-1020
• CMWR-1020
• TCMT-1020
1200
-· Sh8·1020
• CMWR-1020
• TCMT-1020
700
1000
600
:::r
....... 400
500
• :::r
.......
800
600
~ 300 ~
a 400
·-·-
VI
200
100
· ·-·--. . . . 200
10 12 14 10 12 14
..- shB-1020
• CMWR-1020
• TCMT-1020 -..-- ShB-1020
• CMWR-1020
• TCMT- 1020
400 350
350 300
300
250
..
:::r
-.
~
250
200
150 ~
..
:::r
-. 200
150
Vi
100 < 100
50 50
10 12 14 10 12 14
pH pH
- . - sh8-1020 • CMWR-1020
• TCMT-1020
• ShB-1020
• CMWR-1020
• TCMT-1020
200
180
.
160
14 0
..
:::r
....... 3
:::r
-.
!
120
100
..•.,_• •
~
~
c 2
~""
80
60
40
20
0
·-·
10 12 14 10 12 14
pH pH
8.4 Conclusions
The leaching behavior of heavy metals from coal wastes and coal wastes based fired
bricks was investigated in this study. In order to understand properly the effect of
materials particle size, leaching solution pH and contact time, the leaching behavior of
wastes based bricks at different conditions was carried out during the overalllife cycle
ofwastes based fired bricks: (i) during the service life (NEN 7375 and pH dependence
test) and (ii) at the end oflife (TCLP and equilibrium extraction test CTEU -9) of bricks.
The final conclusions ofthis study are as follow:
- Results from TCLP test show that the mobility of As and Zn are increased after
the thermal treatment while all the other elements mobility was significantly reduced.
Although, all metals concentrations are in agreement with the limits for non-hazardous
waste fixed by US-EPA regulation.
- The tank leaching test (TLT) results show that the leaching of he avy metals and
sulphates from all the studied samples are under the limit requirements fixed by the
Building Material Decree (BMD, 1999).
- Results from the pH dependence leaching test show that the pH of all the fired
samples is seen to change and stabilize at a pH between 8 and 8. 5 for all the samples.
The fired samples present higher buffering capacity in very acid and basic pH values
while it is very low in intermediate pH values. The mobility of metals such as As, Co,
Ni, Zn, Pb, Cr and Sb tends to decrease with the increase of pH (from acidic to basic
values) while Mo shows a different trend.
243
8.5 Acknowledgements
This work was financially supported through the International Research Chairs
Initiative, a program funded by the International Development Research Centre,
Canada (IDRC) and supported by the Canadian Research Chairs Program.
8.6 References
Il était question dans cette étude de répondre à plusieurs questions en relation avec la
valorisation des rejets miniers dans le domaine des matériaux de construction. Ces
questions ont été reformulées en objectifs qui ont été définis à la fin du chapitre I. Ces
obj ectifs ont été développés et atteints en se basant sur une revue de littérature, vérifiés
par des procédures expérimentales et analyse des résultats expérimentaux obtenus,
comparés avec les résultats des autres chercheurs dans le domaine et les exigences en
termes des propriétés physiques, mécaniques et environnementales. Tous ces aspects
ont été analysés pour sortir avec des conclusions générales. Ci-après sont présentées
les différents acquis et remarques pour chaque objectif précédemment définit dans le
chapitre I.
Toutes les matières premières et rejets miniers étudiés dans cette étude ont été
caractérisés pour leurs propriétés physiques, chimiques, minéralogiques et
environnementales. Chaque type de rejets miniers présentait des propriétés différentes
et dépendent de la géologie d' origine, de la composition chimique et minéralogique du
246
Les résultats de caractérisation des rejets miniers ont permis aussi de comprendre les
différences de propriétés physico-chimiques et minéralogiques avec les argiles/schistes
utilisées dans la fabrication de briques cuites. Cela nous a permis en effet de prendre
des décisions de prétraitement et d'aj out de certains additifs pour remédier à certains
problèmes qui ont été rencontrés au cours des travaux de laboratoire (porosité
absorption d'eau élevés, apparition des taches blanches à la surface des briques,
faiblesse des résistances m écaniques, etc.). C' est dans ce sens que les taux de
substitution de l'argile par les rej ets miniers ont été étudiés. Aussi, les carbonates de
baryum ont été utilisés pour arrêter l'apparition des taches blanches à la surface des
briques. Dans le cas des stériles de charbon, il était question d' enlever le charbon
(matière organique) qui est responsable de l 'augmentation de la porosité des briques et
donc de leur capacité d'absorption d'eau.
Dans cette partie de l'étude, il était question de fabriquer des briques cuites en
substituant le maximum possible des argiles naturelles par des rejets miniers. Pour cela,
un procédé de fabrication de briques à l'échelle du laboratoire a été développé au sein
de l'URSTM (IRME-UQAT). Ce procédé est composé d'un moule (4 briques à la fois),
une presse hydraulique (50 KN), une étuve et un four pour le séchage et la cuisson des
briques. Des améliorations du procédé de fabrication ont été apportées au fil du temps
surtout après la visite des usines de briques (Maroc et Canada). Les conditions de
cuisson en termes de vitesse, durée et température de cuisson ont été étudiées dans le
cadre des expériences préliminaires pour chaque type de rejets miniers. En fonction
des résultats obtenus, la vitesse de cuisson optimale a été fixée pour chaque type de
rejets miniers. L'influence de la température et de la durée de cuisson ont été par la
suite évaluées. Le procédé nous a permis de fabriquer des briques cuites ayant des
dimensions de 100 mm* 20 mm* 12 mm. Ces dimensions ont été choisies en se basant
sur la norme ASTM C 674 pour réaliser des tests de fl exion. Des centaines de briques
ont été fabriquées et évaluées dans le cadre de cette ét ude.
