Although Form-Focused Instruction (FFI) that uses input-based or output-based techniques have bee... more Although Form-Focused Instruction (FFI) that uses input-based or output-based techniques have been extensively investigated, the efficacy of these approaches with diverse grammatical features is not well known. Past research studies have relied heavily on a reductionist approach, which isolates a single variable by eliminating the influences of “extraneous” factors. Because grammatical difficulty is determined by multiple variables such as grammatical complexity, proficiency, and L1, a reductionist
approach cannot provide the holistic perspective needed to adapt theory to practice. Educators must understand how grammatical features can best be taught, along with when they should be emphasized. As a result of the need for more holistic inquiry, this meta-analysis has been designed to better understand the effect of factors of grammatical complexity (semantic, morphosyntactic, and phonological), proficiency, and L1 on the efficacy of both input-based and output-based instruction.
To examine multiple variables involved in assessment of grammatical difficulty, a total of 37 experimental studies were selected (19 studies having learners with the Korean L1 and 18 studies having learners with the Persian L1). Selection of learners with either the Korean or Persian L1 allowed for comparison and contrast between two different language groups. Being an Indo-European language, Persian has some key similarities to English not present in the Korean L1, which is a member of the northern Asian Altaic language group. After effect sizes were calculated, results were compared to examine the effects of type of instruction (input or output-based instruction), type of target feature, L1, and learner proficiency. To examine the significance of these variables, effect sizes were compared using non-parametric tests, since a normal distribution of scores could not be assumed from the limited number of studies. Following statistical analysis, all factors were qualitatively analyzed. This included cross referencing target feature type, L1, and learner proficiency with type of instruction (input vs. output). Analysis resulted in a more comprehensive understanding of the influence of both grammatical difficulty and instruction.
While only learner L1 revealed significant differences in effect sizes (p = .003), collective comparison of all variables suggest that they synergistically influence effect size. Learners of this meta-analysis, who were primarily intermediate in proficiency, benefitted most from emphasis of grammatical features that were inter-phrasal (at an intermediate level of grammatical complexity). As suggested by results, both proficiency and grammatical feature type were important in determining effect size. Concerning L1, Persian learners also had higher effect sizes for the grammatical features chosen for study. Because it is an Indo-European language, Persian shares some collocations and grammatical features with English, which may facilitate transfer. Collectively, comparison of multiple variables of grammatical difficulty with input vs. output-based instruction reveals an important relationship between acquisition and pedagogy. As grammatical difficulty increases (e.g., learner proficiency is low and complexity of a grammatical feature is high), the influence of input appears stronger. This finding appears to suggest that more highly scaffolded FFI can increase efficacy as difficulty of a grammatical feature increases. More explicit forms of input were also more effective as grammatical difficulty increased, suggesting that explicit instruction serves as a scaffold. For less difficult grammatical features (e.g., learner proficiency is high and complexity of a grammatical feature is low), output enhancement appeared to result in a larger effect size. This finding appears to suggest that less of a scaffold is needed as grammatical difficulty decreases.
Through analysis of multiple factors impacting instruction, several insights concerning grammatical difficulty have been revealed, which may be used to improve the efficacy of FFI. These insights may lead to curricular reforms that help to promote the acquisition process. This research has provided a more holistic perspective for educators which may allow for critical reforms that maximize the effects of instruction.
Journal of Linguistics and Language Teaching, 2024
Although Form-Focused Instruction (FFI) has been extensively investigated, the degree to which gr... more Although Form-Focused Instruction (FFI) has been extensively investigated, the degree to which grammatical difficulty impacts input-based and output-based FFI approaches has yet to be well defined in an English as a Foreign Language (EFL) context. To address the need for further research, 36 experimental studies were selected for meta-analysis (18 studies with Korean EFL learners and 18 studies with Persian EFL learners). The effects of the type of instruction (input vs. output) were analysed along with other variables that may affect acquisition (complexity of a target feature and L1). The results suggested that input-based instruction was more effective for smaller phrasal features, while output-based instruction was more effective for features with more complex clauses (e.g., relative clauses or conditionals). Regarding the L1, output-based emphasis of collocations was more effective with Persian EFL learners, whose L1 shares more morphosyntactic similarities with English. Collectively, both L1 and L2 may determine the efficacy of FFI.
Little research has been conducted to examine how technology shapes values concerning critical t... more Little research has been conducted to examine how technology shapes values concerning critical thinking (CT) in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) contexts. Due to the need for further research, this study was designed to examine the relationships between perceptions of technology and attitudes about CT. A total of 80 EFL students were given two Likert surveys and two optional qualitative questions concerning CT and technology. Likert surveys were compared using Spearman’s rank correlation, whereas qualitative data were evaluated using reflexive thematic analysis. Quantitative results revealed that support for engagement with tech and laptops, along with support for using technology for career goals or IT skills development, positively correlated to a learner’s understanding and value for CT. In contrast, learners who favored using technology did not tend to value CT and were more likely to skip class if materials were provided online. Qualitative results also suggest that prosocial behaviors for engagement and clear goals promote positive attitudes toward CT, whereas overreliance on technology hampers the cultivation of CT in EFL classrooms. Implications for pedagogy have been proposed.
International Journal of Adult Education and Technology, 2024
Power distance (PD), a cultural value denoting acceptance of asymmetrical power relationships, in... more Power distance (PD), a cultural value denoting acceptance of asymmetrical power relationships, influences the force of rhetoric used by a writer to address their reader. However, AI technologies such as ChatGPT lack an explicit awareness of PD, which could affect the quality of AI-generated persuasive texts used for language learning. To investigate this issue, 200 persuasive essays written by ChatGPT were compared to 200 essays written by L1-English university learners. Three elements of formulaic language related to PD were examined: stances, modals, and pronoun deixis. Differences in stances (z =-3.411; p = .001) and modals (z =-2.100; p = .036) were both significant according to the Wilcoxon signed ranks formula, whereas differences in pronoun deixis were nearly significant (z =-1.917; p = .055). Overall, language of ChatGPT appears generic and incomplete, suggesting that consistent and uniform expressions are being borrowed from an LLM training corpus to mimic aspects of PD. Limitations of AI highlight a need for pedagogical emphasis of culturally imbued discourse.
Journal of Higher Education and Policy Studies, 2023
Although there are several studies which explore learner variation, little research has been cond... more Although there are several studies which explore learner variation, little research has been conducted to investigate how different preferences for classroom leadership are linked to the use of technology. Fifty-seven Korean university students were given two surveys to examine preferences for both classroom leadership and the use of technology. After collecting responses, data was then compared using the non-parametric Spearman Rho formula for Likert-scale data. Results revealed distinctly different perspectives on technology, which appeared to be influenced by learner preferences for either autocratic or transformational leadership. Whereas learners with autocratic leadership preferences favored using technology to make knowledge transmission easier, learners with democratic or transformational leadership preferences favored the individualistic use of technology for knowledge creation and discovery. In addition to this distinction, leadership preferences also appeared to impact expectations for communication. Whereas learners who preferred autocratic leadership styles desired using technology to connect with other students, learners who preferred democratic-transformational and transformational leadership also desired close connections with teachers via technology, reflecting expectations for more egalitarian social relationships.
