Transpiracion 06
Transpiracion 06
Transpiracion 06
CIENCIAS MARINAS
t.;ENTKO TN’~‘~:~DIS~~~!,INAKIO DE
CICIMAR
-ARIA
DE 1. P. N.
mxJcAaON PUBUCA DONATIVO
T E S I S
QUE PARA OBTENER EL GRADO DE
MAESTRO EN CIENCIAS MARINAS
PRESENTA EL BIÓLOGO MARINO
B
1. P. No
DONATIVO
CONCLUSIONES . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .._............_..........U.................._~......~~~“..~~~..~~.................. 55
RECOMENDACIONES .U........U................................”..........“..........“-~~~----..-“..........-.. 56
LITERATURA CITADA..U”“....................~............”..........~~........U..~~~..“~~~-~....~......~.. 60
ANEXOS. . ..~__~................“......................~............................~........_..~~““..”....~................... 68
Distinciones recibidas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
‘
- -1. ._ -., ._
V
LPP-B: Cianobacterias filamentosas sin beterocistos, con tricomas rectos, con células
cilíndricas, similares a los generos Lvnrbva, Plectonema o Phormidium (Rippka gtaJ 1979).
terrestre. La parte mas conspicua del manglar es el desarrollo de los arboles de mangle.
h&ngle: Nombre generico que reciben plantas superiores arboriformes que crecen en las
Microscopía eIec!rónica de barrido: T6cnica utilizada para observar con un gran poder de
Raíz secudaria: Raíz producida por el mangie negro, creciendo de manera perpendicular
ix
Sputter coater o ‘recubridor de oro por cborro’: Aparato utilizado para rwubrk h.s
muestras uo conductoras de electricidad (tales como raíces de maugle) cou uua capa de oro,
forma de anillo y una hhiua de oro la cual al aplicar un vacío e inyectar argón se ionh
Vacuum evaporador o ‘evaporddor de vacio’: Aparato utilizado para recubrir las muestraz
Sputter coater, pero en este caso el recubrimiento se lleva a cabo por el movimiento de
producida por uua resistencia sobre la cual se coloca un trozo de metal a manera dlïr UIZ.
cianobacterias filamentosas puede estar recubiertas cada filamento por una vaina, y adem&s
x
RESUMEN
En la laguna de Balandr- se evaluo la fijación de nitrógeno sobre raíces aéreas
Oscillatoria sp. La zona centrdl fue colonizada por filamentos semejantes a Microcoleus sp.
y la parte superior por cianobacterias cocoidales del género Anhanothece sp. y a@mas
densamente colonizadas.
durante invierno e incrementandose a principios del verano, y alcanzó sus niveles máximos
a la mitad del verano. En los ciclos diurnos, mostrr’, dos picos, uno en la mañana. durando
hasta medio dia. y el segundo durdnte la tarde. mientras que los niveles más bajos se
xi
secundario en esta regulación. En el presente trabajo se propone que las poblacia%mes de
xii
ABSTRACT
Nitrogen fixation and colonization by associative cyanobacteria in aerial roots
(pneumatophores) of black mangrove trees was evaiuated in sitn at &&tndra lagoon, Baja
California Sur, Mexico for 18 consecutive months. During this period, year round zonation
of cyanobacterial colonization was determined along the pneumatophores. The bottom par-t,
resembling Lvnrbva sp. and Oscillatoria sp. The central zone was colonized mainly by
tilaments resembling Microcoleus sp. and the upper par-t by coccoidal cyanobacteria within
defmed colonies resembhng Anhanothece sp. mixed with fílamentous cyanobacteria. All the
the pneumatophore was evident throughout the observation period. The surround ing
sediment was seasonaly dominated by heterocystous Anabaena sp. Glass and dead-wood
surfaces incubated for 18 months in the pneumatophore vicinity showed no zonation in the
colonization pattern, although they were heavily colonized toa. In situ N,-fwation followed
seasonal and diurna1 patterns. N,-tixation was low during winter, increased in early
summer, and reached its peak in mid summer. Diumal N,-ftxation in the summer showed
two peaks; one in the moming until mid-day and the second in the late afternoon. NI-
tixation was at its lowest levels during the mid-night. Light and water-temperature, together
with oxygen as a secondary factor? are probably the main environmental factors governing
cyanobacteria colonizing the pneumatophores are associated with N,-fixing activity in this
...
XUl
microenvironment . Two cyanobacterial strains isolated from the pneumatophore were
effícient diazotrophs. To measure the nitrogen fixation in vitre, one strdin of the frlamentons
cyanobacterid Microcoleus sp. was isolated from black mangrove pneumatophores and
inoculated onto young mangrove plantlets to follow root colonization. N,-fixation (acetylene
reduction) grdduahy increased with time and reach its peak 5 days after inoculation. Later,
it decreased sharply. The leve1 of N,-fmation in the presente of plantlets was significant~y
higher than the amount of nitrogen futed by a similar quantity of cyanobacteria in N-frec:
growth medium. T h e main feature of the root colonization pattern was a gradtrxf
production increased with time until it completely covered the entire root systen~ af t.hcl
plantlet. The sheath also allowed in-and-out movement of tilaments towards the uncolortized
xiv
INTRODUCCIÓ N
Una gran parte de las lagunas costeras en los trópicos y subtrópicos presentan densos
manglares, los cuales son zonas consideradas entre las mas productivas en el ambiente
marino. Estos manglares sostienen a una gran comunidad de plantas y animales, muchas
de las cuales son económica y ecológicamente importantes (Jones, 1992; Bunt, 1992).
los eubalinos-metahalinos (o de fondos duros) (Por, 1984). Los manglares de Baja California
Sur, corresponden al tipo metahalino, y presentan arboles tipo arbustivo (de tamaño
compuesta de tres especies de plantas; el mangle rojo (Rhizouhora mangle L.), el mangle
blanco (Laeuncularia racemosa Caertn.) y el mangle negro (Avicennia cerminans (L.) Stern)
manglares con la distribución mas hacia el Norte en el hemisferio. No obstante que ambos
lugares presentan las mismas especies de plantas, no comparten las mismas condiciones
1
en Baja California Sur, se asemejan más a los manglares de la península del Siaai cu
Debido a las condiciones de sequía que prevalecen en La Paz, Baja California Sr.u-,
con promedios anuales de 181.5 mm de 1906 a 1988 (Salinas y Leyva, 1988) el aporte
continental o por lluvias es casi nulo, lo que origina que la concentración de compuestos
nitrogenados sea baja. En Balandra, encontramos que los sedimentos presentan un 0.04l 5%
manglares de las zonas tropicales, sin embargo, la zona de manglar de Balandrd no mwstr;i
señales de deficiencia de nitrógeno, esta densamente poblado por mangles y debe ser
resultando en una interacción mutualista, tal y como ha sido observada para otros sistemas.
2
1984). hrdnte el proceso de colonización, ocurren cambios en la hidrofobicidad de las
membrdnas, de hidrofilica a hidrofóbica, lo que resulta en una mejor adhesión (Shilo. 1989).
ANTECEDENTES
Fijaci6n de nitr6geno en manglares_
Silver, (1974; 1978) y ha sido documentada también para otras localidades (Potts, 1984;
Hicks y Silvester, 1985; van der Valk y Attiwill, 1984), no obstante, en raras ocasiones se
_ 1992). Para el caso de las cianobacterias, la única información disponible son los trabajos
muchos factores bióticos (Potts, 1979) y abióticos (Sheridan, 1991). Dentro de los factores
manglares (Alongi et 1992; Bohlool y Wiehe, 1978; Gotto y Taylor, 1976; Jones. 1992;
Potts, 1979; Potts y Whitton. 1980) y marismas (Griffiths et 1987). Los factores bióticos
así como su distribución en el ecosistema. Algunas bacterias fijadoras de nitnígeno han sido
(Gotto y Taylor, 1976; Hussain y Khoja. 1993). Entre las cianobacterias presentes en los
3
tapetes microbianos existen algunas que se encuentran ampliamente distribuidas, COIUO
ejemplo, tenemos a Microcoleus sp., Lvnebva sp., y Oscillatoria sp., mientras que por otro
lado existen cianobacterias que son endémicas de ciertos lugares. Algunos sitios presentarr
ademas una dominancia de especies con beterocistos (Potts, 1979), mientras que otros
presentan una dominancid de especies sin heterocistos como en Carolina del Norte, USA
sido estudiados para desarrollar posibles inoculaciones con agentes de biocontroli poc-
JIJSTIF’ICACIÓ N
Fijación de IIitrIjgeno.
Las raices aereas (pneumatóforos) del mangle negro (Avicennia remrinans) son
que prevalece en los sedimentos del manglar (Dawes, 1981). Durante los ciclos de marea
4
estas raíces quedan eventualmente inundadas con agua de mar, pudiendo ser colonizadas
por organismos marinos (Por, 1984). Sin embargo, existe muy poca información referente
negro y en raíces ahas de mangle rojo, la colonización puede seguir una zonación, es
del pneumatóforo. Las raíces de mangle negro son colonizadas en mayor grado que las de
mangle rojo debido a que existe una mayor producción de exudados de raíz (Zuberer y
conteniendo varios filamentos en una vaina común, las cuales se pueden adherir a
superficies por medio de la vaina. Los pneumatóforos de mangle negro en Balandra son un
estas dos especies que cohabitan en el mismo ecosistema y nos permitirá además conocer
reweseManunavíadeentradadenitrógeooo~dmanelar.”
raícesde mandenem-o
OBJETIVO
Evaluar la fijación de nitrógeno de cianobacterias asociadas a raíces de t~-i.rangEe
negro.
cultivadas en el laboratorio
d) Evaluar las tasas de fijación de nitrógeno en plántulas inoculadas con la cittnobri.c[ei ic,
Microcoleus sp.
Á REA DE ESTUDIO
El bosque de manglar donde se realizaron los experimentos, y de donde se aislaron
6
\ E.UA
Golfo de MÉXICO
GoIfo
--
de
‘., ,
Caltfomta
,’ I-
lr
! k_/-\
N
24’2O’N k
ALaPaz
25 Km
Fiera 1. Localización exacta del sitio de muestreo en Balandra, Baja California Sur.
