Nowadays, spider venom research focuses on the neurotoxic activity of small peptides. In this stu... more Nowadays, spider venom research focuses on the neurotoxic activity of small peptides. In this study, we investigated high-molecular-mass compounds that have either enzymatic activity or housekeeping functions present in either the venom gland or venom of Pamphobeteus verdolaga. We used proteomic and transcriptomic-assisted approaches to recognize the proteins sequences related to high-molecular-mass compounds present in either venom gland or venom. We report the amino acid sequences (partial or complete) of 45 high-molecular-mass compounds detected by transcriptomics showing similarity to other proteins with either enzymatic activity (i.e., phospholipases A2, kunitz-type, hyaluronidases, and sphingomyelinase D) or housekeeping functions involved in the signaling process, glucanotransferase function, and beta-N-acetylglucosaminidase activity. MS/MS analysis showed fragments exhibiting a resemblance similarity with different sequences detected by transcriptomics corresponding to sphin...
La malaria es una de las enfermedades parasitarias que causa mayor impacto en la salud pública en... more La malaria es una de las enfermedades parasitarias que causa mayor impacto en la salud pública en países en desarrollo. La secuenciación del genoma de Plasmodium falciparum y el desarrollo de la proteómica han permitido un gran avance en el conocimiento de la biología del parásito. La proteómica ha permitido caracterizar cualitativa y cuantitativamente la expresión de proteínas del parásito y ha proveído información de la expresión relativa de proteínas bajo condiciones de estrés como presión por antimaláricos. Dada la complejidad de su ciclo de vida, el cual se lleva a cabo en el hospedero vertebrado y el mosquito, se ha caracterizado la expresión de proteínas para cada estadio del parásito con el fin de determinar el proteoma que media diversos procesos metabólicos, fisiológicos y energéticos. Técnicas de electroforesis bidimensional, cromatografía líquida y espectrometría de masas, han sido útiles para evaluar los efectos de antimaláricos sobre la expresión de proteínas del parásito y caracterizar el proteoma de diferentes formas y organelas de P. falciparum. El propósito de esta revisión es presentar el estado del arte de los avances en proteómica aplicada al estudio de la malaria, y plantear las diferentes estrategias experimentales empleadas para el estudio del proteoma del parásito con el fin de describir las ventajas y desventajas de cada una de estas metodologías.
and participate in the pathology of various inflamma-Fibronectin, a large dimeric glycoprotein sy... more and participate in the pathology of various inflamma-Fibronectin, a large dimeric glycoprotein synthe-tory conditions [1]. PMN responses are largely regusized and secreted by several cell types, mediates cell lated by adhesion to other cell types and extracellular adherence to surfaces. In infections and inflammatory matrix proteins [2, 3]. Migration, chemotaxis, cytotoxresponses, blood polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs) icity, and phagocytosis of large particles are examples adhere to cells and matrix proteins during extravasaof adhesion-dependent PMN activities that involve intion and accumulation at inflammatory sites. The prestegrins as cell-surface adhesive receptors [4-6]. To acence of fibronectin in blood PMNs has been poorly cumulate at inflammatory loci, blood PMNs adhere studied, and the characteristics and subcellular localfirst to vascular endothelial cells, cross the vessel wall, ization of this endogenous adhesive molecule are pracand thereafter migrate in the connective tissue, entically unknown. By immunofluorescence flow cytomecountering fibronectin and other matrix proteins [2, 3]. try, purified rabbit antibodies and a monoclonal anti-Indeed, PMNs have been found to adhere to plasma body to plasma fibronectin reacted with isolated blood fibronectin by using integrin receptors [7]. PMNs also PMNs, only after permeabilization of the cells. By adhere readily to glass, nylon, or plastic surfaces in the Western blot analysis, the antibodies recognized, unabsence of serum or other exogenous proteins, although der reducing conditions, a protein with an apparent adherence may be modulated by the presence of serum molecular mass of 230 kDa in the cell lysate. Eleven or plasma [4, 6, 8]. Major advances on the molecular monoclonal antibodies to common frame fibronectin basis of leukocyte adhesion have been achieved during epitopes, including the RGD-containing cell-binding the last decade, but several determinants of PMN adhedomain, also reacted with PMN fibronectin by Western sion still remain unknown. blotting. In contrast, two antibodies to ED-A, the alter-Fibronectin is a high-molecular-weight glycoprotein natively spliced region characteristic of ''cellular'' fibronectin, were unreactive, but recognized platelet found in many extracellular matrices and in blood fibronectin. On average, 1 million PMNs contained 6.8 plasma [reviewed in 9]. It promotes cell adhesion and ng { 1.4 (SD) of fibronectin, as measured by sandwich affects cell morphology, migration, and differentiation. ELISA. Immunogold labeling and electron microscopy This molecule is composed of two similar subunits studies indicated localization of most fibronectin in bound by disulfide bridges. Each subunit is composed PMN granules. Moreover, double-immunofluorescence of three different types of internal repeats, designated and digital image analysis demonstrated colocaliza-I, II, and III, which in turn form structural and function of fibronectin with lactoferrin, a marker of spetional domains specialized for binding to cell surface cific (secondary) granules. The results indicate that integrin receptors or other extracellular matrix moleblood PMNs contain approximately 8000 molecules per cules. Different cell-type-specific fibronectin isoforms cell of intact ED-A-negative fibronectin localized arise by alternative splicing of the transcript of a single mainly in their specific granules.