En effet, la décomposition des sulfates et des carbonates lors du procédé de cuisson ont
provoqué la formation d'une quantité importante de pores interconnectés dans la
structure des briques à base de rejets de calamine. La présence de pores dans la structure
des briques provoquent des taux d'absorption d'Eau élevés et une destruction des
résistances mécaniques. Aussi, la faible teneur en silice dans le cas de ces rejets pourrait
être une raison de plus qui expliquerait la faiblesse des résistances mécaniques. La
silice est connue pour son rôle dans la formation du squelette des produits cuits. C'est
dans ce sens qu'on a pensé à faire appel à un apport en silice. Le verre recyclé riche en
silice et en promoteurs de fusion a en effet été utilisé pour améliorer les propriétés des
briques à base de rejets de calamine. Effectivement, le verre a permis d' augmenter
considérablement les résistances mécaniques des briques cuites à base de rejets de
calamine. Cependant, les tests d'efflorescence et de sels solubles ont révélé les taux de
substitution qu'il ne faut pas dépasser. Les briques contenant des proportions
importantes du verre recyclé (> à 10%) présentaient des taches blanches à leur surface
malgré 1'utilisation des carbonates de baryum. En effet, les teneurs importantes des
sulfates (apportés par les rejets de calamine) couplées avec des teneurs importantes en
ions Na+ (apportés par le verre recyclé) ont fourni les conditions optimales pour la
formation des taches blanches (sulfates de sodium) à la surface des briques.
le cas des briques à base des stériles de charbon non traités. Cette différence a été
expliquée par la quantité importante de gros pores dans le cas des briques à base de
stériles de charbon résultants de la décomposition du charbon. Ces pores étaient
beaucoup moins importants dans le cas des briques à base de résidus de charbon traités.
Les mécanismes de frittage et vitrification ont été beaucoup efficace dans ces dernières.
Les dégagements des polluants gazeux au cours de la cuisson des briques ont été
également évalués avec l 'aide d'une instrumentation expérimentale et une estimation
à base des calculs théoriques. L' instrumentation expérimentale a permis de condenser
les gaz susceptibles d'êtr e émis lors de la cuisson dans les parois internes d'un four
tubulaire. La poudre récupérée a été analysée au MEB-EDS et s' est révélé qu 'une
quantité légère des polluants gazeux a été émise. Cette étude a été réalisée dans le cas
250
des rejets de calamine (Chapitre IV). En ce qui concerne les stériles de charbon brutes
et les résidus traités, il s'est avéré, en se basant sur des calculs théoriques, que le
procédé de flottation de charbon a permis de réduire considérablement les quantités
émises des polluants gazeux lors de la cuisson de briques.
L'utilisation des rejets miniers pour la production de briques d'argile présente plusieurs
avantages d'ordre scientifique, environnemental, économique et social.
Apports scientifiques
Plusieurs résultats de caractérisation des rejets mmwrs dans leur état brut, leur
comportement lors de la cuisson (dégagements gazeux et transformations
minéralogiques), le comportement des briques à base de ces rejets lors de leur durée de
vie et à la fin de leur vie ont été évalués dans la cadre de ce projet de thèse. L'ensemble
de ces résultats présentent une base de données importante qui contribuera à la
compréhension des mécanismes de stabilisation et de fixation des éléments toxiques
des rejets solides dans la matrice cuite. En effet, il sera possible de comprendre les
risques environnementaux associés à 1'utilisation des rejets miniers dans la brique cuite
(lixiviation des polluants inorganiques) ainsi que le procédé de cuisson (émanations
gazeuses).
Apports environnementaux
9.3 Perspectives
Les plus importants résultats des travaux expérimentaux menés au cours de ces années
ont été diffusés dans les publications suivantes:
Articles scientifiques :
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Manufacturing of ceramic products using calamine hydrometallurgical
processing wastes. Journal of Cleaner Production, 127:500-510 (2016).
http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j .jclepro.2016.04.056. Impact Factor: 4.96
2. Y. Taha, M.Benzaazoua, R.Hakkou, M.Mansori. Natural clay substitution by
calamine processing wastes to manufacture ecofriendly fired bricks. Journal of
Cleaner Production, 135: 847-858 (2016). Doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.06.200.
Impact Factor: 4.96
3. Y. Taha, M.Benzaazoua, R.Hakkou, M.Mansori. Recycling feasibility of glass
wastes and calamine processing tailings in fired bricks making. Waste and
Biomass Valorizationjournal. (2016) Doi: 10.1007/s12649-016-9657-3. Impact
Factor: 0.91
4. Y. Taha, M.Benzaazoua, R.Hakkou, M.Mansori. Coal mine wastes recycling
for coal recovery and eco-friendly bricks production. Miner. Eng. (2016),
http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j .mineng.2016.09.001. Impact Factor: 1.81
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