Cultural values impact conceptions of good leadership, explaining why some Western-oriented leade... more Cultural values impact conceptions of good leadership, explaining why some Western-oriented leadership strategies appear to fail in Confucian contexts. To better understand how cultural values influence the process of leadership, the Vannsimpco Leadership survey was given to 291 Korean faculty members at a university in South Korea, along with 168 faculty members from an American university who served as a comparison group. Following the collection of 95 surveys (48 from Korean faculty and 47 from American faculty), factor analysis was used to evaluate respondents’ perceptions of leadership. Results suggested that Confucian values do indeed influence conceptions of leadership. As for Korean faculty, the ideal leader was envisioned as a person who relies on positional authority to make decisions, assign tasks, and promote good morale. Korean faculty also preferred more autocratic leadership strategies than their American counterparts. Collective analysis of findings suggests that transformational and democratic leadership strategies may be adapted in a South Korean context, yet these leadership styles must maintain some autocratic norms and positional authority mandated by Confucian ethical values.
Acuity: Journal of English Language Pedagogy, Literature, and Culture, 2023
Past research of rhetoric has relied on simple binary comparisons between groups that either do, ... more Past research of rhetoric has relied on simple binary comparisons between groups that either do, or do not, possess a cultural trait. While countries like Korea and the UAE may share cultural values such as an acceptance of unequal power relationships (power distance) and a preference for group action (collectivism), these traits vary in degrees of intensity. To understand how these similar cultural traits may manifest differently within rhetoric, three separate corpora of persuasive essays written in English were compiled from female learners with Arabic, Korean, and English L1s. Next, frequencies of rhetorical devices from three categories (pronoun deixis, modals, and epistemic stances) were tallied and statistically compared using Friedman's Two-Way Analysis of Variance. Results did not reveal statistically significant differences for average frequencies, yet analysis of specific rhetorical devices within each category exposed some notable disparities between corpora. Emirati (Arabic) learners, who have a strong cultural preference for power distance, tend to lessen authority of propositions and avoid a direct connection with the reader, making an argument less personal (increasing power distance). Korean learners tend to use more direct and authoritative rhetorical strategies (decreasing power distance), while simultaneously hedging with epistemic stances to maintain some degree of power distance. Hedging also appears to support Korean collectivist values that promote conflict reduction and group cohesion. Ultimately, more research of cultural influences on rhetoric is needed to develop culturally responsive pedagogy that promotes better intercultural communication.
Modern studies that integrate technology with form-focused instruction (FFI) are useful, yet anal... more Modern studies that integrate technology with form-focused instruction (FFI) are useful, yet analysis of grammatical or learner differences is often limited. Without consistent examination of all factors that influence the efficacy of FFI, it is no surprise that results are often inconsistent. Recent synthesis of research concerning Korean, Persian, and Chinese learners suggests that grammatical difficulty (collectively defined by grammatical complexity, learner proficiency, and L1) determines when providing input is more effective, and when prompting a learner to produce output is more effective. Results suggest that input and explicit information may help learners produce language more accurately when grammatical difficulty is high (e.g., a grammatical feature is complex and learner proficiency is low). Conversely, compelling a learner to produce output appears to increase accuracy when difficulty of a grammatical feature is low (e.g., a grammatical feature is not complex and proficiency is high). More experimental research is needed to confirm results. Such research may provide a holistic perspective needed to tailor computer software to learner needs.
Within Asian EFL contexts such as South Korea, large class sizes, poor sources of input and an ov... more Within Asian EFL contexts such as South Korea, large class sizes, poor sources of input and an overreliance on the Grammar-Translation Method may negatively impact semantic and pragmatic development of writing content. Since formulaic language is imbued with syntactic, semantic and pragmatic linguistic features, it represents an ideal means to evaluate the influence of Asian EFL contexts on writing. Thus, formulaic language within academic texts from Korean university students was compared to that found in essays written by American university students. Results revealed that Korean EFL learners overused transitions to define the organization of academic texts at the expense of developing content. Moreover, they used repetition, general lists, and all-purpose formulaic language to “pad ” content, neglecting to consider semantic or pragmatic purposes of the text. In contrast to their Korean EFL counterparts, American university students used formulaic language for a variety of pragmat...
Educators continue to have difficulty reforming English curricula in ways that better serve the n... more Educators continue to have difficulty reforming English curricula in ways that better serve the needs of second language learners. This difficulty is perpetuated, in part, by the inability to predict how such changes will affect morphosyntactic development. To date, ESL research has failed to effectively ascertain how multiple causes influence the acquisition process. Because frequency of grammatical features within EFL input varies considerably from that found in ESL environments, study within this context may allow researchers to develop a more holistic understanding of cause and effect relationships, thereby allowing educators to design more effective curricula. Within the current study, five causal variables (frequency, semantic complexity, morphosyntactic complexity, morphosyntactic variability, and phonological salience) were converted to empirical values for each grammatical feature. These values were, subsequently, statistically compared to grammar acquisition rates obtained...
While educators in South Korea have identified a need to change outdated practices of language pe... more While educators in South Korea have identified a need to change outdated practices of language pedagogy, continued utilization of the grammar–translation approach has perpetuated communication problems in a South Korean EFL context. To provide clinical analysis needed for effective reform, literal, figurative, and discursive aspects of formulaic language were studied in Korean EFL compositions from the Gachon Learner Corpus (GLC). Frequency values for 43 collocations related to the verb make were tallied by proficiency level and examined for patterns in usage. Most formulaic elements, with the exception of speech formulas for causation or force, were poorly represented, revealing little figurative or discursive expression of meaning. Results suggest that, at all levels, small lexical chunks are pieced together to form larger collocations via an overly simplistic (and literal) process of form-to-meaning mapping. Overemphasis of the grammar–translation method appears to produce compos...
Late in the 19 th century, American communities were in a state of flux. As northern abolitionist... more Late in the 19 th century, American communities were in a state of flux. As northern abolitionists fought against slavery, relationships among diverse members of society rapidly changed, forcing historical figures to adopt new leadership strategies. Like communities of the pre-and post-Civil War era, modern educational contexts reveal growing diversity (immigration) and rapid societal change (emergence of a large adult learner population and changes in communication), suggesting that analogous leadership skills may be needed to navigate diverse ethnic and social circles. The purpose of this study was to examine historical traits and behaviors conducive to leadership of diverse populations. Due to tremendous success in assisting runaway slaves, as well as service in a variety of capacities (conductor of the underground railroad, nurse, career trainer, and military captain), Harriet Tubman was deemed an ideal candidate for examination. Her experiences and behaviors were analyzed in detail, resulting in a number of recommendations for leadership training and governance of today's American schools.
Although Native English-Speaking Teachers (NESTs) are extensively utilized, very little is known ... more Although Native English-Speaking Teachers (NESTs) are extensively utilized, very little is known about the impact of these teachers on speaking or writing in Asian contexts like South Korea. The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of NEST instruction on EFL learners’ speech in a South Korean context. First, proficiency level of 100 learners was compared to amount of learning with a native English speaker using the Spearman rank correlation coefficient (rs [100] = .26, p = .01). Second, type/token ratios (variety of vocabulary) from 144 speeches of advanced learners were compared to amount of native-speaking instruction using the Spearman rank correlation coefficient (rs [144] = .18, p = .03). Results suggest that native English instruction does indeed have some impact. Higher proficiency learners had more native instruction. Furthermore, advanced learners with more NEST instruction had more lexical sophistication of speech. While significant, correlations may not justify...