PALABRAS CLAVE EXPRESIÓN DIFERENCIAL DE GENES LEISHMANIA RDA SSH INTRODUCCIÓN Y OBJETIVOS En Colo... more PALABRAS CLAVE EXPRESIÓN DIFERENCIAL DE GENES LEISHMANIA RDA SSH INTRODUCCIÓN Y OBJETIVOS En Colombia cada año se diagnostican 6.500 casos nuevos de leishmaniasis cutánea y Leishmania (Viannia) panamensis es la responsable del 95% de los casos. ...
In the search for strategies which might help in the elucidation of molecular mechanisms involved... more In the search for strategies which might help in the elucidation of molecular mechanisms involved in the red blood cell (RBC) invasion by P. falciparum merozoites, and with the specific aim of establishing whether synthetic peptides derived from selected parasite proteins bind to human RBCs, 26 different peptides were chemically synthesized and radiolabeled. It was found that the peptides could be grouped, according to their RBC-binding kinetics, into high, medium and low binding activity. A correlation was detected between the high binding activity of a peptide and the presence of either a KEK motif (or its variants LEK or KEL) or a NVXAA (where X is V or Y). Peptides with medium or low binding activities did not possess either of these two consensus sequences. Selective modification of amino acids within the KEK motif diminished their uptake or binding capacity. Competitive inhibition assays of labeled or unlabeled peptide demonstrated a correlation between the presence of KEK or ...
To determine amino acid sequences of the Plasmodium falciparum MSP-1 protein that interact with r... more To determine amino acid sequences of the Plasmodium falciparum MSP-1 protein that interact with red blood cell membranes in a specific receptor-ligand interaction, 78 sequential peptides, 20 amino acids long and spanning the entire length of the molecule, were synthesized and analysed with a specific binding assay developed for this purpose. Results show that peptides based on conserved and dimorphic regions of MSP-1, interact with human red blood cells (RBCs). This interaction occurs predominantly with peptides contained within the MSP-1 proteolytic fragments of 83 kDa, 38 kDa, 33 kDa and 19 kDa. Affinity constants of these peptides were between 140 and 250 nM. Peptide-RBC binding post enzyme treatment showed that the RBC receptors are not sialic acid dependent and appear to be proteic in nature. Some of these peptides inhibited merozoite invasion of RBCs yet did not inhibit intraerthrocytic development. These peptides, in conjunction with those from other merozoite surface proteins, may be used to rationally design a second generation of synthetic peptide-based malaria vaccines.
Bacillus thuringiensis protoxins undergo proteolytic processing in the midgut of susceptible inse... more Bacillus thuringiensis protoxins undergo proteolytic processing in the midgut of susceptible insects to become active. The ability to process the Cry11Bb1 protoxin by trypsin and Culex quinquefasciatus larval gut extracts was tested. The protease activity indicated by the appearance of proteolytic products increased with an increment in pH, with the highest activity being observed at pH 10.6. A time course study showed the proteolysis of the 94-kDa Cry11Bb protein ending with the production of fragments of relative molecular mass of 30 and 35 kDa within 5 min. In vitro, gut proteases extract cleaved the solubilized toxin between Ser 59 and Ile 60 and between Ala 395 and Asn 396 , generating a 30-kDa N-terminal and a 35-kDa C-terminal fragment, respectively. Similarly, mosquito larvae processed in vivo the parasporal inclusions, generating the same fragments as those observed in vitro. The Cry11Bb1 protoxin activated with trypsin or gut proteases showed larvicidal activity against C. quinquefasciatus first instar larvae. The data suggest that gut proteases participate in the activation of Cry11Bb1 protoxin, generating at least two different fragments on which the activity could reside.
Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 2007
The novel BTM-P1 peptide interferes with energetic processes in mitochondria; its antimicrobial a... more The novel BTM-P1 peptide interferes with energetic processes in mitochondria; its antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria is described here. BTM-P1 three-dimensional structure was determined by 1 H NMR to explain its biological mechanisms and membrane activity. Structural data indicated that BTM-P1 can form an a-helix; circular dichroism analysis confirmed the peptide's propensity to behave as a typical transmembrane helix in a lipidic environment. According to the structural characteristics of the polycationic BTM-P1 peptide so revealed, its biological activity can be explained by a mechanism involving the formation of ionpermeable channels in biomembranes.
Additional file 2: Table S1. Main characteristics in the subgroup of patients and healthy control... more Additional file 2: Table S1. Main characteristics in the subgroup of patients and healthy controls enrolled for proteomic approaches
Background: Thrombocytopenia is frequent in uncomplicated Plasmodium vivax malaria. Contribution ... more Background: Thrombocytopenia is frequent in uncomplicated Plasmodium vivax malaria. Contribution of platelets to pathogenesis is unknown and poorly understood. Our study explores the platelet proteome from uncomplicated P. vivax malaria patients to fingerprint molecular pathways in relation to platelet function. Also, plasma levels of platelet activation (Platelet factor 4 – PF4/CXCL4) and endothelial activation (Von Willebrand factor – VWf) markers, in conjunction with some in vitro interactions between platelets and P. vivax infected erythrocytes ( Pv -IEs) were measured to explore platelet responses during infection and their effect on parasite development. Methods: This study was performed in a cohort of 48 patients and 25 healthy controls. Platelets were purified from a subgroup of 5 patients and 5 healthy controls to be analyzed by LC-MS/MS. In all participants enrolled in this study, PF4/CXCL4 and VWf plasma levels were measured. Finally, a subsample of 10 P. vivax isolates w...
Background: The indigenous population is considered a highly susceptible group to malaria because... more Background: The indigenous population is considered a highly susceptible group to malaria because individuals usually live in areas with high exposure to Anopheles and poverty, and have limited access to health services. There is a great diversity of indigenous communities in Colombia living in malaria-endemic areas; however, the burden of infection in these populations has not been studied extensively. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of Plasmodium infections in indigenous and non-indigenous communities in two malaria-endemic areas in Colombia. Methods: A community-based cross-sectional survey was conducted in seven villages of Turbo and El Bagre municipalities; three of these villages were indigenous communities. Inhabitants of all ages willing to participate were included. Sociodemographic and clinical data were recorded as well as household information. The parasitological diagnosis was performed by microscopy and nested PCR. The prevalence of microscopy and submicroscopic infection was estimated. An adjusted GEE model was used to explore risk factors associated with the infection. Results: Among 713 participants, 60.7% were from indigenous communities. Plasmodium spp. was detected in 30 subjects (4.2%, CI 95% 2.9-5.9); from those, 29 were in the indigenous population, 47% of infections were afebrile, and most of them submicroscopic (10/14). Microscopic and submicroscopic prevalence was 2.5% (CI 95% 1.6-3.9) and 1.7% (CI 95% 0.9-2.9), respectively. In El Bagre, all infections occurred in indigenous participants (3.9%, CI 95% 2.2-7.1), and 81% were submicroscopic. By contrast, in Turbo, the highest prevalence occurred in indigenous people (11.5%; CI 95%: 7.3-17.5), but 88.8% were microscopic. Living in an indigenous population increased the prevalence of infection compared with a non-indigenous population (PR 19.4; CI 95% 2.3-166.7). Conclusion: There is a high proportion of Plasmodium infection in indigenous communities. A substantial proportion of asymptomatic and submicroscopic carriers were detected. The identification of these infections, not only in indigenous but also in the non-indigenous population, as well as their associated factors, could help to implement specific malaria strategies for each context.