México.
7
-TERIAL Y MÉTODO
FIJACIÓ N DE NITRCkENO IN SITU
1992, mayo y junio de 1993 y febrero de 1994. El tamaño de muestra fue seleccbc~rh d(‘:
acuerdo al número de observaciones que se realizaron sobre cada pneumatóforo, d~rrde UÍT
laboratorio en tubos de ensayo estériles con tapón de rosca. La superficie del pneumat6Ta~o
la corteza de cada parte del pneumatóforo (parte baja, media y alta). Cada musìstrx fu::
corterA del pneumatóforo en agar sólido (1_2% p/v) en medio ASN-III. La composición del
8
Nd3 25,
MgC1,6H,O 2,
KCI 0.5,
NaNO, 0.75,
&HPO, 0.02,
MgSO,*7H,O 3.5,
CaCI,*2H20 ” 0.5,
Na,CO, 0.02,
citrato de sodiw2H10 3, ”
Na,-EDTA 0.5, ”
WO, 2.86, ”
MnCl,ulH,O 1.81, u
ZnSO,*7H,O 0.222, ”
N+MoO,-2H20 039, ”
CuS0;5Hz0 0.079, tl
Co(N0,),6H,O 0.0494, ”
(Rippka et 1979) adicionado con 50 ~6 mi-’ de cicloheximida (Aldrich. USA) para inhibir
9
El desarroilo de tapetes microbianos en Baja California Sur está asociado también
filamentos de cianobacterias se siguió el método descrito por Sta1 y Krumbein, (1985’) como
sigue: se colocó una superficie de 1 cm’ de corteza de pneumatóforo en una caja de p&ri
conteniendo medio sólido ASN-III y se incubó durante siete dias. Los fuame&x
estereoscópico mediante una pipeta pasteur estéril con la punta en forma de capilar. I,ur
filamentos fueron colocados en una caja de petri con medio fresco e incubados nuevawxte
durante 10 dias más. Las condiciones de cultivo fueron: 22 *lo C, 50 pmol mm2 s“ en
puras, ya que el deslizamiento de los filamentos de las cianobacterias en el medio d.e cuEC~ve
es mas rapido que la colonización de bacterias, lo que resulta en que Ias células de iz
cianobacterias hacia donde se dirige el movimiento se encuentren con una cantidad me~3r’
aisladas fueron mantenidas en ASN-III en agar inclinado durante tres meses. Para evaEuar
la capacidad de tijación de nitrógeno las cepas fueron resembradas en medio ASN-III sira
10
clasifican posteriormente en tipo A o tipo B de acuerdo a la forma celular, ya sea discoidal
o cilíndrica respectivamente.
. .
Balandrk
de tubos de ensaye con tapón de rosca de 30 ml. La parte superior se selló herméticamente
con un septo de huie debajo de la tapa de rosca original. Las tapas de rosca se perforaron
en el centro para tomar las muestras con una jeringa de 1 mI_ Los tubos de ensaye fueron
la raiz. Posteriormente, el látex se cubrió con varias capas de parafilm, y finalmente con
una capa de cinta adhesiva resistente al agua. Se colocaron 2 guías de alambrón a cada lado
del dispositivo, y fue sellado nuevamente para mantenerlos completamente erectos y evitar
se fle,xionaran por acción de las olas o mareas. Los sistemas fueron revisados por medio de
dispositivos que fueron cortados con el pneumatóforo colocado, y sumergidos en una tina
posibles fugas.
ll
horificio
\
tapón de rosca
t;ub ro de 30 ml
I
septo de hule
aír -e + 8% aceti
alambrón
I
2 capas de lat ex
1 capa de para film
1 capa de cint a
adhesiva
S edimento
/
pneuma-tóforo coloni zado
ralz radial por cianobacteri as
nitrógeno en pneumatóforos intactos en el campo. Para mayor claridad las partes del
12
La tijación de nitrógeno fue evaluada en el campo al reemplazar 1 ml de aire por
en las grkficas) durante las siguientes 24 horas. Las muestras de gas fueron almacenadas
incubados en tubos de ensaye con el mismo sistema de sellado en la boca, pero con el fondo
intacto. Los controles negativos (sin actividad de nitrogenasa) fueron obtenidos al colocar
con el cual se desinfectó la superficie. Para los pneumatóforos intactos (colocados en los
tales como: incubación en la oscuridad (cubriendo los tubos con papel aluminio), adición
cortados fue comparada por medio de un analisis de varian& de una vía (ANOVA) para
por lo tanto alterar la lectura de la actividad de nitrogenasa. Los resultados del AYOVA
mostraron que no existió una diferencia significativa entre ambos tratamientos (P<O.349)
13
ekctrthica de barrido fue de la misma manera que se describió para las observaciones h
$tJ.
Los experimentos se repitieron 5 veces, cada vez con 8 rkplicas. Cada rkplica
21
RESULTADOS
FIJACIÓN DE NITRÓGENO IN SPl’U.
. . *
Aslammh e i&ntifiin de chanobacterias
año por filamentos sin beterocistos pertenecientes a los morfotipos LPP-A, similares 2 los
Micrucoi~~r!r
géneros Lvngbva sp. y Oscillatoria sp. y por los morfotipos LPP-B similar a -, i
SP-
filamentos únicamente con celulas vegetativas, tricomas rectos, móviles y envueltos puré UJI;{
vaina común. Los filamentos mostraron células cilíndricas, y las células apicales err, fcr IlIir
Microcoleus sp. cepa ATCC 29128 (Rippka et 1979). La segunda cepa, presentó eélrrlrìs
midiendo 5 urn por 3 Pm. Los tricomas fueron inmóviles y su apariencia fue similar- 3.
Anabaena cvlindrica cepa ATCC 27899 (Rippka et 1979). Ambas cepas fueron fi.ja~dot-zs
de nitrcígeno mostrdndo una actividad diazotrofica similar en cultivo ( 109 nmoles de etileno
22
Cohmizkón de cianobacterias sobre pneumahíforos de mangle negro.
óptico y con bajo aumento encontramos también pequeños organismos marinos como
nemátodos. Las cianobacterias mostraron una preferencia en los sitios que colonizaron en
en la parte baja de los pneumatóforos, y hasta una altura de 3 cm a partir del sedimento
(Figura 3 y Figura 4 A,B). En la zona comprendida entre los 3 y los 10 cm (parte media)
el organismo dominante fue Microcoleus sp. (Figura 3 y Figura 4 C,D). En la parte superior
durante todo el año. Sin embargo, en febrero de 1993 estas colonias cocoidales se tornaron
más abundantes (Figura 3). Las colonias varían en tamaño desde 16 Pm (Figura 5 C) hasta
mucilaginosa común (Figura 5 D,F). La mayoría de los organismos en esta &-ea presentan
una vaina bien desarrollada (Figura 5 E). Los límites de las reas de zonación fluctúan
ligeramente con las estaciones del año. pero la estructura de la zonación permaneció
23
mucilaginosa (Figura 6 B,C la confirmación de la presencia de los cloroplastos en las algas
verdes se realizó por medio de microscopia óptica). Filamentos tipo LPP-A y LPP- R SC’
presentaron en muy baja frecuencia (Figura 6 A). Algunas areas no mostraron coloni~&n
colonización sobre los pneumatóforos, los cuales estuvieron completamente cubiertos coro
superficies de vidrio fueron también muy diversas. Las superficies de madera keron
colonizadas del sedimento hasta la parte más alta por cianobacterias cocoidalec y
filamentosas del grupo LPP-B. Al igual que las superficies de vidrio, éstas no mostraron ULI
patrón específico de colonización, sin embargo, los organismos que CoLonizaron %DI!jö::
biofùms que cambiaron su composición específica con la época del año. Así en noviemF:re
de l!W2 el sedimento fue dominado por la cianobacteria Anabaena sp. mientras que WI el
embargo. se presentaron también los picos caracteristicos de la clorofila b a 460 y 640 mn.
aunque las concentraciones fueron menores respecto a la clorofila a Estos pigmentos åekrr
(Figura 8).
Pneumatóforo
Aphano thece sp.
OscíTTatoria sp..
Rafz radial
-
envueltos por una vaina común (s). Filamentos de Lvuabva sp. envueltos por una gruesa
vaina (s).
25
Figura 4. (A) Microscopia
mostrando la cianobacteria
mayor magnificación,
mostrando agregados de
beterotróficas y cianobacterias
pneumatóforo mostrando
representa 1 0 Pm.
Abreviaciones: a-Anabaena; b-
bacteria; m-Microcoleus; o-
Oscillatoria; s-vainas.
26
Figura 5. Microscopía electrónica de barrido (SEM) de la parte alta del pneumatóforo. (A)
Colonias cocoidales pequeñas (D) Colonias cocoidales grandes. (B) Detalle de la figura 5 A
27
posible sitio de liberwión. Las barras representan 10 prn (A,B,C,E) y 100 pm (D).
28
29
Figura 6 (A,B) Microscopia electrónica de barrido (SEM) de la colonización sobre
30
Figura 7. Colonización en los
en noviembre de 1992,
mostrando exclusivamente
sp. Las barras representan (A) 100 Pm (B,C) 10 Pm. Abreviaciones; a-Anabaena; d-
diatomea; s-vainas.