Narrators from Moby Dick and Open City both search for truth by looking beyond conventional geogr... more Narrators from Moby Dick and Open City both search for truth by looking beyond conventional geographical, political, and social boundaries. They critically examine the external world, leading to postcolonial truths concerning malevolence of American or Western imperialism. Despite key similarities in perspective, narrators differ in how the external world reflects individual identity. In Open City, evil is not just an external concept. It is subconsciously embedded within the mind of the narrator himself. Julius denies committing a brutal rape, which reveals that he is creating his own reality, just as colonial powers "whitewash" acts of exploitation. Creation of an immoral narrator ultimately reveals that external evils are the manifestation of internal processes, which are deeply embedded in the psyche of all human beings. Ultimately, the narrator of Open City reveals modern views of global identity development, where interpretation and validation of the external world is an internal and subjective psychological process.
Past experimental studies of corrective feedback (CF) have isolated factors like grammatical comp... more Past experimental studies of corrective feedback (CF) have isolated factors like grammatical complexity, learner proficiency, and L1 one by one, carefully designing experiments that eliminate the influence of “extraneous” factors. Because each factor is actually codependent, more holistic study is needed. Eleven studies, all of which had English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners with a Persian L1 and productive measures of speech or writing, were selected for meta-analytic examination. Results suggest that type of grammatical feature, as well as associated learner variables such as L1 similarity or proficiency, collectively influence the efficacy of different CF types. As variables jointly add to the difficulty of a grammatical feature, CF providing a kind of scaffold, in the form of a written or oral reformulation from the teacher, appears to be the most effective. As grammatical difficulty decreases, learners appear to benefit from CF in which the learner is compelled to self-r...
The British and American Language and Literature Association of Korea, 2019
Andrew Schenck. 2019. Deconstructing Puritan Values in Hope Leslie: A
Statement of Individualism... more Andrew Schenck. 2019. Deconstructing Puritan Values in Hope Leslie: A Statement of Individualism or Unity? Studies in British and American Language and Literature 135, 223-243. Within the novel Hope Leslie, by Catharine Maria Sedgwick, there are allusions to the superiority of the Puritan faith and Anglo-American culture. At the same time, many Puritan figures in the story are depicted as sinful and morally corrupt, leading to a paradox that is difficult to interpret. To add to this paradox, many characters of other faiths or cultural traditions appear noble and sacrifice themselves for the good of others. Simultaneous support for Anglo-American Puritan ideals, along with unique portrayals of diverse characters, is thought by some scholars to be Sedgwick’s attempt to promote a new American identity, while concurrently supporting democratic individualistic ideals that promote racial equality and feminism. Although it is true that racial and gender stereotypes are deliberately deconstructed by the author, the underlying purpose appears to be a religious one. Rather than demonstrating that individualism should be celebrated, Sedgwick reveals that both sin and righteousness exist in each cultural context, religious group, and gender. Through such a technique, she systematically deconstructs any man-made ideal, highlighting the unity of mankind under one Puritan God.
THE NEW STUDIES OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE & LITERATURE, 2019
Andrew Schenck. Flawless Symbol or “Wet Blanket”: The Significance of Fanny
Price in Jane Austen... more Andrew Schenck. Flawless Symbol or “Wet Blanket”: The Significance of Fanny Price in Jane Austen’s Mansfield Park. The New Studies of English Language & Literature 73 (2019): 205-224. Fanny Price, the protagonist of Jane Austen’s Mansfield Park, is enigmatic. While her humility is admirable, such passive and “flawless” characteristics are in sharp contrast to the less than perfect heroines in prior novels. Many have interpreted these personality traits to be an ideological manifesto, reflecting an attempt to support Anglican Evangelism. Others have argued that she is the embodiment of an Enlightenment feminist. Still others argue that Fanny is an insipid and vapid character, strictly adhering to rules like a wet blanket. This paper argues that Fanny is neither meant to be characterized as perfect nor flawed. Instead, she represents an ordinary woman who can transform society through good leadership. Her behaviors are not random, but reveal deliberate strategies to positively control the character flaw, which is externally represented by the social circle of Mansfield Park itself. Because Fanny provides very influential leadership while adhering to the social position in which she was placed, she serves as the ideal 18th-century British role model, a person who can work within the existing patriarchal system to bring about meaningful change. (Incheon National University)
The British and American Language and Literature Association of Korea, 2018
Andrew Schenck. 2019. The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly: Comparing the
Christian “God of War” in B... more Andrew Schenck. 2019. The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly: Comparing the Christian “God of War” in Beowulf and Slaughterhouse Five. Studies in British and American Language and Literature 131, 395-414. Characterizations of God and Christianity have changed over the years, yet the political, social, and economic processes impacting such depictions have not. Through the ages, historical contexts continue to shape an author’s perspective, thereby impacting portrayal of religious concepts. Because a writer’s consciousness is molded by the environment, renderings of a sacred deity come to reflect unique characteristics of the time in which they were written. To better examine how depictions of God reflect this interplay between author and contemporary contextual circumstances, two texts from radically different times of war, Beowulf and Slaughterhouse Five, were chosen for study. While the “God of War” in both novels includes pagan and Christian elements, the purpose for simultaneous coverage of these concepts differs. Whereas Beowulf justifies old pagan traditions, as well as the role of Christianity in Anglo-Saxon England, Slaughterhouse Five uses the God of War to exemplify a psychological struggle to comprehend the meaning of war, as well as its deadly aftermath.
THE NEW STUDIES OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE & LITERATURE, 2016
Schenck, Andrew. More Than the Sum of Its Parts: The Sociological Impact of
African American Poe... more Schenck, Andrew. More Than the Sum of Its Parts: The Sociological Impact of African American Poetry. The New Studies of English Language & Literature 64 (2016): 143-168. African American verse differs significantly from poetry composed in either Western or Eastern contexts. It stems, not from a longstanding written tradition, but from a spoken tradition which has consistently evolved over time. Originally, oral stories were used to preserve cultural traditions from the African homeland, providing continuity amid trials and tribulations of forced relocation. To resolve subsequent cultural, linguistic, and social barriers brought about by imposed diversity, a common means to communicate through song and dance was developed. Shared musical compositions allowed slaves to establish familiar linguistic structures, gestures, and thematic content that everyone could understand, thereby facilitating communication and cultural consolidation. Such oral media and content, along with the sociological functions with which they were imbued, were then encoded within African American verse. While the adoption of past cultural traditions has made African American poetry distinctive, it is the synergistic impact of this poetry on American society which makes the art form truly exceptional. Not only has it served to develop the African American community, it has invoked significant responses from white hegemonic institutions of discrimination. In an attempt to further ascertain the sociological impact of African American verse, the following paper investigates how characteristics of form and meaning coalesce to evoke emotion, cultivate ethnic solidarity, and prompt social reform. (State University of New York (SUNY): Songdo Campus)
Although Form-Focused Instruction (FFI) that uses input-based or output-based techniques have bee... more Although Form-Focused Instruction (FFI) that uses input-based or output-based techniques have been extensively investigated, the efficacy of these approaches with diverse grammatical features is not well known. Past research studies have relied heavily on a reductionist approach, which isolates a single variable by eliminating the influences of “extraneous” factors. Because grammatical difficulty is determined by multiple variables such as grammatical complexity, proficiency, and L1, a reductionist
approach cannot provide the holistic perspective needed to adapt theory to practice. Educators must understand how grammatical features can best be taught, along with when they should be emphasized. As a result of the need for more holistic inquiry, this meta-analysis has been designed to better understand the effect of factors of grammatical complexity (semantic, morphosyntactic, and phonological), proficiency, and L1 on the efficacy of both input-based and output-based instruction.