Nowadays, spider venom research focuses on the neurotoxic activity of small peptides. In this stu... more Nowadays, spider venom research focuses on the neurotoxic activity of small peptides. In this study, we investigated high-molecular-mass compounds that have either enzymatic activity or housekeeping functions present in either the venom gland or venom of Pamphobeteus verdolaga. We used proteomic and transcriptomic-assisted approaches to recognize the proteins sequences related to high-molecular-mass compounds present in either venom gland or venom. We report the amino acid sequences (partial or complete) of 45 high-molecular-mass compounds detected by transcriptomics showing similarity to other proteins with either enzymatic activity (i.e., phospholipases A2, kunitz-type, hyaluronidases, and sphingomyelinase D) or housekeeping functions involved in the signaling process, glucanotransferase function, and beta-N-acetylglucosaminidase activity. MS/MS analysis showed fragments exhibiting a resemblance similarity with different sequences detected by transcriptomics corresponding to sphin...
La malaria es una de las enfermedades parasitarias que causa mayor impacto en la salud pública en... more La malaria es una de las enfermedades parasitarias que causa mayor impacto en la salud pública en países en desarrollo. La secuenciación del genoma de Plasmodium falciparum y el desarrollo de la proteómica han permitido un gran avance en el conocimiento de la biología del parásito. La proteómica ha permitido caracterizar cualitativa y cuantitativamente la expresión de proteínas del parásito y ha proveído información de la expresión relativa de proteínas bajo condiciones de estrés como presión por antimaláricos. Dada la complejidad de su ciclo de vida, el cual se lleva a cabo en el hospedero vertebrado y el mosquito, se ha caracterizado la expresión de proteínas para cada estadio del parásito con el fin de determinar el proteoma que media diversos procesos metabólicos, fisiológicos y energéticos. Técnicas de electroforesis bidimensional, cromatografía líquida y espectrometría de masas, han sido útiles para evaluar los efectos de antimaláricos sobre la expresión de proteínas del parásito y caracterizar el proteoma de diferentes formas y organelas de P. falciparum. El propósito de esta revisión es presentar el estado del arte de los avances en proteómica aplicada al estudio de la malaria, y plantear las diferentes estrategias experimentales empleadas para el estudio del proteoma del parásito con el fin de describir las ventajas y desventajas de cada una de estas metodologías.
and participate in the pathology of various inflamma-Fibronectin, a large dimeric glycoprotein sy... more and participate in the pathology of various inflamma-Fibronectin, a large dimeric glycoprotein synthe-tory conditions [1]. PMN responses are largely regusized and secreted by several cell types, mediates cell lated by adhesion to other cell types and extracellular adherence to surfaces. In infections and inflammatory matrix proteins [2, 3]. Migration, chemotaxis, cytotoxresponses, blood polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs) icity, and phagocytosis of large particles are examples adhere to cells and matrix proteins during extravasaof adhesion-dependent PMN activities that involve intion and accumulation at inflammatory sites. The prestegrins as cell-surface adhesive receptors [4-6]. To acence of fibronectin in blood PMNs has been poorly cumulate at inflammatory loci, blood PMNs adhere studied, and the characteristics and subcellular localfirst to vascular endothelial cells, cross the vessel wall, ization of this endogenous adhesive molecule are pracand thereafter migrate in the connective tissue, entically unknown. By immunofluorescence flow cytomecountering fibronectin and other matrix proteins [2, 3]. try, purified rabbit antibodies and a monoclonal anti-Indeed, PMNs have been found to adhere to plasma body to plasma fibronectin reacted with isolated blood fibronectin by using integrin receptors [7]. PMNs also PMNs, only after permeabilization of the cells. By adhere readily to glass, nylon, or plastic surfaces in the Western blot analysis, the antibodies recognized, unabsence of serum or other exogenous proteins, although der reducing conditions, a protein with an apparent adherence may be modulated by the presence of serum molecular mass of 230 kDa in the cell lysate. Eleven or plasma [4, 6, 8]. Major advances on the molecular monoclonal antibodies to common frame fibronectin basis of leukocyte adhesion have been achieved during epitopes, including the RGD-containing cell-binding the last decade, but several determinants of PMN adhedomain, also reacted with PMN fibronectin by Western sion still remain unknown. blotting. In contrast, two antibodies to ED-A, the alter-Fibronectin is a high-molecular-weight glycoprotein natively spliced region characteristic of ''cellular'' fibronectin, were unreactive, but recognized platelet found in many extracellular matrices and in blood fibronectin. On average, 1 million PMNs contained 6.8 plasma [reviewed in 9]. It promotes cell adhesion and ng { 1.4 (SD) of fibronectin, as measured by sandwich affects cell morphology, migration, and differentiation. ELISA. Immunogold labeling and electron microscopy This molecule is composed of two similar subunits studies indicated localization of most fibronectin in bound by disulfide bridges. Each subunit is composed PMN granules. Moreover, double-immunofluorescence of three different types of internal repeats, designated and digital image analysis demonstrated colocaliza-I, II, and III, which in turn form structural and function of fibronectin with lactoferrin, a marker of spetional domains specialized for binding to cell surface cific (secondary) granules. The results indicate that integrin receptors or other extracellular matrix moleblood PMNs contain approximately 8000 molecules per cules. Different cell-type-specific fibronectin isoforms cell of intact ED-A-negative fibronectin localized arise by alternative splicing of the transcript of a single mainly in their specific granules.