31
1.5
A
b
s 1.0,
0
r
b
a
” 0.5
C
i
a
0 -
430 Longitud de onda (nm) “
’
pneumatóforos. Las flechas muestran los picos característicos de la clorofila 3. Los picos
32
Fijación de nitrógem in situ en pneumat6foros
niveles menores que para primavera (mayo 1993) y alcanzó sus máximos valores en verdno
que si existen diferencias significativas (Figura 9). Los cambios diurnos en la fijación de
embargo, durante las mediciones de verano cuando se registraron los valores mas altos de
actividad, la variación diurna fue evidente. Se registraron dos picos de nnkima actividad,
el primero en las primeras hords de la mañana hasta mediodía, y el segundo en las últimas
fijacii,n de nitrógeno estuvo posiblemente asociada con la intensidad luminosa y con altas
33
la temperatura, pero en menor grado. En cuanto al efecto del oxígeno disuelto, se o&wrvíf
las bajas concentraciones de oxígeno disuelto observadas durante los muestreos de inviwno
todos los muestreos, registrándose variaciones estacionales, en tanto que las vari~&w~
diurnas fueron casi nulas (Figura 12 A,C,D) sin embargo una variación consid~~~bE~-~
valores de pH. Esta variación es dificil de explicar en términos de las condiciones fkko-
químicas del agua o de actividad microbiana y puede mas bien ser originada por a/g-hr;r
34
3 -
-
._ /
c
0 ._
;
L
c ! .LOQ
200
durante periodos de 24 horas. Cada periodo compuesto de 8 mediciones separadas (total 320
mediciones) a través del año. Las columnas con diferentes letras muestran diferencias
35
80 -
60 -
40 -
0
A 12 16 20 24 04 08 12 12 16 20 24 04 08 12
día--><-noche-><-día día-><-noche-><--día
(d
& Noviembre 1993 Febrero 1994
100 -
iT
8oI
80- i,-
60 -
i 40 20 60 - /”\/ 0 0 \ 40 -
20 -
\o
0 0 - m--a-u-C--m+
O-m-m-MA
-
I I I I I l I I , , , , , , , /
20 12 20 0 4 12
E
c 12 04 12
día--><-noche-><--día día-><---noche---><-día
Figura 10. Fijación de nitrógeno en ciclos diurnos a lo largo del año, Cl-fijación de nitrógeno; Ccontro:
36
-
- 35 - 2000: 40 l l I I 7 l i , 2000
0 A B 0
3 5
.o I 1500
a
30 - -
1500 1 -
.Y
: 30- 1
25 - 1000
0 1000 z5 _
0
0 500
20 - 0
0 500 2 0 -
0
15 - 0
0 : 15-
0 OO 0.
I 1-1 I I I
12 16 20 24 04 08 12 I 12 16 20 24 04 08 12
día--><-noche-><-día día-><-noche-><-día
l
Noviembre 1993 Febrero 1994
35 I I I I I / I 2000 1 35 ZGOO
30 1500 30 1500
25 1000 25
1000
i
20 500 ) 20
500
15 0 15
0
10 : I I I I 1 1 I 10
12 20 04 12 12 20 0 4 12
día--><-noche-><--día día-><---noche---><-día
Fig. ll. Intensidad luminosa y temperatura registradas simultáneamente a las mediciones de fijación de
nitrógeno. Las lineas continuas representan regresiones de tercer orden cuyos coeficientes de correlación son:
37
- 6
0 I I / I I I 5 l I I I I I
5
I
12 16 20 24 04 08 12 12 16 20 24 04 08 12 l
d í a - > ‘< - n o c h e - > < - d í a
día--><-noche-><-día
Noviembre 1993 Febrero 1994 /
1I /
~ 4- 4 -
I / I I I 1 l 6 2 I , I I I I I 1 I 6
12 20 04 12 12 20 0 4 12
día--><-noche-><--día día-><---noche---><-día
I Mayo 1993 Junio 1993
Fig. 12. Concentración de oxígeno disuelto y pH del agua en las proximidades de los pneumatóforos, registrado
simultáneamente a las mediciones de fijación de nitrógeno. Las lineas continuas representan regresiones de terce
38
INTERACCIONES ENTRE MANGLE NEGRO Y Microcoleus IN VITRO
fueron inoculadas con cianobacterias durante los primeros 5 dias del experimento. A
cianobacterias fue visiblemente mayor en las plántulas inoculadas en comparxión con las
variaciones, las cuales al ser analizadas estadísticamente (ANOVA) 110 mostraron diferencias
de la raíz. aunque existieron sitios preferidos por las cianobacterias pata establecer colonias.
tales como la zona de elongack’m de la raíz. en lugares donde emergen raíces secundarias
pequeiías colonias en forma de “bolsa” (Figura I-4 A,B) en muchas raices secundarias. Una
39
se encuentran embebidos (Figur- 14 C,D,E). Al segundo día despues de la inoculaclon tas
colonias se volvieron más densas y los agregados de cianobacterias cubrieron una gran patie
producción de densas vainas, las cuales formaron capas gruesas envolviendo completamente
permitieron corroborar ese deslixrmiento hacia dentro y fuera de la vaina (Figure laí CD).
Este movimiento permitió a las cíanobacterias establecer nuevas colonias. Despues de 4 dáas
de inoculadas las plántulas, los filamentos produjeron una vaina compuesta de varias capas
la cual cubrió en su totalidad a las raíces mas pequeíías (Figura 16 A,B). En el dia 5
(Figurd 16 C). En el último día del experimento. la raiz quedo completamente cubierta con
una gruesa vaina (Figura 17 B.C). y es evidente la diferencia al compararla con raices no
-. s
._
L
/ ._
_ !
! i z
.: 1 2 3 4 5 6
D í a s clespués de l a i n o c u l a c i ó n
o plántulas inoculadas m plántuias inoculadas
?? cianobacterias m cianobacterias
: pIátltulas n o inoculctcia5
representan la desviación tipica. Los puntos correspondientes a cada día marcados con
41
42
Figura 14. (A) Proceso de colonización en la superficie de la raíz de plántulas de Avicennia
43
Figura 15. (A) En el segundo día de colonización las pequeñas colonias formaron otras más
filamentos en la superficie de la raíz. (C) Tres días después de inoculados, los filamentos de
Microcoleus sp. forman una vaina muclaginosa mucho mayor. (D) Amplificación de una
afuera de la vaina. Las barras representan 100 Pm (A) y 100 urn (B-D). Abreviaciones: s-
vainas mucilaginosas.
44
L
45
Figura 16. (A) Microscopia electrónica de barrido (SEM) de una raíz 4 días después de la
inoculación. Las cianobacterias cubiertas por una Vah3 común cubren completamente la
secundarias, (D) y “pegando” dos raices secundarias (flechas). (E) hlicrogrdfia de campo
sobre la raíz. Las barras representan 10 Pm (A), 1 mm (B), y 100 Pm (C). Abreviaciones:
s-vainas mucilaginosas.
47
ANÁ LISIS
FIJACIÓN DE NITRÓGENO IN SITU.
Sasekumar, 1992; Zuberer y Silver, 1978). De ahí que la !ijación de nitrógeno deba jugar
1992; Dor, 1984; Hussain y Khoja, 1993; Potts, 1979; Potts, 198-t; Potts y Whitton, 1980;
tallos. o en materia! de defoliaciím (Gotto y Taylor, 1976; van der Valk y Attiwil!. 1984:
48
pneumatóforos bajo un patrón de distribución específica que no se presenta en superficies
inhertes. Esta preferencia puede ser originada por la atracción quimiotáctica de la planta
que favorece el flujo energético entre el mangle y los organismos colonizadores, y para las
de los pneumatóforos.
estructura de la comunidad en Balandra puede ser comparada con otras localidades, donde
observado en nuestro estudio mor. 1984: Potts. 1979). En los manglares del Sinaí existe una
zonación vertical en los pneumatóforos, pero las especies que se encuentran ahí son
sobre los pneumatóforos. La permanencia de este biofilm fue corta y desaparecio después
49
de 6 meses, mientras que la colonización de cianobacterias sin heterocistos sobre 10:;
se han encontrado en diferentes manglares del mundo. Microcoleus parece ser un genero
en manglares o en tapetes microbianos (Hussain y Khoja, 1993; Potts, 1980; Stal et 1984)
parece ser particular para cada sitio (Jones, 1 9 9 2 ; Sta1 et al 1984). Las condk5ones
Carolina del Norte E.U.A. donde el pico máximo fue registrado en la noche (Bebout &_&
50
observar en la disminución considerable de la actividad en incubaciones bajo condiciones
tratamientos incubados en la oscuridad. Los vaiores son muy cercanos a los controles
superficie del pneumatóforo. Los picos de actividad no pueden ser explicados únicamente
fijación de nitrógeno varias horas antes del amanecer. El descenso en la actividad debe estar
circundante a los pneumatóforos, de manera que deben ser considerados como estimadores
indirectos de los valores reales que debieron ocurrir dentro de los sistemas de evaluación
la luz, sin embargo, en los periodos de oscuridad, se activa la fijación de nitrógeno horas
antes del amanecer. Esta respuesta puede ser explicada por varios mecanismos, sin que unos
nitrogeno horas antes del periodo de iluminación utilizando otros agentes reductores
(Stewart, 1973).
durante los periodos de iluminación por el daño originado por el oxígeno sabre 12.
nitrogenasa.
importancia, ya que es común la producción de exudados de raíz, lo que puede ser un faclar,
nitrógeno orgartico.
registro la fijación de nitrógeno bajo condiciones aeróbicas, lo que evidencia que deben
existir mecanismos de protección de las cianobacterias a los efectos deletereos del oxigeno
52
un fenómeno muItipardmétrico mas que un proceso nionofactoria1. AI menos 2 factores; Ia
lavados de Ia superficie del pneumatóforo y pueden ser absorbidos por Ia planta debido a
Ia organización celular de1 pneumatóforo (rail modificada). Sin embargo esta hipótesis
debe ser confltmada mediante experimentos con nitrógeno marcado “N2, aunque es
importante señalar que dichos experimentos son sumamente complicados de diseñar bajo
1991). ii) ¿El microorganismo secreta alguna substancia que incremente la incorporación
et 1992; Neilands y Leong, 1986; Paula et 1984; Alexander y Zuberer, 1993). iii) ¿Los
Los mangies están siempre asociados con cianobacterias de diversas especies. pero
visible que la interacción no es patógena para las plantas. Se desconoce también si las
cianobacterias participan en e1 ciclo de vida del mangle, aunque se observe con frecuencia
53
una densa colonización de las raíces de mangle (Dar y Levy, 1984; Potts, 1979; Sheridar~,
interacciones in situ.