To examine multiple variables involved in assessment of grammatical difficulty, a total of 37 experimental studies were selected (19 studies having learners with the Korean L1 and 18 studies having learners with the Persian L1). Selection of learners with either the Korean or Persian L1 allowed for comparison and contrast between two different language groups. Being an Indo-European language, Persian has some key similarities to English not present in the Korean L1, which is a member of the northern Asian Altaic language group. After effect sizes were calculated, results were compared to examine the effects of type of instruction (input or output-based instruction), type of target feature, L1, and learner proficiency. To examine the significance of these variables, effect sizes were compared using non-parametric tests, since a normal distribution of scores could not be assumed from the limited number of studies. Following statistical analysis, all factors were qualitatively analyzed. This included cross referencing target feature type, L1, and learner proficiency with type of instruction (input vs. output). Analysis resulted in a more comprehensive understanding of the influence of both grammatical difficulty and instruction.
While only learner L1 revealed significant differences in effect sizes (p = .003), collective comparison of all variables suggest that they synergistically influence effect size. Learners of this meta-analysis, who were primarily intermediate in proficiency, benefitted most from emphasis of grammatical features that were inter-phrasal (at an intermediate level of grammatical complexity). As suggested by results, both proficiency and grammatical feature type were important in determining effect size. Concerning L1, Persian learners also had higher effect sizes for the grammatical features chosen for study. Because it is an Indo-European language, Persian shares some collocations and grammatical features with English, which may facilitate transfer. Collectively, comparison of multiple variables of grammatical difficulty with input vs. output-based instruction reveals an important relationship between acquisition and pedagogy. As grammatical difficulty increases (e.g., learner proficiency is low and complexity of a grammatical feature is high), the influence of input appears stronger. This finding appears to suggest that more highly scaffolded FFI can increase efficacy as difficulty of a grammatical feature increases. More explicit forms of input were also more effective as grammatical difficulty increased, suggesting that explicit instruction serves as a scaffold. For less difficult grammatical features (e.g., learner proficiency is high and complexity of a grammatical feature is low), output enhancement appeared to result in a larger effect size. This finding appears to suggest that less of a scaffold is needed as grammatical difficulty decreases.
Through analysis of multiple factors impacting instruction, several insights concerning grammatical difficulty have been revealed, which may be used to improve the efficacy of FFI. These insights may lead to curricular reforms that help to promote the acquisition process. This research has provided a more holistic perspective for educators which may allow for critical reforms that maximize the effects of instruction.
Journal of Linguistics and Language Teaching, 2024
Although Form-Focused Instruction (FFI) has been extensively investigated, the degree to which gr... more Although Form-Focused Instruction (FFI) has been extensively investigated, the degree to which grammatical difficulty impacts input-based and output-based FFI approaches has yet to be well defined in an English as a Foreign Language (EFL) context. To address the need for further research, 36 experimental studies were selected for meta-analysis (18 studies with Korean EFL learners and 18 studies with Persian EFL learners). The effects of the type of instruction (input vs. output) were analysed along with other variables that may affect acquisition (complexity of a target feature and L1). The results suggested that input-based instruction was more effective for smaller phrasal features, while output-based instruction was more effective for features with more complex clauses (e.g., relative clauses or conditionals). Regarding the L1, output-based emphasis of collocations was more effective with Persian EFL learners, whose L1 shares more morphosyntactic similarities with English. Collectively, both L1 and L2 may determine the efficacy of FFI.
Little research has been conducted to examine how technology shapes values concerning critical t... more Little research has been conducted to examine how technology shapes values concerning critical thinking (CT) in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) contexts. Due to the need for further research, this study was designed to examine the relationships between perceptions of technology and attitudes about CT. A total of 80 EFL students were given two Likert surveys and two optional qualitative questions concerning CT and technology. Likert surveys were compared using Spearman’s rank correlation, whereas qualitative data were evaluated using reflexive thematic analysis. Quantitative results revealed that support for engagement with tech and laptops, along with support for using technology for career goals or IT skills development, positively correlated to a learner’s understanding and value for CT. In contrast, learners who favored using technology did not tend to value CT and were more likely to skip class if materials were provided online. Qualitative results also suggest that prosocial behaviors for engagement and clear goals promote positive attitudes toward CT, whereas overreliance on technology hampers the cultivation of CT in EFL classrooms. Implications for pedagogy have been proposed.
International Journal of Adult Education and Technology, 2024
Power distance (PD), a cultural value denoting acceptance of asymmetrical power relationships, in... more Power distance (PD), a cultural value denoting acceptance of asymmetrical power relationships, influences the force of rhetoric used by a writer to address their reader. However, AI technologies such as ChatGPT lack an explicit awareness of PD, which could affect the quality of AI-generated persuasive texts used for language learning. To investigate this issue, 200 persuasive essays written by ChatGPT were compared to 200 essays written by L1-English university learners. Three elements of formulaic language related to PD were examined: stances, modals, and pronoun deixis. Differences in stances (z =-3.411; p = .001) and modals (z =-2.100; p = .036) were both significant according to the Wilcoxon signed ranks formula, whereas differences in pronoun deixis were nearly significant (z =-1.917; p = .055). Overall, language of ChatGPT appears generic and incomplete, suggesting that consistent and uniform expressions are being borrowed from an LLM training corpus to mimic aspects of PD. Limitations of AI highlight a need for pedagogical emphasis of culturally imbued discourse.
Journal of Higher Education and Policy Studies, 2023
Although there are several studies which explore learner variation, little research has been cond... more Although there are several studies which explore learner variation, little research has been conducted to investigate how different preferences for classroom leadership are linked to the use of technology. Fifty-seven Korean university students were given two surveys to examine preferences for both classroom leadership and the use of technology. After collecting responses, data was then compared using the non-parametric Spearman Rho formula for Likert-scale data. Results revealed distinctly different perspectives on technology, which appeared to be influenced by learner preferences for either autocratic or transformational leadership. Whereas learners with autocratic leadership preferences favored using technology to make knowledge transmission easier, learners with democratic or transformational leadership preferences favored the individualistic use of technology for knowledge creation and discovery. In addition to this distinction, leadership preferences also appeared to impact expectations for communication. Whereas learners who preferred autocratic leadership styles desired using technology to connect with other students, learners who preferred democratic-transformational and transformational leadership also desired close connections with teachers via technology, reflecting expectations for more egalitarian social relationships.
Cultural values impact conceptions of good leadership, explaining why some Western-oriented leade... more Cultural values impact conceptions of good leadership, explaining why some Western-oriented leadership strategies appear to fail in Confucian contexts. To better understand how cultural values influence the process of leadership, the Vannsimpco Leadership survey was given to 291 Korean faculty members at a university in South Korea, along with 168 faculty members from an American university who served as a comparison group. Following the collection of 95 surveys (48 from Korean faculty and 47 from American faculty), factor analysis was used to evaluate respondents’ perceptions of leadership. Results suggested that Confucian values do indeed influence conceptions of leadership. As for Korean faculty, the ideal leader was envisioned as a person who relies on positional authority to make decisions, assign tasks, and promote good morale. Korean faculty also preferred more autocratic leadership strategies than their American counterparts. Collective analysis of findings suggests that transformational and democratic leadership strategies may be adapted in a South Korean context, yet these leadership styles must maintain some autocratic norms and positional authority mandated by Confucian ethical values.