PALABRAS CLAVE EXPRESIÓN DIFERENCIAL DE GENES LEISHMANIA RDA SSH INTRODUCCIÓN Y OBJETIVOS En Colo... more PALABRAS CLAVE EXPRESIÓN DIFERENCIAL DE GENES LEISHMANIA RDA SSH INTRODUCCIÓN Y OBJETIVOS En Colombia cada año se diagnostican 6.500 casos nuevos de leishmaniasis cutánea y Leishmania (Viannia) panamensis es la responsable del 95% de los casos. ...
In the search for strategies which might help in the elucidation of molecular mechanisms involved... more In the search for strategies which might help in the elucidation of molecular mechanisms involved in the red blood cell (RBC) invasion by P. falciparum merozoites, and with the specific aim of establishing whether synthetic peptides derived from selected parasite proteins bind to human RBCs, 26 different peptides were chemically synthesized and radiolabeled. It was found that the peptides could be grouped, according to their RBC-binding kinetics, into high, medium and low binding activity. A correlation was detected between the high binding activity of a peptide and the presence of either a KEK motif (or its variants LEK or KEL) or a NVXAA (where X is V or Y). Peptides with medium or low binding activities did not possess either of these two consensus sequences. Selective modification of amino acids within the KEK motif diminished their uptake or binding capacity. Competitive inhibition assays of labeled or unlabeled peptide demonstrated a correlation between the presence of KEK or ...
To determine amino acid sequences of the Plasmodium falciparum MSP-1 protein that interact with r... more To determine amino acid sequences of the Plasmodium falciparum MSP-1 protein that interact with red blood cell membranes in a specific receptor-ligand interaction, 78 sequential peptides, 20 amino acids long and spanning the entire length of the molecule, were synthesized and analysed with a specific binding assay developed for this purpose. Results show that peptides based on conserved and dimorphic regions of MSP-1, interact with human red blood cells (RBCs). This interaction occurs predominantly with peptides contained within the MSP-1 proteolytic fragments of 83 kDa, 38 kDa, 33 kDa and 19 kDa. Affinity constants of these peptides were between 140 and 250 nM. Peptide-RBC binding post enzyme treatment showed that the RBC receptors are not sialic acid dependent and appear to be proteic in nature. Some of these peptides inhibited merozoite invasion of RBCs yet did not inhibit intraerthrocytic development. These peptides, in conjunction with those from other merozoite surface proteins, may be used to rationally design a second generation of synthetic peptide-based malaria vaccines.
Bacillus thuringiensis protoxins undergo proteolytic processing in the midgut of susceptible inse... more Bacillus thuringiensis protoxins undergo proteolytic processing in the midgut of susceptible insects to become active. The ability to process the Cry11Bb1 protoxin by trypsin and Culex quinquefasciatus larval gut extracts was tested. The protease activity indicated by the appearance of proteolytic products increased with an increment in pH, with the highest activity being observed at pH 10.6. A time course study showed the proteolysis of the 94-kDa Cry11Bb protein ending with the production of fragments of relative molecular mass of 30 and 35 kDa within 5 min. In vitro, gut proteases extract cleaved the solubilized toxin between Ser 59 and Ile 60 and between Ala 395 and Asn 396 , generating a 30-kDa N-terminal and a 35-kDa C-terminal fragment, respectively. Similarly, mosquito larvae processed in vivo the parasporal inclusions, generating the same fragments as those observed in vitro. The Cry11Bb1 protoxin activated with trypsin or gut proteases showed larvicidal activity against C. quinquefasciatus first instar larvae. The data suggest that gut proteases participate in the activation of Cry11Bb1 protoxin, generating at least two different fragments on which the activity could reside.
Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 2007
The novel BTM-P1 peptide interferes with energetic processes in mitochondria; its antimicrobial a... more The novel BTM-P1 peptide interferes with energetic processes in mitochondria; its antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria is described here. BTM-P1 three-dimensional structure was determined by 1 H NMR to explain its biological mechanisms and membrane activity. Structural data indicated that BTM-P1 can form an a-helix; circular dichroism analysis confirmed the peptide's propensity to behave as a typical transmembrane helix in a lipidic environment. According to the structural characteristics of the polycationic BTM-P1 peptide so revealed, its biological activity can be explained by a mechanism involving the formation of ionpermeable channels in biomembranes.
Additional file 2: Table S1. Main characteristics in the subgroup of patients and healthy control... more Additional file 2: Table S1. Main characteristics in the subgroup of patients and healthy controls enrolled for proteomic approaches
Background: Thrombocytopenia is frequent in uncomplicated Plasmodium vivax malaria. Contribution ... more Background: Thrombocytopenia is frequent in uncomplicated Plasmodium vivax malaria. Contribution of platelets to pathogenesis is unknown and poorly understood. Our study explores the platelet proteome from uncomplicated P. vivax malaria patients to fingerprint molecular pathways in relation to platelet function. Also, plasma levels of platelet activation (Platelet factor 4 – PF4/CXCL4) and endothelial activation (Von Willebrand factor – VWf) markers, in conjunction with some in vitro interactions between platelets and P. vivax infected erythrocytes ( Pv -IEs) were measured to explore platelet responses during infection and their effect on parasite development. Methods: This study was performed in a cohort of 48 patients and 25 healthy controls. Platelets were purified from a subgroup of 5 patients and 5 healthy controls to be analyzed by LC-MS/MS. In all participants enrolled in this study, PF4/CXCL4 and VWf plasma levels were measured. Finally, a subsample of 10 P. vivax isolates w...
Background: The indigenous population is considered a highly susceptible group to malaria because... more Background: The indigenous population is considered a highly susceptible group to malaria because individuals usually live in areas with high exposure to Anopheles and poverty, and have limited access to health services. There is a great diversity of indigenous communities in Colombia living in malaria-endemic areas; however, the burden of infection in these populations has not been studied extensively. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of Plasmodium infections in indigenous and non-indigenous communities in two malaria-endemic areas in Colombia. Methods: A community-based cross-sectional survey was conducted in seven villages of Turbo and El Bagre municipalities; three of these villages were indigenous communities. Inhabitants of all ages willing to participate were included. Sociodemographic and clinical data were recorded as well as household information. The parasitological diagnosis was performed by microscopy and nested PCR. The prevalence of microscopy and submicroscopic infection was estimated. An adjusted GEE model was used to explore risk factors associated with the infection. Results: Among 713 participants, 60.7% were from indigenous communities. Plasmodium spp. was detected in 30 subjects (4.2%, CI 95% 2.9-5.9); from those, 29 were in the indigenous population, 47% of infections were afebrile, and most of them submicroscopic (10/14). Microscopic and submicroscopic prevalence was 2.5% (CI 95% 1.6-3.9) and 1.7% (CI 95% 0.9-2.9), respectively. In El Bagre, all infections occurred in indigenous participants (3.9%, CI 95% 2.2-7.1), and 81% were submicroscopic. By contrast, in Turbo, the highest prevalence occurred in indigenous people (11.5%; CI 95%: 7.3-17.5), but 88.8% were microscopic. Living in an indigenous population increased the prevalence of infection compared with a non-indigenous population (PR 19.4; CI 95% 2.3-166.7). Conclusion: There is a high proportion of Plasmodium infection in indigenous communities. A substantial proportion of asymptomatic and submicroscopic carriers were detected. The identification of these infections, not only in indigenous but also in the non-indigenous population, as well as their associated factors, could help to implement specific malaria strategies for each context.
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