El conspicuo desarrollo de la vaina observado a lo largo de las raíces puede per JII 1; f:
u
a las cianobacterias construir colonias donde se mantiene un microambiente apropiada r: Y-I 1 c
(Zuberer, 1984). Las vainas son también estructuras absorbentes (Dar, 1984). Las partes
por los períodos de mareas. Esta desecación puede ocasionar una inhibición en la activi& ‘
de nitrogenasa (Jones, 1992; Potts, 1979; 1980; Potts y Whitton, 1980). Debido a kj.
humedad, los cuales a su vez pueden prolongar los períodos de fijación de nitrúgeno. AI
mismo tiempo, la gruesa vaina puede retardar la dispersión de los productos de la fijasion
comunidad del manglar en un ambiente pobre en nitrógeno. pero sin embargo exportador
de materia orgarrica. Así pues las cianobacterias pueden incorporar nitrcígeno orgámaicar a!
manglar a travks de las interacciones con ei mangle negro y de esta manera coadyuvar al
los pneumatóforos.
en las respuestas diurnas y estacionales, registrándose los valores más altos en las horas de
iluminación en verdno.
nitrógeno.
5. Los productos de fijación de nitrógeno podrían ser absorbidos por la planta durante los
ecosistema de manglar.
55
RECOMENDACIONES
Existen algunos aspectos metodológicos que pudieran ser mejorados. Uno de ehs cx
el uso de microelectrodos para evaluar con mayor precisión las condiciones ambie!&&es
Un ahlisis global del ciclo del nitrógeno en el manglar nos daría infornmsckh drl
Silvester, 1985).
DNA o RNA para cuantificar las poblaciones in situ. El proceso de expresión gen&icc;a ticf
nitrogenasa bajo los efectos mencionados nos daría un nuevo enfoque ai proceso complejo
genética en estudios ecológicos parece ser necesaria para conocer en otra escaika de
dimensión el ecosistema.
56
El destino final del nitrógeno atmosferico fijado por las cidnobacterias suponemos
que es la planta. Sin embargo, debe ser probado experimentalmente por medio de estudios
con 15N, in situ e in vitro. Dichos experimentos están siendo actualmente realizados en el
CIBNor, y con el registro de la incorporación del r5N, y la comparación con las abundancias
realizarzi por espectrometría de masas, dada la naturaleza estable del gas “N, (no
no iuoculados. Este dato parece ser alentador en la futura investigación de las interacciones
antropogénicas.
Los manglares son comúnes en las costas de México; el riesgo de una repercusión en
balance que mencionamos. La alternativa es reforestar zonas apropiadas para ello mediante
California Sur, siendo Balandra la primer comunidad repoblada. El inicio de este programa
57
consta de la replantación de 500 plántulas de mangle negro crecidas en condiciones
FUTUROS
Es necesario para la continuación del presente trabajo analizar dos aspectos. El
y CIBNor.
59
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-*
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16. Ganíar, M., Kerby, N.W., RoweII, P, y Obre&, 2.1991. Colonization of wheat (Tricum
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42. Potts, M. 1980. Blue-green algae (Cyanophyta) in marine coastai environments UF the
64
Sinai Peninsula; distribution, zonation, stratification and ta..onomic diversity. Phvcoloria
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45. Revsbecb, NP., Cbristensen, P.B., y Nielsen, LP. 1989. Microelectrode analysis of
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49. shilo, M_ 1989. Tbe unique characteristics of bentbic cyanobacteria. En IMicrobial mats:
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65
cyanobacterial mat of a marine laminated microbial ecosystem. Mar. Biol. 82: 217-224.
51. !%aI, LJ., y Krumbein, W.E. 1985. Isolation and characterization of cyanobacteria frunr
52. Stewart, W.D.P., Fitzgerald, C.P., y Burris, RH. 1967. In situ studies on NL Bxc~1Lon
using the acetylene reduction technique. Poc. Nat. Atad. Sci. USA 58: 2071-2078.
53. Stewart, W.D.P. 1973. Nitrogen fixation. En The biologv of blue-ereen alrae. Edita&
por N.G. Carr‘y B.A. Whitton. University of California Press. pp. 260-278.
Physiological conditions and action spectra. Methods in Enzimoloay 167: 318-328. Acadekc
55. Taug, W.H. 1994. Yield-increasing bacteria (YIB) and biocontrol of sheath bthgkír OC E i,:c.
En Imnrovinrz nlant oroductivitv with rhizosnhere bacteria. Editado por M.H. Ryder, P-F.&
56. van der VaIk, A.G, y AttiwiB, P.M. 1984 Acetylene reduction in an Avicennia msrI3.z
_----
57. ViIIbrandt, M., Kmmbeiu, W.E., y !5taI, LJ. 1991. Diumal and seasonal variation~ crC
nitrogen fixation and photosynthesis in cyanobacterial mats. Plant Soil. 137: 13-16.
59. Zuberer, D.A., y Sihrer, W.S. 1978. Biological dinitrogen fixation (acetylene redu.cLí,~?;
associated with Florida mangroves. Azul. Environ. Microbiol. 35: 567-575.
60. Zuberer, DJL, y Sitver, WS. 1979. Nz fition (acetylene reduction) and the microbial
by scanning and transmission electron and light microscopy. Aauat. Bot. 18: 275-285.
67
ANEXOS
PubIicaciones rxzdizadas en el presente trabajo.
M.H. Ryder, P.M. Stephens y G.D. Bowen. Division of Soils CSIRO, Australia. pp. S9-@,
The 19 World Conlrress of Soil Science. Editado por J.D. Etchevers. Intemational Socieiy
Toledo, G., Basban, Y, y Soeldner, k 1994. Interaction between cyanobacteria and b9ack
reuniones científicas.
15th Worfd Cougnss of Soil Scieuw celebrado en Acapulco, México, del 10 al 16 de julio
del presente ano. Se presentó el trabajo ‘Nitrogen fixiq and phospbate suiubiliziug harteria
69
Distkiones recibidas
haber obtenido el mejor promedio de calificaciones (9.67 nueve punto sesenta y si&)
El poster presentado en el 15th World Congress of Soil Science, recibió una menciúr~
entre los mejores 6 posters del evento. La distinción fue otorgada por el Dr. Jarm-rec IY!,
Ecología Microbiana.
70
IMPROVINGPLANTPRODUCTMTY
WITH RHIZOSPHEREBACTERIA
Edited by
M. H. Ryder,P. M. Stephens and G. D. Bowen
Nitrogen fixatìon in black mangroves (Avicennía germinans)
by associative cyanobacteria
G. Toledo Iv2 and JT B&’
t~cpurment of Microbiology. Thc Cense for Biologicrtl Researcb (CIB) P.0 BOX. 128. La Par. B.C.S. Mexico 23CXXI
.~mt of Experimental Biology. Interdisciplinary Cen- for Marine Sciences (CICJMAR). P.O. Box 592. La Pa B.C.S.
~co23ooo.
ammary. The inlcracrion betwccn P~~Iu Growrh-Promoting Cyanobacreria (PCPC] and mangroves was studicd in a coassal
eoon o/Baja ColiJomia Sur. Muico. Wkn inoculnred on mangrove secdlings. qanobacrrria isolaredfrom rk sugace of arria¡
roou (pruumatophore~) significantly incrcascd nirrogen $.rarion and visib@ prometed planr grou?h. In situ measuremrnss 01
drogen/Ffion on tk in~acf pneumarophorcs in rk lagoon revealed ~hat dicorrophic acrivity ispossibly relarcd IO sunligk and
-gen concemrarion. being lowesr as midnighr andhigkn at moming andlare aflernoon. DiJerenc specirso/nanobacren.a have
&#erent ~rachmenr pre/erenccs to sur-faces in rk mangrove ecosyaem. preferring living aerial rools ami scdimenr 10 glass or
&d wood. This is tkfirst repon of PGPC in tk rnangrove ecosystem.
7.35
7.20
/
7.05
6
p 120 -
:.\II
?,
~ 100 -
= ao-
x
-== 60 -
2 40-
4 20-
z o- m44-3-144-m
k-+0 ’ ‘0 ’ ‘P-i 2
day-><---nlghl---><-day
Acknowledgments
IVe Lhank MI Dariel Tovar Mr Ariel Cruz and Miss Dalia
Gómez for excellent rechnical assiscance. and Mr Roy Bowers
for canzful Enplish corrcctions. Yoav Bashan participalcd in
tis study in lhe memory of Lbe lau Mr Avner Bashan from
ISRAEL. Gerardo Toledo was supponed by granc 839 16 from
CONACyT and 93018 from CICIMAR-PI%
VOLUME 4b:
COMMISSIOB III: POSTERSESSIONS
Transactíons
AzoIla biofertilizer technology for sustainable rice farming. S. Kannai.wr. (India). .. 192
Flood rolerant legume green manure for sustainable rice production in Sri Lanka.
S .A . KulProortva. G. Scncrtr~nr, I..W. Samarakoon. and W1. Wcerakoon. (Sri Lanka). . 194
Nitrogen fixation OC common bean (Phawolus wlgarts L.). cultivars at diffcrent levels of
available phosphorus. D.P. Brcl. and I-‘.D.P. f’adcz. ÍColombta). . . . . . 198
Biomass production and BNF responses to low phosphorus condi:ions by leguminous crops.
K. Fujtla. J . J . Adu-Cyam/i. D . Yorhtzawa. a n d 1. Chaudhary. l l a p a n ) . . . . . . . . 200
Effect of inocularion with .Sinorh~zoh,tum /rcdii and fertili2ation with differenr forms of
mineral nitrogen upon ‘\‘- fixation and production. S. Rrd:epovie. S. Tucabortc.. 8. Varga.
artd S. Stiorn. fCroarto).T . . . _ . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . 204
Diazotrophs. Rhizobium promote growth of Trittcum spp. S.K. A’avtmandan. A. Singh. S.K.
Shrtaltiar R. Stttg. and S. Srhgal. I India). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
The use of 1’s IO assess the effect of phosphorus on N fixation and transfer in
medic,‘wheat crep rotation a n d m i x t u r e . .3f. fsmorli. and K ./z E a b b a d . (Morocco). . . . 208
179
Nitroqen Firinq and Pbosphate Solubilizinq Bacteria in Hanqrove
Communities
Gerardo Toledo*, Yoav Bashan', Gina Holwin5* Patricia Vazquez-Correa5
and Alejandro Lipez-Cortes' iDeoartme!?E of Uicrobiolosv. The Cente=
for io oaica 1 R e s e a r c h ICT3). La Paz. 9 C.S.. P.0 Box. 128. Rexico
23000. and ‘DeDaIT!Wnt O f Exoerimental 'Bioloav. Interdisciulinarq!