Acuity: Journal of English Language Pedagogy, Literature, and Culture, 2023
Past research of rhetoric has relied on simple binary comparisons between groups that either do, ... more Past research of rhetoric has relied on simple binary comparisons between groups that either do, or do not, possess a cultural trait. While countries like Korea and the UAE may share cultural values such as an acceptance of unequal power relationships (power distance) and a preference for group action (collectivism), these traits vary in degrees of intensity. To understand how these similar cultural traits may manifest differently within rhetoric, three separate corpora of persuasive essays written in English were compiled from female learners with Arabic, Korean, and English L1s. Next, frequencies of rhetorical devices from three categories (pronoun deixis, modals, and epistemic stances) were tallied and statistically compared using Friedman's Two-Way Analysis of Variance. Results did not reveal statistically significant differences for average frequencies, yet analysis of specific rhetorical devices within each category exposed some notable disparities between corpora. Emirati (Arabic) learners, who have a strong cultural preference for power distance, tend to lessen authority of propositions and avoid a direct connection with the reader, making an argument less personal (increasing power distance). Korean learners tend to use more direct and authoritative rhetorical strategies (decreasing power distance), while simultaneously hedging with epistemic stances to maintain some degree of power distance. Hedging also appears to support Korean collectivist values that promote conflict reduction and group cohesion. Ultimately, more research of cultural influences on rhetoric is needed to develop culturally responsive pedagogy that promotes better intercultural communication.
Modern studies that integrate technology with form-focused instruction (FFI) are useful, yet anal... more Modern studies that integrate technology with form-focused instruction (FFI) are useful, yet analysis of grammatical or learner differences is often limited. Without consistent examination of all factors that influence the efficacy of FFI, it is no surprise that results are often inconsistent. Recent synthesis of research concerning Korean, Persian, and Chinese learners suggests that grammatical difficulty (collectively defined by grammatical complexity, learner proficiency, and L1) determines when providing input is more effective, and when prompting a learner to produce output is more effective. Results suggest that input and explicit information may help learners produce language more accurately when grammatical difficulty is high (e.g., a grammatical feature is complex and learner proficiency is low). Conversely, compelling a learner to produce output appears to increase accuracy when difficulty of a grammatical feature is low (e.g., a grammatical feature is not complex and proficiency is high). More experimental research is needed to confirm results. Such research may provide a holistic perspective needed to tailor computer software to learner needs.
Within Asian EFL contexts such as South Korea, large class sizes, poor sources of input and an ov... more Within Asian EFL contexts such as South Korea, large class sizes, poor sources of input and an overreliance on the Grammar-Translation Method may negatively impact semantic and pragmatic development of writing content. Since formulaic language is imbued with syntactic, semantic and pragmatic linguistic features, it represents an ideal means to evaluate the influence of Asian EFL contexts on writing. Thus, formulaic language within academic texts from Korean university students was compared to that found in essays written by American university students. Results revealed that Korean EFL learners overused transitions to define the organization of academic texts at the expense of developing content. Moreover, they used repetition, general lists, and all-purpose formulaic language to “pad ” content, neglecting to consider semantic or pragmatic purposes of the text. In contrast to their Korean EFL counterparts, American university students used formulaic language for a variety of pragmat...
Educators continue to have difficulty reforming English curricula in ways that better serve the n... more Educators continue to have difficulty reforming English curricula in ways that better serve the needs of second language learners. This difficulty is perpetuated, in part, by the inability to predict how such changes will affect morphosyntactic development. To date, ESL research has failed to effectively ascertain how multiple causes influence the acquisition process. Because frequency of grammatical features within EFL input varies considerably from that found in ESL environments, study within this context may allow researchers to develop a more holistic understanding of cause and effect relationships, thereby allowing educators to design more effective curricula. Within the current study, five causal variables (frequency, semantic complexity, morphosyntactic complexity, morphosyntactic variability, and phonological salience) were converted to empirical values for each grammatical feature. These values were, subsequently, statistically compared to grammar acquisition rates obtained...
While educators in South Korea have identified a need to change outdated practices of language pe... more While educators in South Korea have identified a need to change outdated practices of language pedagogy, continued utilization of the grammar–translation approach has perpetuated communication problems in a South Korean EFL context. To provide clinical analysis needed for effective reform, literal, figurative, and discursive aspects of formulaic language were studied in Korean EFL compositions from the Gachon Learner Corpus (GLC). Frequency values for 43 collocations related to the verb make were tallied by proficiency level and examined for patterns in usage. Most formulaic elements, with the exception of speech formulas for causation or force, were poorly represented, revealing little figurative or discursive expression of meaning. Results suggest that, at all levels, small lexical chunks are pieced together to form larger collocations via an overly simplistic (and literal) process of form-to-meaning mapping. Overemphasis of the grammar–translation method appears to produce compos...
Late in the 19 th century, American communities were in a state of flux. As northern abolitionist... more Late in the 19 th century, American communities were in a state of flux. As northern abolitionists fought against slavery, relationships among diverse members of society rapidly changed, forcing historical figures to adopt new leadership strategies. Like communities of the pre-and post-Civil War era, modern educational contexts reveal growing diversity (immigration) and rapid societal change (emergence of a large adult learner population and changes in communication), suggesting that analogous leadership skills may be needed to navigate diverse ethnic and social circles. The purpose of this study was to examine historical traits and behaviors conducive to leadership of diverse populations. Due to tremendous success in assisting runaway slaves, as well as service in a variety of capacities (conductor of the underground railroad, nurse, career trainer, and military captain), Harriet Tubman was deemed an ideal candidate for examination. Her experiences and behaviors were analyzed in detail, resulting in a number of recommendations for leadership training and governance of today's American schools.
Although Native English-Speaking Teachers (NESTs) are extensively utilized, very little is known ... more Although Native English-Speaking Teachers (NESTs) are extensively utilized, very little is known about the impact of these teachers on speaking or writing in Asian contexts like South Korea. The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of NEST instruction on EFL learners’ speech in a South Korean context. First, proficiency level of 100 learners was compared to amount of learning with a native English speaker using the Spearman rank correlation coefficient (rs [100] = .26, p = .01). Second, type/token ratios (variety of vocabulary) from 144 speeches of advanced learners were compared to amount of native-speaking instruction using the Spearman rank correlation coefficient (rs [144] = .18, p = .03). Results suggest that native English instruction does indeed have some impact. Higher proficiency learners had more native instruction. Furthermore, advanced learners with more NEST instruction had more lexical sophistication of speech. While significant, correlations may not justify...
Narrators from Moby Dick and Open City both search for truth by looking beyond conventional geogr... more Narrators from Moby Dick and Open City both search for truth by looking beyond conventional geographical, political, and social boundaries. They critically examine the external world, leading to postcolonial truths concerning malevolence of American or Western imperialism. Despite key similarities in perspective, narrators differ in how the external world reflects individual identity. In Open City, evil is not just an external concept. It is subconsciously embedded within the mind of the narrator himself. Julius denies committing a brutal rape, which reveals that he is creating his own reality, just as colonial powers "whitewash" acts of exploitation. Creation of an immoral narrator ultimately reveals that external evils are the manifestation of internal processes, which are deeply embedded in the psyche of all human beings. Ultimately, the narrator of Open City reveals modern views of global identity development, where interpretation and validation of the external world is an internal and subjective psychological process.