Center for I'larine Sciences fCICI%U?). Terrenos del Conchalito. La Paz,
. . S. Hexico 23000.
Introduction. Coastal laqoons colonized by mangrove trees are one of
the most inportant ecosystems in the marine environment. The nanqrove
trees provide organic matter to the ecosystem and to adjacent waters
in the form of detritus uhich is used as food for many marine animals
of commercial interest like oysters, shriaps and fish. Thus nangroves,
by providing detritus to the system, support an extensive fooS chain.
They also ser-ve as a breedinq refuge for many valuable marine and
terrestrial species.
The arid climate of the Baja California peninsula, (Mexico) does
not produce enough run-off to bring terrestrial nutrients to the
lagoons, thus concentrations of soluble nitrogenous compounds are low.
Nevertheless, the nangrove forests look "jungle-like" and show no
signs of nitrogen deficiency, indicating the possibility of
diatotrophic activity in this environment. Tu0 species of n e w
diazotrophic bacteria known as fish pathoqens, were iden:ified in the
roots of manqrove seedlings (Holguin et al. 1992). Additionally, three
unidentified nitrogen fixing bacteria were isolated frOD the
rhizosphere of severa). nangrove species.
Phosphate rock deposits are common in southern Baja California,
but the phosphate must first be solubilized before it is available to
the manqrove plants. After a bacteria1 enrichment process, twelve
phosphate solubiliring bacteria and t%o phosphate solubilizing fungi
vere isolated and purified from the rhirosphere of black mangrove
seedlings after bacteria?. enrichment. Severa1 isolates solubilitedthe
rock through the production of acids, rhile the others operated via
an unidentified mechanisn(s).
Katerials and 'Iethods. ::itrogen fis.-
;..g and phosphate solutiliring
bacteria vere isolated fron Salanera kay, 25 KZI north of La Paz, Baja
Cal ifo-nia
_ So-_.
Results and Discussion. The rhizosphere of isangrove plants is composed
of a large variety of bacteria. Severa1 r80rphotypes of these bacteria
-dere isolated and purified. One of these isolates, Stachvlococcus sp,
(apparenzly a neï species) enhanced the nitroqen fixing capacity of
severa1 species of nitrogen-fixing bacteria froa either nangrove
rhizosphere (Xolguin et al. 1902) or frcm terrestrial oriqin like
Azcsoirillcm ;liolguin et at. 1003).
Cyanobacteria .-'ere observec! qrc;ring epiphytically over exposed
surfaces of the red, -hite a T. d black manqroves. Phototrophic
diazotrophs (purple and creen sulf~r bacteria) vere obserred to be
growing on suhmerged sectlcns cf aerlal roots (pneumatcphores) and in
the sedinents. On the aerial roots of the black manqrove, three cm
119
fhe hte and use efficiency of N as Scrbania IOJWWI green manure and urea in lowland
rice soil. TX. &swas. S.K. De Dono. and D.K. Das. (India). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Construction and characterisation of NIF and CLN a linked muntions of the Nz- fixing
cyanobacterium ,Vosloc muscorum. A. Dixir. R. Srivasrava. and D.V. Amla. (India). . . . _ . 212
Enhancement of BFN (bioiogical nitrogen fixation) in tropical soib by VAM fungi. MJf.
Ahmad. K. Danrcls-Hylron. T.R. Thhiagarajan. and 1. Lemonills. (Jamaka). . . . . . . . . .
In virro selection o f plan< genotypes a n d bacteria1 strains to use in the field for
i m p r o v i n g biological nitrogen fixation in r i c e . M. Rahmun. M. Kubir. T. Heulin. 1.
Balandreolr. (Bangladesh). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nitrogen fixing and phosphate solubilizing bacteria in mangrove communitiu. G. Tofedo. Y.
Bashan. C. Holguin. and P. V&que:-Correa. (Mexico). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
180
above t h e sedizent, we consistently obsemed comunities of thc
cyanobacteria Lvnabva so. and Oscillatoria 5~. Between three and seven
cr~. above the sedinent, ve found fiicrocoleus SD. and above that,
Fohanothece se. This distribution pattern Vas consrstent, as confi-sed
by phase contrast and epifluorescence nicroscopy over a five month
period. A biofilz cocposed of 99% cyanobacteria Anabaena sp. grew on
the surroundinq sedi=rent. J& 8_& experixents on cyanobactezial
attachzent to glass, wood and root surfaces showed preferente to
aerial roots.
In field measurenents, we detemined overa11 nitrogen fixing
activity of the nanqrove cyanobacterial populations on intact and
excised pneulatophores . Our results showed that nitrogen-fixation on
the pneunatophores, either intact or excised, occurs mainly during
dayt ize with tuo activity peaks: one in the zzorning and the other in
the afternoon when light intensity in the sxanp is relatively losr (400
J.LE Q-' Sec"). At nidday, with light intensities reachihg as high as
1800 ).LE P“ Sec-', the nitrogen fixation activity decreased. The lowest
values were ceonitored at midnight; however, an increase in nitrogen
fixation began during the pre-daxn hours, which suggests
cyanobacterial anticipation of the light enerqy.
Black xanqrove pneuzzatophores are exposed nany hours a day to dry
conditions since the plants are in the outer zone oí the manqrove
comuni:g and only occasionally subnerged. Nevertheless, this does not
affect the nitrogen-fixinq activity of the cyanobacteria, *dhich
occurred reqardless of the tide cycle, water tenperature, salinity or
Ph, Thus, as the bacteria are attached to the pneunatophores,
nitroqenous compounds can essentially diffuse fron the bacteria to the
plant and not be diluted or washed away by the tides. These results
indicate that cyanobacteria associated with the black mangrove
pneunatophores nay contribute nitrogen to the nanqrove plants.
To evaluate diazotrophic activity in pure and sixed culture, *de
isolated one strain of Xicrocoleus sp., five heterotrophic bacteria
associaced to t5.e pneunatophores of the black nanqrove, and a strain
of Anabaena sp. froa the biofilm on the surrounding sedinent. Nitroqen
fixing acti vit-y of these strains is currently being conpared to field
experi:.eetal d a t a to evalcate their total nitrcqen contribution :o the
aanqrove ecosysteo.
Ke propsse that nitrogen-fixinq ahd phosphate-solubilizinq
nicroorqanisrís 3ay contrrbute sacro-nutrients to the nancjrove
corzx~::~ and ih so doizg, contribu:e to the .dell beinq of this
ecosyste5.
Literatrre cited
HoLqu:n, C. , ?l-A. Cuczaz. and Y. Bashan. 1992. T*io ne'd ni:roqen-
P.
_ _ XLr.j bacteria froz~ :?.e riizosohero of nahgrsve trees: Their
iSsla:lCn, :den:rfica:ron ar.d ik vitzo Fn:eracz:co ~~;1'1
rh izos;here Stash*.-lccocczs 5.~. ._._ :r*rs b!:c,zbicl. Erzl. 1OL: 707-
215.
Xolgui.?, G., and Y. Bashah. 1993. Increasihq the nrtrsqen-fixizg
acz 1.1 :t-J* 0 f .A:rszirillu~~ ‘ky =lixed cult~rin q '.fith S:achv!ocîccus
sp. In: !le% Horirohs in Xi:roqen fixation. (eds). R. Palacios,
- :<ora, Ü.E. :le**=cn. Klusec Acadecic Pub. The F1e:herland.s. p.
J.
723.
1 Interaction between cyanobacteria and black mangroves in Northwestern
4 ’ DeDartment of Microbiologv. The Center for Biological Research (CIB). P.O. Box 128. La
8 3 Electron Microscopv Facilitv. Deuartment of Botanv and Plant Patholow. Oregon State
12 Number of figures: 9
1 Toledo, G., Bashan, Y., and Soeldner. A. 1994. Interaction between cyanobacteria and black
2 mangroves in Northwestem Mexico 1: Colonization, diurnaI and seasonal nitrogen fixation on
3 aerial roots. Can. J. Microbiol. 000-000.
5 (pneumatophores) of black mangrove trees was evaluated _ situ at BaIandra lagoon, Baja
6 California Sur, Me.xico for 18 consecutive months. Year round zonation of cyanobacterial
7 colonization was determined along the pneumatophores. The bottom part, close to the sedimenf,
9 and Oscillatoria sp. The central zone was colonized mainly by filaments resembling MicrocoJm
10 SP. and the upper par-t by coccoidal cyanobacteria within defined colonies resembling
l l Aohanothece sp. mixed with filamentous cyanobacteria. Two cyanobacteria strains isolatccl CI 01s~
12 the pneumatophore were efficient diazotrophs. Massive sheath production along ~IÍF:
13 pneumatophore was evident throughout the observation period. The surrounding sediment was
14 seasonaly dominated by heterocystous Anabaena sp. Glass and dead-wood surfaces incubstPd
1s for 18 months in the pneumatophore vicinity showed no zonation in the colonization pattern,
17 In situ N,-fixation followed seasonal and diumal pattems. N1-fixation was low during
18 winter, increased in early summer, and reached its peak in mid summer. Diumal N,-fixation in the
19 summer showed two peaks; one in the moming until mid-day and the second in the late
20 af?emoon. N1-fixation was at its lowest levels during mid-night. Light and water-temperature,
21 together with oxygen as a secondary factor, are probably the main environmental factors
fixation, pneumatophore.
3
We propose that the populations of diazotrophic cyanobacteria colonizing the
fixation, pneumatophore.
3
1 lntroduction
2 Many coastal lagoons in the tropics and subtropics support dense mangrove forests. These
3 forests are the dominant features of the lagoons and one of the most productive areas in the
4 marine environment, supporting large plant and animal communities, many of which are
5 economically and ecologically important (Jones 1992; Bunt 1992). Additionally, mangrove
6 forests export considerable amounts of carbon and nitrogen to the coastal waters (Boto and
7 Robertson 1990).
8 There are two types of mangrove communities (mangals); estuarine sol? bottom and
9 euhaline-methaline hard bottom (Por 1984). Those of Baja California Sur are methaline and have
10 shrub-like trees and transparent water. The mangrove community in our study area at Balandra
11 lagoon is composed of three plant species, the red mangrove (Rhizoohora mangle L.), the white
12 mangrove (Laeuncularia racemosa Gaertn.) and the black mangrove (Avicennia eerminans (L.)
13 Stem), similar to Florida’s mangroves (Zuberer and Silver 1978). Only the later species has
15 The sub-tropical mangrove forests on the Mexican Pacific Otean side, together with
16 Florida’s forests at approximately the same latitude on the Atlantic Otean side, represent the
17 most northem distribution of mangroves in the hemisphere. Although both locations contain the
18 same plant species, they do not share the same environmental conditions. The climate and
19 mangrove growth conditions in Baja California strongly resembles that of the Sinai peninsula in
20 Egypt. yet the mangroves there have different plant species (Potts 1979). Due to the dty desert
21 conditions prevailing in Baja California peninsula (approximately 100 mm annual rainfall), the
22 terrestrial nutrient contribution to the lagoons fìom runoff is nil, and the level of nitrogenous
4
1 compounds is low. For example, total nitrogen content in the sediment of subtropic Balandra
2 lagoon, is 0.041%. The soluble organic nitrogen in mangrove sea-water is 6.3 g N 1-l. The
3 ammonia leve1 is 3.3 g 1“ in mangrove sea-water and 5 g 1“ in the sediment (Holguin et al. 1992).
3 These conditions are similar to those in tropical mangrove sediments (Alongi and Sasekumar
1993). Parado.xically, the mangrove forest in Balandra lagoon shows no visible signs of nitrogen
8 Nitrogen fixation in mangroves, first described by Zuberer and Silver (1978; 1974) is well
9 documented in several different mangrove communities (Potts 1984; Hicks and Silvester 1985;
10 van der Valk and Attiwiil 1984) but rareiy with any particular referente to certain
13 Diurna1 and seasonal diazotrophic activities vary in different mangals pending on many
14 biotical factors (Potts 1979) and abiotical vehicles (Sheridan 199 1). Light seems to be a prime
15 factor in several mangals (Alongi et al. 1992; Bohlool and Wiebe 1978; Gotto and Taylor 1976;
16 Jones 1992; Potts 1979; Potts and Whitton 1980) and sah marshes (Griffiths et al. 1987).
17 Diazotrophs have been found on mangrove leaf and root litter. live roots and on the
18 surrounding sediments (van der Valk and Attiwil 1984). Cyanobacterial mats cover the sediment
19 surrounding mangrove trees (Gotto and Taylor 1976; Hussain and Khoja 1993). Many
20 cyanobacterial species like Microcoieus sp.. Lvnebya sp.. and Oscillatoria sp. are common place
21 in different mangrove forests. while others are location specific. Dominance of heterocystous
22 forms over non-heterocystous forms was observed for several mangals (Potts 1979). However,
5
1 the non-heterocystous forms were the dominant diazotrophs in microbial mats from North
2 Carolina (Ben-Porath and Zehr 1994) and from the North Sea (Stal et al. 1984).
3 The aerial roots (pneumatophores) of black mangroves are essential plant structures which
4 exchange gases for the plant in an otherwise anaerobic sediment (Dawes 198 1). During the tidal
5 cycles, these roots are submerged part-time, and there by subjected to colonization by marine
6 micro-and macro organisms (Por 1984). Information on nitrogen fixation and colonization of
7 pneumatophores is scarce (Potts 1984). There is species zonation along the pneumatophores of
8 the black mangrove and on prop roots of the red mangrove in Sinai and Aldabra island in the
9 tropics (although sharing the same common name, they are different plant species fiom those in
10 Balandra lagoon) where they form dense crusts (Potts 1979; 1980; Potts and Whitton 1980). But
l l cyanobacterial colonization might be more important in black than in red or white mangrove
12 because of the high production of sloughing cells and mucigel (Zuberer and Silver 1979) which
14 The aims of this study were: (i) to locate cyanobacteria dominant groups along the black
15 mangrove pneumatophores. and (ii) to measure the diumal and seasonal changes in in situ
16 nitrogen fixation activity occuting on these pneumatophores. Short accounts were presented
3 The Balandra coastal lagoon lies 25 Km north of La Paz, Baja California Sur, Me.xico,
4 and has an intensive, intact mangrove forest. Its exact geographical location and our sarnpling
5 sites were previously described in detail (Holguin et al. 1992). Ten black mangrove (Avicennia
6 germinans (L.) Stem) pneumatophores (aerial roots) were collected at each sampling date in
7 November 1992, in May and June, 1993 and in April, 1994, by cutting them with a scalpel fìom
8 their emerging sites in the sediment, 3 cm below soil surface. They were immediately transferred
9 to the lab in sterile screw-capped test tubes. The pneumatophore surface was analyzed (From top
10 to bottom) on the same collection day by cutting several small samples of the bark surface fiom
ll each part of the pneumatophore. Then each sample was observed by phase contrast microscopy
15 tiom different trees. The filamentous cyanobactetia was isolated from a 1 cm’ piece of
16 pneumatophore bark in solid ( 1. 1% agar w/v) ASN-III medium. The medium composition was (g
17 1.‘): NaCI 25, MgCl,*6_0 2. KCI 0.5. NaNO, 0.75, KHPO,? ?? 3H20. 0.02, MgSO,*7H,O 3.5.
18 CaCl,*%& 0.5, N-CO, 0.02. and (mg l’) of Fetic arnmonium citrate 3, Nqcitrate-X-LO 3.
19 Na-EDTA 0.5, Vitamin B 12 0.02, and (ug 1”) H,BO, 2.86, MnCII=41-&0 1.81. ZnSO;T_O
20 0.222, NaMoO,*X-IO 0.39, CuSO,*5HO 0.079, Co(N0,)2*6H_0 0.0494, (Rippka et al. 1979)
7
1 supplemented with 50 ug ml“ of cycloheximide (Aldrich, USA) to inhibit growth of eukaryotic
2 organisms. The medium was sterilized by autoclave, and its final pH was adjusted to 7.6.
4 colonization of surfaces is always associated with heterotrophic bacteria (Bebout et al. 1993;
5 López-Cortés 1990). To isolate the single filaments we used the method of Stal and Krumbein
6 (1985) as follows: seven days after placing the piece of bark on the solid medium, we collected
7 single filaments which had developed. This was done under a microscope using a sterile Pasteur
8 pipette to excise this filaments from the edges of the developing colonies. The filaments were
9 placed in the center of a fresh ASN-III agar-plate. Then, they were incubated at 22 *l”C under a
10 continuous light intensity of 50 pmol me’ se’ for an additional 10 days. This method is based on
ll the assumption that colony growth of filamentous cyanobacteria on solid medium is faster tban
12 the swarming of the heterotrophic bacteria on this medium. By picking filaments from the colony
14 cyanobacterial morphotypes (strains). The isolated strains were fùrther maintained on ASN-III
15 agar slants under the same incubation conditions for 3 months. Next, they were transferred to
16 N-free ASN-III for 2 days before evaluating their nitrogen fixation capacity by acetylene
17 reduction assay (described later). The cyanobacteria residing on the pneumatophores were
18 identitied according to the classification and morphotypes described by Rippka et.al. (1979)
19 under light and phase contrast microscopy. Filamentous cyanobacteria were assigned to each
20 morphotype group according to their cell morphology and size. The LPP group corresponds to
4 Nitrogen fixation -in situ- was evaluated by the acetylene reduction assay (APA) (described
5 later) in assemblies which were a modification of those designed to measure nitrogen fixation in
6 intact roots of Douglas-fir trees (Li et al. 1992). A drawing of this assembly is shown in Figure 1.
7 We cut off bottom of glass, screw cap test tubes (30 ml). Then, the upper par-t was hermetically
8 sealed by a rubber septum under the original plastic screw cap. The screw caps were
9 pre-punctured in the center to allow air sampling through the rubber septum with a 1 ml syringe.
10 The test tube was then placed over the pneumatophore, and were sealed to its surface by two
1 1 layers of latex balloons, several layers of parafilm, and finally, by a water-resistant adhesive film.
12 Two thick wires were stuck in the mud close to each pneumatophore and were used to keep the
13 assembly up straight and to prevent its bending by tidal waves. Additional test assemblies were
14 checked for possible gas leaks by cutting the pneumatophore base (outside of the test tube),
15 submerging the assembly in a bucket of water, and injecting 30 mi of air with a sytinge to detect
16 any release of bubbles. To evaluate nitrogen fixation activity in the fieid. 1 ml of air fiom each
17 assembly was replaced by acetyiene. Later. 1 ml air samples were taken at 3-t h intervals during
18 24 h. The air samples were first stored in 10 ml hermeticahy-sealed serum bottles kept in an ice
19 box in the field. Aster each sampiing period of 24 h, the samples were transferred to the
2 incubating them in intact sterile test tubes with the same capping system. Negative controls (no
3 nítrogenase activity) in tests using excised pneumatophores were obtained by rinrirrg tFr;:
4 pneumatophores within the tube in 2 rnl of a solution of 5% trichloroacetic acid (TCA) (~.J/v) for
5 5 min. This treatment surface disinfected the pneumatophore. For intact pneumatophores (which
6 were already placed in the assemblies), 5 ml of the same solution were applied. Additionat
x
7 positive and negative controls were assayed and included: dark incubations by COVB‘WII~ ;G
8 assemblies with aluminum foil, addition of glucose (0.1 g U’), assemblies containing oníy ethylen.e,
10 The ethylene production (nitrogenase activity) of intact and excised pneumatophores wa:
12 “wound ethylene” created by the excision. No difference in ethylene production between ir&ac*
13 pneumatophore and excised pneumatophores was found, and they were statistically in tELc rarq,s
14 of P10.3499. By using excised pneumatophores in addition to intact pneumatophores, we WYP
15 able to increase the number of samplings and the number of replicates per field sampling ‘zince
16 excised pneumatophores assemblies were easier to handle in the muddy surroundingu uf thc
17 mangrove swamp. However. regardless of the assembly type used. incubation was always UII&!