Past experimental studies of corrective feedback (CF) have isolated factors like grammatical comp... more Past experimental studies of corrective feedback (CF) have isolated factors like grammatical complexity, learner proficiency, and L1 one by one, carefully designing experiments that eliminate the influence of “extraneous” factors. Because each factor is actually codependent, more holistic study is needed. Eleven studies, all of which had English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners with a Persian L1 and productive measures of speech or writing, were selected for meta-analytic examination. Results suggest that type of grammatical feature, as well as associated learner variables such as L1 similarity or proficiency, collectively influence the efficacy of different CF types. As variables jointly add to the difficulty of a grammatical feature, CF providing a kind of scaffold, in the form of a written or oral reformulation from the teacher, appears to be the most effective. As grammatical difficulty decreases, learners appear to benefit from CF in which the learner is compelled to self-r...
The British and American Language and Literature Association of Korea, 2019
Andrew Schenck. 2019. Deconstructing Puritan Values in Hope Leslie: A
Statement of Individualism... more Andrew Schenck. 2019. Deconstructing Puritan Values in Hope Leslie: A Statement of Individualism or Unity? Studies in British and American Language and Literature 135, 223-243. Within the novel Hope Leslie, by Catharine Maria Sedgwick, there are allusions to the superiority of the Puritan faith and Anglo-American culture. At the same time, many Puritan figures in the story are depicted as sinful and morally corrupt, leading to a paradox that is difficult to interpret. To add to this paradox, many characters of other faiths or cultural traditions appear noble and sacrifice themselves for the good of others. Simultaneous support for Anglo-American Puritan ideals, along with unique portrayals of diverse characters, is thought by some scholars to be Sedgwick’s attempt to promote a new American identity, while concurrently supporting democratic individualistic ideals that promote racial equality and feminism. Although it is true that racial and gender stereotypes are deliberately deconstructed by the author, the underlying purpose appears to be a religious one. Rather than demonstrating that individualism should be celebrated, Sedgwick reveals that both sin and righteousness exist in each cultural context, religious group, and gender. Through such a technique, she systematically deconstructs any man-made ideal, highlighting the unity of mankind under one Puritan God.
THE NEW STUDIES OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE & LITERATURE, 2019
Andrew Schenck. Flawless Symbol or “Wet Blanket”: The Significance of Fanny
Price in Jane Austen... more Andrew Schenck. Flawless Symbol or “Wet Blanket”: The Significance of Fanny Price in Jane Austen’s Mansfield Park. The New Studies of English Language & Literature 73 (2019): 205-224. Fanny Price, the protagonist of Jane Austen’s Mansfield Park, is enigmatic. While her humility is admirable, such passive and “flawless” characteristics are in sharp contrast to the less than perfect heroines in prior novels. Many have interpreted these personality traits to be an ideological manifesto, reflecting an attempt to support Anglican Evangelism. Others have argued that she is the embodiment of an Enlightenment feminist. Still others argue that Fanny is an insipid and vapid character, strictly adhering to rules like a wet blanket. This paper argues that Fanny is neither meant to be characterized as perfect nor flawed. Instead, she represents an ordinary woman who can transform society through good leadership. Her behaviors are not random, but reveal deliberate strategies to positively control the character flaw, which is externally represented by the social circle of Mansfield Park itself. Because Fanny provides very influential leadership while adhering to the social position in which she was placed, she serves as the ideal 18th-century British role model, a person who can work within the existing patriarchal system to bring about meaningful change. (Incheon National University)
The British and American Language and Literature Association of Korea, 2018
Andrew Schenck. 2019. The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly: Comparing the
Christian “God of War” in B... more Andrew Schenck. 2019. The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly: Comparing the Christian “God of War” in Beowulf and Slaughterhouse Five. Studies in British and American Language and Literature 131, 395-414. Characterizations of God and Christianity have changed over the years, yet the political, social, and economic processes impacting such depictions have not. Through the ages, historical contexts continue to shape an author’s perspective, thereby impacting portrayal of religious concepts. Because a writer’s consciousness is molded by the environment, renderings of a sacred deity come to reflect unique characteristics of the time in which they were written. To better examine how depictions of God reflect this interplay between author and contemporary contextual circumstances, two texts from radically different times of war, Beowulf and Slaughterhouse Five, were chosen for study. While the “God of War” in both novels includes pagan and Christian elements, the purpose for simultaneous coverage of these concepts differs. Whereas Beowulf justifies old pagan traditions, as well as the role of Christianity in Anglo-Saxon England, Slaughterhouse Five uses the God of War to exemplify a psychological struggle to comprehend the meaning of war, as well as its deadly aftermath.
THE NEW STUDIES OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE & LITERATURE, 2016
Schenck, Andrew. More Than the Sum of Its Parts: The Sociological Impact of
African American Poe... more Schenck, Andrew. More Than the Sum of Its Parts: The Sociological Impact of African American Poetry. The New Studies of English Language & Literature 64 (2016): 143-168. African American verse differs significantly from poetry composed in either Western or Eastern contexts. It stems, not from a longstanding written tradition, but from a spoken tradition which has consistently evolved over time. Originally, oral stories were used to preserve cultural traditions from the African homeland, providing continuity amid trials and tribulations of forced relocation. To resolve subsequent cultural, linguistic, and social barriers brought about by imposed diversity, a common means to communicate through song and dance was developed. Shared musical compositions allowed slaves to establish familiar linguistic structures, gestures, and thematic content that everyone could understand, thereby facilitating communication and cultural consolidation. Such oral media and content, along with the sociological functions with which they were imbued, were then encoded within African American verse. While the adoption of past cultural traditions has made African American poetry distinctive, it is the synergistic impact of this poetry on American society which makes the art form truly exceptional. Not only has it served to develop the African American community, it has invoked significant responses from white hegemonic institutions of discrimination. In an attempt to further ascertain the sociological impact of African American verse, the following paper investigates how characteristics of form and meaning coalesce to evoke emotion, cultivate ethnic solidarity, and prompt social reform. (State University of New York (SUNY): Songdo Campus)
Characteristics of a grammatical feature, type of instruction, and proficiency level of the learn... more Characteristics of a grammatical feature, type of instruction, and proficiency level of the learner all contribute to the effectiveness of various types of explicit grammar curricula. Modern curricular designs and explicit pedagogical techniques must move beyond traditional one-size-fits-all strategies. This can be accomplished in two steps. First, traditional grammar lessons can be systematically transformed by providing activities that target the unique characteristics of each morphosyntactic feature. Secondly, educators can be trained to understand grammatical features, the disparate factors that influence their acquisition, and the appropriate pedagogical techniques to deal with these disparities. Instruction that is differentiated in this way will finally give educators the insight needed to systematically “engineer” a desired result, leading to increased grammatical accuracy and proficiency.
Uploads
Papers by Andrew Schenck
approach cannot provide the holistic perspective needed to adapt theory to practice. Educators must understand how grammatical features can best be taught, along with when they should be emphasized. As a result of the need for more holistic inquiry, this meta-analysis has been designed to better understand the effect of factors of grammatical complexity (semantic, morphosyntactic, and phonological), proficiency, and L1 on the efficacy of both input-based and output-based instruction.