19 Results are expressed as the average of ten replicates for each treatment and for eaoh
10
1 Acetvlene reduction assav (ARA)
2 Diazotrophic activity for pure cultures of cyanobacteria was measured in 70 rnI serum
3 bottles. hermetically sealed with a rubber septum and containing 20 ml of N-free ASN-III
4 medium. Acetylene reduction (nitrogenase activity) was assayed by replacing 1 ml of air with
5 pure acetylene. Ethylene production was evaluated by gas chromatography using a Varian 6000
6 gas chromatograph (Varian Instrument Group, USA) equipped with hydrogen flame ionization
7 detector (FID) (Stewart et al. 1967). The instrument operating conditions were as follows: a
8 stainless-steel cohnrtn 1 5 0 x 0.2 cm was packed with Porapak N, 80/100, with a coh.nnn
9 temperature of jOoC, temperature detector of 200°C, a nitrogen carrier gas and _ were used,
10 both at a tlow rate of 25 ml min-’ and air flow rate of 300 ml rniñ’. The amount of ethylene was
11 expressed as nmoi ethylene per ug chlorophyil a per ml (of culture or per pneumatophore) per
12 hour. Since the size of each pneumatophore was different, the volume of each pneumatophore
13 was incorporated into the calculation of the total atmosphere within each assembly at each
16 cyanobacterial mass (Potts 1979; Stal et al. 1984). We assumed the presente of chiorophyil a on
17 the pneumatophore surface because: (i) we always observed by light microscopy the presente of
18 chlorophyll aon the predominant brown-gray pneumatophore surface, and (ii) the presente of a
19 chlorophyll a peak and the absence of other chlorophyll types in the absorption spectra (described
11
1 Measurements of environmental conditions during the incubation of pneumatophores.
2 Light intensity in the sampling site was measured concomitant with the gas sampling
4 determined using a digital Corning PS-6 (USA) thermometer with “L” type probe. Dissolved
5 oxygen was measured in pool in the pneumatophore area with an oximeter YSI model 57
6 (Yellow Spring, Ohio, USA), and pH measurements were taken fìom the same place with a
10 laboratory glass pipettes and 10 similar-sized dead-wood sticks were inserted into the mud close
11 to the pneumatophores and lef? there for 18 months. Their height above the sediment was similar
12 to those of natural pneumatophores. Periodical samples were taken every 3 months from glass,
13 wood and pneumatophore sur-faces. Excised pneumatophores and 2 cm’ samples of these
14 materials were first observed by light microscopy and were fìltther fixed for scanning electron
15 microscopy analysis. Fixation was done with Kamovsky fixative (2.5% glutaraldehyde, 2?/0
16 paraformaldehyde in sodium cacodilates buffer 0 .2 M, pH 7.2). Samples were kept at 4OC in the
17 tixative until they were dehydrated by graded acetone series. Finally, they w-ere dried in a Critical
18 Point Drier (CPD Model CPD 020. Balzers Union. Liechtenstein), then attached to stubs with
19 glue. The dry samples were coated with both gold and gold-palladium mix, either in a Vacuum
20 Evaporator (VE- 10 Varian, USA) or in a Sputter Coater (Edwards S 150B. England). We used a
12
1 Exuerimental desien and statistical analvsis.
2 Al1 in situ experiments were performed in ten replicates. A replicate consisted of a single
4 was done in five replicates; each consisteti of a single stub. Statistical analysis was done by
5 One-way Analysis of variance (ANOVA) at PIO.05. Fitting models for the environmental
6 conditions were created by third order regressions with a SigmaplotO software.
7 Results
9 The cyanobacterial community on the pneumatophore was dominated throughout the year
12 Two strains were isolated. One strain was a LPP-B morphotype, showing filaments with
13 only vegetative cylindrical cells. The trichomes were straight, motile embedded in a sheath. On
14 pneumatophores. several filaments of these cyanobacteria were covered with a common sheath.
15 The filaments showed the typical arrow-shaped apical cells measuring 7-8 urn by 5 Pm. This
16 morphotype resembled Microcoleus sp. strain ATCC 29 138 (Rippka et al 1979). A second
17 isolate was a heterocystous strain, and was partiahy identified as Anabaena sp. The filaments
18 showed the presente of both intercalar differentiated cells and spherical to ovoid vegetative cells
20 resembled Anabaena cvlindrica strain ATCC 27899 (Rippka et al. 1979). Both strains were
13
1 nitrogen fixers showing similar diazotrophic activity in culture. measuring about 109 nmoles
4 The main characteristic of the pneumatophore colonization was that al1 the surfaces were
6 lesser extend by bacteria. Not a single free surface on the pneumatophore was found (Pie. 11
7 B,C). In low magnification under light microscopy, or even by the naked-eye small marine fauna
8 such as nematodes and bamacles were also observed (data not shown and Fig. 2 D). Different
10 Filaments of Lvngbva sp. and Oscillatoria sp. were always observed at the lower part of the
11 pneumatophores fiom the soil surface line upward to 3 cm (Fig. 2 A and Fig. 3 AB). Above this
12 zone, Microcoleus sp. was the dominant microorganism, with a wider colonization zona: of
13 about 7 cm in the central part of the pneumatophore (Fig. 2 A and Fig. 3 CD). At the upper
1.5 Achanothece sp. were observed year around (Fig. 2 A). However, in February 1993 they mere
16 visibly more abundant. These colonies varied in size ranging from 16 pm (Fig. 4 A-C) to 135 prn
17 (Fig. 4 D), and were mixed with tilamentous cyanobacteria in common sheaths (Fig. 4 D). They
IS may release single cells (for possibly fürther dispersal) from a cavity at the top of the colony (Fig.
19 4 D.E arrows at colony top). Most of the microorganisms in this area have well developed
20 sheaths as a common feature (Fig. 4). The zonation borders along the pneumatophore variad
14
1 slightly with the seasons, but the particular zonation (iower. central and high) was constant
3 Colonization of glass pipettes submerged in the pneumatophore vicinity did not show the
4 zonation pattem observed on the pneumatophores. The colonization was random and was
5 dominated mainly by diatoms, possibly heterotrophic bacteria and green algae all mixed in a
6 sheath material (Fig. 5 A_B, confirmation of chloroplast presente in the algae cells was done by
7 light microscopy). A few cyanobacterial LPP-A and LPP-B filaments were also present (Fig. 5
S A). Some areas were not coionized by any organism 18 months after the glass tubes were planted
9 in the mud (Fig. 5 B, arrow). This was in contrast to colonization of pneumatophores which are
10 always compietely covered with microorganisms (compare Fig. 5 B with Figs. 3 and 4). The
11 community on the glass was also very diverse. The wooden sticks were randomly colonized
13 and by coccoidal colonies (Fig. 5 CD). Like the glass, no zonation of colonization was detected
14 on the wooden sticks. Interestingiy, the microorganisms on the wood were different from those
15 obsented on the glass surfaces nearby. Microcoleus sp.. the common colonizer of
16 pneumatophores, was absent from either the glass or the wood sur-faces. Biofilms on the
17 surroundings sediment in the vicinity of the pneumatophores changed microbial composition with
IS the time of year. In November. 1993. the sediment was dominated by heterocystous Anabaena
19 sp. (Fig. 6 A.B). while in the summer of 1993. no heterocystous cyanobacteria were found in the
31 The absorption spectra of pigments extracted from the pneumatophore surfaces showed
7?
II the distinctive peaks at 665 and 436 nm which are the characteristic of chlorophyll a. No
15
1 significant amounts of other chlorophylls were detected, indicating cyanobacterial colonization
2 (Fig. 7).
4 Diumal and seasonal changes in nitrogen fixation on the pneumatophores revealed the
5 following observations. We found that the leve¡ of nitrogen fixation was seasonally determined.
6 During the winter, (November 1993 and February 1994 samplings), the level of nitrogen fisatio~~
7 per 24 h periods was less than in early summer (May 1993 sampling), and it peakr.d in .
8 mid-summer (June 1993 sampling). Significant differences between the seasons were found in the
10 Diurna1 changes in N,-fixation during the winter were insignificant due to the low leve1 of
ll nitrogen fixation detected and the relatively large variation within each sampling hour (Fig. 9
12 C,F). However, during the summer season when significant amounts of nitrogen fixation werc:
13 detected. diurna1 variation was evident. The two peaks of nitrogen fixation occurred from early
14 moming to mid-day and during the late tiemoon. During the night. N.-fixation decreased
I 7 (light intensity. water-temperature. osygen leve1 and water-pH). the summer samplings gavc
IS clear indication that N,-tixation was possibly associated with high light intensity and high water
19 temperatures. Peak N_-fixation activities were measured when the two variables coincided
20 (compare Fig. 9 G.J with LL). AIthough it seems that light has a marked effect on the activity cî
21 the cyanobacteria, water temperature was possibly a limiting factor. When the water temperature
16
1 was around 25 “C or lower, nitrogen fixation was reduced (Fig. 9 A,D,G) even in the presente of
2 sufficient light. Similarly, oxygen played an associative role together with light intensity and
3 water-temperature, but to a lesser extend. Nitrogen fixation on the pneumatophore was slightly
4 higher when the oxygen levels in the surrounding water was low. However, low oxygen levels in
5 the water during winter samplings did not increase nitrogen fixation on the pneumatophore (Fig.
6 9 B,E,H,K). Th e water pH had no effect on nitrogen fixation for al1 samplings. Although water
7 pH varied between the seasons, it was relatively constant within a a particular sampling date (Fig.
8 9 B,E,H.K).
9 A peculiar appearance of nitrogen fixation activity was during the pre-dawn hours during
10 the summer when the leve1 of nitrogen fixation in these dark hours was even higher than the
12 Discussion
13 Mangrove trees are thriving in Balandra lagoon in Baja California. IMexico, where there is
14 aimost no input of nutrients From either the sea or the surrounding desert. In general, the
15 dissolved nitrogen in the lagoon water and the nitrogen in the sediment are not enough to fUfil
16 the requirements of the mangrove trees (Alongi and Sasekumar 1993; Zuberer and Silver 1978).