To examine multiple variables involved in assessment of grammatical difficulty, a total of 37 experimental studies were selected (19 studies having learners with the Korean L1 and 18 studies having learners with the Persian L1). Selection of learners with either the Korean or Persian L1 allowed for comparison and contrast between two different language groups. Being an Indo-European language, Persian has some key similarities to English not present in the Korean L1, which is a member of the northern Asian Altaic language group. After effect sizes were calculated, results were compared to examine the effects of type of instruction (input or output-based instruction), type of target feature, L1, and learner proficiency. To examine the significance of these variables, effect sizes were compared using non-parametric tests, since a normal distribution of scores could not be assumed from the limited number of studies. Following statistical analysis, all factors were qualitatively analyzed. This included cross referencing target feature type, L1, and learner proficiency with type of instruction (input vs. output). Analysis resulted in a more comprehensive understanding of the influence of both grammatical difficulty and instruction.
While only learner L1 revealed significant differences in effect sizes (p = .003), collective comparison of all variables suggest that they synergistically influence effect size. Learners of this meta-analysis, who were primarily intermediate in proficiency, benefitted most from emphasis of grammatical features that were inter-phrasal (at an intermediate level of grammatical complexity). As suggested by results, both proficiency and grammatical feature type were important in determining effect size. Concerning L1, Persian learners also had higher effect sizes for the grammatical features chosen for study. Because it is an Indo-European language, Persian shares some collocations and grammatical features with English, which may facilitate transfer. Collectively, comparison of multiple variables of grammatical difficulty with input vs. output-based instruction reveals an important relationship between acquisition and pedagogy. As grammatical difficulty increases (e.g., learner proficiency is low and complexity of a grammatical feature is high), the influence of input appears stronger. This finding appears to suggest that more highly scaffolded FFI can increase efficacy as difficulty of a grammatical feature increases. More explicit forms of input were also more effective as grammatical difficulty increased, suggesting that explicit instruction serves as a scaffold. For less difficult grammatical features (e.g., learner proficiency is high and complexity of a grammatical feature is low), output enhancement appeared to result in a larger effect size. This finding appears to suggest that less of a scaffold is needed as grammatical difficulty decreases.
Through analysis of multiple factors impacting instruction, several insights concerning grammatical difficulty have been revealed, which may be used to improve the efficacy of FFI. These insights may lead to curricular reforms that help to promote the acquisition process. This research has provided a more holistic perspective for educators which may allow for critical reforms that maximize the effects of instruction.
transformational leadership preferences favored the individualistic use of technology for knowledge creation and discovery. In addition to this distinction, leadership preferences also appeared to impact expectations for communication. Whereas learners who preferred autocratic leadership styles desired using technology to connect with other students, learners who preferred democratic-transformational and transformational leadership also desired close connections with teachers via technology, reflecting expectations for more egalitarian social relationships.
Statement of Individualism or Unity? Studies in British and American
Language and Literature 135, 223-243. Within the novel Hope Leslie, by
Catharine Maria Sedgwick, there are allusions to the superiority of the Puritan
faith and Anglo-American culture. At the same time, many Puritan figures
in the story are depicted as sinful and morally corrupt, leading to a paradox
that is difficult to interpret. To add to this paradox, many characters of
other faiths or cultural traditions appear noble and sacrifice themselves
for the good of others. Simultaneous support for Anglo-American Puritan
ideals, along with unique portrayals of diverse characters, is thought by
some scholars to be Sedgwick’s attempt to promote a new American identity,
while concurrently supporting democratic individualistic ideals that promote
racial equality and feminism. Although it is true that racial and gender
stereotypes are deliberately deconstructed by the author, the underlying
purpose appears to be a religious one. Rather than demonstrating that
individualism should be celebrated, Sedgwick reveals that both sin and
righteousness exist in each cultural context, religious group, and gender.
Through such a technique, she systematically deconstructs any man-made
ideal, highlighting the unity of mankind under one Puritan God.
Price in Jane Austen’s Mansfield Park. The New Studies of English Language
& Literature 73 (2019): 205-224. Fanny Price, the protagonist of Jane Austen’s
Mansfield Park, is enigmatic. While her humility is admirable, such passive and
“flawless” characteristics are in sharp contrast to the less than perfect heroines in
prior novels. Many have interpreted these personality traits to be an ideological
manifesto, reflecting an attempt to support Anglican Evangelism. Others have argued
that she is the embodiment of an Enlightenment feminist. Still others argue that
Fanny is an insipid and vapid character, strictly adhering to rules like a wet blanket.
This paper argues that Fanny is neither meant to be characterized as perfect nor
flawed. Instead, she represents an ordinary woman who can transform society through good leadership. Her behaviors are not random, but reveal deliberate strategies to positively control the character flaw, which is externally represented by the social circle of Mansfield Park itself. Because Fanny provides very influential leadership while adhering to the social position in which she was placed, she serves as the ideal 18th-century British role model, a person who can work within the existing
patriarchal system to bring about meaningful change. (Incheon National University)
Christian “God of War” in Beowulf and Slaughterhouse Five. Studies in British
and American Language and Literature 131, 395-414. Characterizations of
God and Christianity have changed over the years, yet the political, social,
and economic processes impacting such depictions have not. Through the
ages, historical contexts continue to shape an author’s perspective, thereby
impacting portrayal of religious concepts. Because a writer’s consciousness
is molded by the environment, renderings of a sacred deity come to reflect
unique characteristics of the time in which they were written. To better examine
how depictions of God reflect this interplay between author and contemporary
contextual circumstances, two texts from radically different times of war,
Beowulf and Slaughterhouse Five, were chosen for study. While the “God of
War” in both novels includes pagan and Christian elements, the purpose for
simultaneous coverage of these concepts differs. Whereas Beowulf justifies
old pagan traditions, as well as the role of Christianity in Anglo-Saxon England,
Slaughterhouse Five uses the God of War to exemplify a psychological struggle
to comprehend the meaning of war, as well as its deadly aftermath.
African American Poetry. The New Studies of English Language & Literature 64
(2016): 143-168. African American verse differs significantly from poetry composed
in either Western or Eastern contexts. It stems, not from a longstanding written
tradition, but from a spoken tradition which has consistently evolved over time.
Originally, oral stories were used to preserve cultural traditions from the African
homeland, providing continuity amid trials and tribulations of forced relocation. To
resolve subsequent cultural, linguistic, and social barriers brought about by imposed
diversity, a common means to communicate through song and dance was developed.
Shared musical compositions allowed slaves to establish familiar linguistic structures,
gestures, and thematic content that everyone could understand, thereby facilitating
communication and cultural consolidation. Such oral media and content, along with
the sociological functions with which they were imbued, were then encoded within
African American verse. While the adoption of past cultural traditions has made
African American poetry distinctive, it is the synergistic impact of this poetry on
American society which makes the art form truly exceptional. Not only has it served
to develop the African American community, it has invoked significant responses
from white hegemonic institutions of discrimination. In an attempt to further
ascertain the sociological impact of African American verse, the following paper
investigates how characteristics of form and meaning coalesce to evoke emotion,
cultivate ethnic solidarity, and prompt social reform. (State University of New York
(SUNY): Songdo Campus)
approach cannot provide the holistic perspective needed to adapt theory to practice. Educators must understand how grammatical features can best be taught, along with when they should be emphasized. As a result of the need for more holistic inquiry, this meta-analysis has been designed to better understand the effect of factors of grammatical complexity (semantic, morphosyntactic, and phonological), proficiency, and L1 on the efficacy of both input-based and output-based instruction.
To examine multiple variables involved in assessment of grammatical difficulty, a total of 37 experimental studies were selected (19 studies having learners with the Korean L1 and 18 studies having learners with the Persian L1). Selection of learners with either the Korean or Persian L1 allowed for comparison and contrast between two different language groups. Being an Indo-European language, Persian has some key similarities to English not present in the Korean L1, which is a member of the northern Asian Altaic language group. After effect sizes were calculated, results were compared to examine the effects of type of instruction (input or output-based instruction), type of target feature, L1, and learner proficiency. To examine the significance of these variables, effect sizes were compared using non-parametric tests, since a normal distribution of scores could not be assumed from the limited number of studies. Following statistical analysis, all factors were qualitatively analyzed. This included cross referencing target feature type, L1, and learner proficiency with type of instruction (input vs. output). Analysis resulted in a more comprehensive understanding of the influence of both grammatical difficulty and instruction.
While only learner L1 revealed significant differences in effect sizes (p = .003), collective comparison of all variables suggest that they synergistically influence effect size. Learners of this meta-analysis, who were primarily intermediate in proficiency, benefitted most from emphasis of grammatical features that were inter-phrasal (at an intermediate level of grammatical complexity). As suggested by results, both proficiency and grammatical feature type were important in determining effect size. Concerning L1, Persian learners also had higher effect sizes for the grammatical features chosen for study. Because it is an Indo-European language, Persian shares some collocations and grammatical features with English, which may facilitate transfer. Collectively, comparison of multiple variables of grammatical difficulty with input vs. output-based instruction reveals an important relationship between acquisition and pedagogy. As grammatical difficulty increases (e.g., learner proficiency is low and complexity of a grammatical feature is high), the influence of input appears stronger. This finding appears to suggest that more highly scaffolded FFI can increase efficacy as difficulty of a grammatical feature increases. More explicit forms of input were also more effective as grammatical difficulty increased, suggesting that explicit instruction serves as a scaffold. For less difficult grammatical features (e.g., learner proficiency is high and complexity of a grammatical feature is low), output enhancement appeared to result in a larger effect size. This finding appears to suggest that less of a scaffold is needed as grammatical difficulty decreases.
Through analysis of multiple factors impacting instruction, several insights concerning grammatical difficulty have been revealed, which may be used to improve the efficacy of FFI. These insights may lead to curricular reforms that help to promote the acquisition process. This research has provided a more holistic perspective for educators which may allow for critical reforms that maximize the effects of instruction.
transformational leadership preferences favored the individualistic use of technology for knowledge creation and discovery. In addition to this distinction, leadership preferences also appeared to impact expectations for communication. Whereas learners who preferred autocratic leadership styles desired using technology to connect with other students, learners who preferred democratic-transformational and transformational leadership also desired close connections with teachers via technology, reflecting expectations for more egalitarian social relationships.
Statement of Individualism or Unity? Studies in British and American
Language and Literature 135, 223-243. Within the novel Hope Leslie, by
Catharine Maria Sedgwick, there are allusions to the superiority of the Puritan
faith and Anglo-American culture. At the same time, many Puritan figures
in the story are depicted as sinful and morally corrupt, leading to a paradox
that is difficult to interpret. To add to this paradox, many characters of
other faiths or cultural traditions appear noble and sacrifice themselves
for the good of others. Simultaneous support for Anglo-American Puritan
ideals, along with unique portrayals of diverse characters, is thought by
some scholars to be Sedgwick’s attempt to promote a new American identity,
while concurrently supporting democratic individualistic ideals that promote
racial equality and feminism. Although it is true that racial and gender
stereotypes are deliberately deconstructed by the author, the underlying
purpose appears to be a religious one. Rather than demonstrating that
individualism should be celebrated, Sedgwick reveals that both sin and
righteousness exist in each cultural context, religious group, and gender.
Through such a technique, she systematically deconstructs any man-made
ideal, highlighting the unity of mankind under one Puritan God.
Price in Jane Austen’s Mansfield Park. The New Studies of English Language
& Literature 73 (2019): 205-224. Fanny Price, the protagonist of Jane Austen’s
Mansfield Park, is enigmatic. While her humility is admirable, such passive and
“flawless” characteristics are in sharp contrast to the less than perfect heroines in
prior novels. Many have interpreted these personality traits to be an ideological
manifesto, reflecting an attempt to support Anglican Evangelism. Others have argued
that she is the embodiment of an Enlightenment feminist. Still others argue that
Fanny is an insipid and vapid character, strictly adhering to rules like a wet blanket.
This paper argues that Fanny is neither meant to be characterized as perfect nor
flawed. Instead, she represents an ordinary woman who can transform society through good leadership. Her behaviors are not random, but reveal deliberate strategies to positively control the character flaw, which is externally represented by the social circle of Mansfield Park itself. Because Fanny provides very influential leadership while adhering to the social position in which she was placed, she serves as the ideal 18th-century British role model, a person who can work within the existing
patriarchal system to bring about meaningful change. (Incheon National University)
Christian “God of War” in Beowulf and Slaughterhouse Five. Studies in British
and American Language and Literature 131, 395-414. Characterizations of
God and Christianity have changed over the years, yet the political, social,
and economic processes impacting such depictions have not. Through the
ages, historical contexts continue to shape an author’s perspective, thereby
impacting portrayal of religious concepts. Because a writer’s consciousness
is molded by the environment, renderings of a sacred deity come to reflect
unique characteristics of the time in which they were written. To better examine
how depictions of God reflect this interplay between author and contemporary
contextual circumstances, two texts from radically different times of war,
Beowulf and Slaughterhouse Five, were chosen for study. While the “God of
War” in both novels includes pagan and Christian elements, the purpose for
simultaneous coverage of these concepts differs. Whereas Beowulf justifies
old pagan traditions, as well as the role of Christianity in Anglo-Saxon England,
Slaughterhouse Five uses the God of War to exemplify a psychological struggle
to comprehend the meaning of war, as well as its deadly aftermath.
African American Poetry. The New Studies of English Language & Literature 64
(2016): 143-168. African American verse differs significantly from poetry composed
in either Western or Eastern contexts. It stems, not from a longstanding written
tradition, but from a spoken tradition which has consistently evolved over time.
Originally, oral stories were used to preserve cultural traditions from the African
homeland, providing continuity amid trials and tribulations of forced relocation. To
resolve subsequent cultural, linguistic, and social barriers brought about by imposed
diversity, a common means to communicate through song and dance was developed.
Shared musical compositions allowed slaves to establish familiar linguistic structures,
gestures, and thematic content that everyone could understand, thereby facilitating
communication and cultural consolidation. Such oral media and content, along with
the sociological functions with which they were imbued, were then encoded within
African American verse. While the adoption of past cultural traditions has made
African American poetry distinctive, it is the synergistic impact of this poetry on
American society which makes the art form truly exceptional. Not only has it served
to develop the African American community, it has invoked significant responses
from white hegemonic institutions of discrimination. In an attempt to further
ascertain the sociological impact of African American verse, the following paper
investigates how characteristics of form and meaning coalesce to evoke emotion,
cultivate ethnic solidarity, and prompt social reform. (State University of New York
(SUNY): Songdo Campus)