17 Thus. nitrogen tixation may play a role in the excellent health and density of these mangrove
18 forests.
20 worldwide (Alongi et al. 1992; Dor 1984; Hussain and Khoja 1993; Potts 1979; Potts 1984,
31 Potts and Whitton 1980: Sheridan 1991). Balandra lagoon aiso has cyanobacterial mats. in
17
1 significan1 amounts of other chlorophylls were detected, indicating cyanobacterial colonization
2 (Fig. 7)
4 Diumal and seasonal changes in nitrogen fixation on the pneumatophores revealed the
5 following observations. We found that the leve1 of nitrogen fixation was seasonally deterrnincd.
6 During the winter, (November 1993 and February 1994 samplings), the leve1 of nitrogen fisafioi~
7 per 24 h periods was less than in early summer (May 1993 sarnpling), and it pea1:c.d i17
8 mid-summer (June 1993 sampling). Significan1 differences between the seasons were found in the
10 Diurna¡ changes in N,-fixation during the winter were insignificant due to the low leve1 of
11 nitrogen fixation detected and the relatively large variation within each samphng hour (Fig. 9
12 C,F). However, during the summer season when significan1 amounts of nitrogen fixation wer’c:
13 detected. diurna¡ variation was evident. The two peaks of nitrogen fixation occurred from early
14 moming to mid-day and during the late aftemoon. During the night, N,-fixation decreased
17 (light intensity, water-temperature, osygen level and water-pH). the summer samplings gavc
18 clear indication that N.-tixation was possiblv associated with high light intensitv and high water
19 temperatures. Peak N,-fixation activities were measured when the two variables coincided
20 (compare Fig. 9 G.J with LL). Although it seems that light has a marked effect on the activitv c”
21 the cyanobacteria, water temperature was possibly a limiting factor. When the water temperature
16
1 was around 25 “C or lower, nitrogen fixation was reduced (Fig. 9 A.D,G) even in the presente of
2 sufficient light. Similarly, oxygen played an associative role together with light intensity and
3 water-temperature, but to a lesser extend. Nitrogen fixation on the pneumatophore was slightly
4 higher when the oxygen levels in the surrounding water was low. However, low oxygen levels in
5 the water during winter samplings did not increase nitrogen fixation on the pneumatophore (Fig.
6 9 B,E,H,K). The water pH had no effect on nitrogen fixation for all samplings. Although water
7 pH varied between the seasons, it was relatively constar? within a a particular sampling date (Fig.
8 9 B,E,H.K).
9 A peculiar appearance of nitrogen fixation activity was during the pre-dawn hours during
10 the summer when the level of nitrogen fixation in these dark hours was even higher than the
12 Discussion
13 iliangrove trees are thriving in Balandra lagoon in Baja California IMexico, where there is
14 almost no input of nutrients from either the sea or the surrounding desert. In general, the
15 dissolved nitrogen in the lagoon water and the nitrogen in the sediment are not enough to tùlfill
16 the requirements of the mangrove trees (Alongi and Sasekumar 1993; Zuberer and Silver 1978)
17 Thus, nitrogen lixation may play a role in the excellent health and density of these mangrove
18 forests.
20 worldwide (Alonei et al 1992; Dor 1984; Hussain and Khoja 1993; Potts 1979; Potts 1984;
21 Potts and Whitton 1980; Sheridan 199 1). Balandra lagoon also has cyanobacterial mats. in
17
1 addition to the extensive cyanobacterial colonization on black mangrove aerial roots. The
2 colonization of mangroves by cyanobacteria and other diazotrophs has been observed on le~,veu,
3 stems, or in falling plant parts (Gotto and Taylor 1976; van der Valk and Attiwill 1984; ZuSerer
6 2 years. The colonization was permanent and covered every surface of the pneumatophox ?%E
7 data we obtained from the random colonization by the numerous microbial species on giass btlk:
8 and on dead-wood sticks submerged in the pneumatophore vicinity add indirect evidente EM t: P
12 for one site and time), but the general community structure might be comparable to other
13 localities where other species colonize in more or less the same manner (Dar 1984; Potts 1979).
1-I In the Sinai mangroves there was a vertical zonation along the pneumatophores by mainly
16 zonation by non-heterocystous forms. The heterocystous Anabaena sp. formed a biofilm oniy OE
17 the sediment around the pneumatophores but not directly on them. Furthermore. this biotiirii ayas
20 Analysis of populations of cyanobacteria showed that some species of Balandra lagoon are
21 commonly found in different mangals of the world. Microcoleus sp. seems to be a univc&
1s
1 and Khoja 1993; Potts 1980; Stal et al. 1984) an also in our study. Other common
2 cyanobacterial species like Lvngbva and Oscillatoria are also well distributed colonizers.
3 However, their dominance is more site specific (Jones 1992; Stal et al. 1984).
4 The environmental conditions in Balandra lagoon change the rate of nitrogen fixation
5 which seems to be photo-and temperature dependent, although evidente of ni1 diumal response
6 to light stimulation has been shown for Australian mangroves (Boto and Robertson 1990). In
.,
7 Balandra lagoon, the summer diazotrophic activity resembled in occurrence and magnitude, that
9 (Villbrandt et al. 199 1; Stal et al. 1984) and differed with N1-fixation of microbial mats near
10 North Carolina where the main activity was detected in late night (Bebout et al. 1993). We
ll detected the first significant NI-fixation activity fiom moming until midday and a second peak in
12 the late aflemoon. The diurna1 peaks we detected can not be explained solely by light because a
13 gradual increase in N.-fixation starts hours before sunrise. The effect of other parameters such as
14 root exudates, lower oxygen tension or wetting of the pneumatophore surface by moming dew
15 may start nitrogen fixation by either 1) other heterotrophic bacteria before dawn or 2) by the
18 High oxygen tension by itself has a deleterious etfect on nitrogenase activity (Fay 1991).
19 Still. N,-fixation was found under aerobic conditions on the pneumatophore surface. suggesting
30 that colonizing diazotrophs have their own protecting mechanisms against oxygen inhibition. The
21 seasonal and diurna1 changes in N.-fixation and in the environmental conditions measured in this
22 study imply that the aerial nitrogen fixation occurring on the pneumatophores should be regarded
19
1 as an environmental multiparametric response rather than a single cause phenomena. At least two
2 factors, light intensity and water-temperature. are major parameters. while oxygen tencion ir a
3 secondary contributing factor. Black mangrove pneumatophores are submerged only several
4 hours daily depending on the tide, yet N,-fixation occurs continuously. During the dry hours, the
5 fixed nitrogen is not washed away from the pneumatophore surface and may be absorbed into the
6 plant by the normal absorbing íünction of the pneumatophore. Naturally, this hypothesis should
7 be confirmed by ‘jN1 tests which are difficult to perform under the constantly changing condirions
10 mangrove aeriai roots in one of the northem most distributions of mangroves in the Ameritan
ll hemisphere. The diurna1 and seasonal nitrogen fixation occun-ing on these pneumatophores.
13 Acknowledgments
15 Social (SEDESOL. Baja California Sur. Mexico) for granting us a large pat-t of Balandra lagoon
16 as an experimental field. We appreciate the excellent technical assistance of Mr. Dariel Tovar.
17 Mr. Ariel Cruz. Mr. Angel Carrillo and Miss Dalia Gómez. the artwork of ,Mr. Roberto Lomeli
18 and Oscar Armendariz. the fieid photography of Mr. Sergio Rosas, the light microscopy advice
19 of ,Mr. Alejandro López-Cortés, and the electron microscopy advice of Dr. Eugenia KIein.
20 Electron Microscopv LTnit. The Weizmann Institute of Science, Israel. We also thank bLlr. 1Xoy
20
1 Bowers for carefìl English corrections and Dr. C.Y. Li, USDA-Oregon for his advice on -in situ-
2 measurements of N,-fixation. Yoav Bashan participated in this study in the memory of the late
3 Mr. Avner Bashan from Israel. Gerardo Toledo was partially supported by grants #839 16 fiom
5 Referentes
6 Alongi, D.M., Boto, KG., and Robertson. A.I. 1992. Nitrogen and phosphorus cycles. _
7 Tropical mangrove ecosystems. Edited by A.I. Robertson, and D.M. Alongi. American
12 Bebout, B.M. Fitzpatrick, MW. and Paerl, H.W. 1993. Identification ofthe sources of energy
15 Ben-Porath. J.. and Zehr, J. 1994. Detection and characterization of cyanobacterial &kI genes.
17 Bohlooi. B.B.. and Wiebe. W.J. 1975. Nitrogen-tixiny communities in an intertidal ecosystem
19 Boto, K.G.. and Robenson. A.I. 1990. The relationship between nitrogen fixation and tidal
20 exports of nitrogen in a tropical mangrove system. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 31: 53 I-540.
21
1 Bunt, J.S. 1992. Introduction. h Tropical mangrove ecosystems. Edited by A.I. Robertson
2 and M.Alongi. Ameritan Geophysical Union. Washington DC, USA. pp. l-6.
4 Dor, 1. 1984. Epiphytic blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) of the Siani mangal: considerations on
7 Fay, P. 1993. Oxygen relations of nitrogen fixation in cyanobacteria. Microbiol. Rev. 656:
8 340-3 73
9 Griffiths, M.S.H., Gallon. J.R., and Chaplin, A.E. 1987. The diurna1 pattem of dinitrogen fixation
l l Gotto, J.W., and Taylor, B.F. 1976. N2 fixation associated with decaying leaves of the red
13 Hicks, B.J., and Silvester. W.B. 1985. Nitrogen fixation associated with the New Zealand
14 mangrove (Avicennia marina (Forsk.) Vierh.var. resinifera (F0rst.f) Bakh.). Appl. Environ.
16 Holguin. G.. Guzman. M.A.. and Bashan. Y. 1992. Two new nitrogen-fixing bacteria tìom the
17 rhizosphere of mangrove trees: Their isolation. identification and in vitro interaction with
19 Hussain. MM. I.. and Khoja. T..M. 1993. Intertidal and subtidal blue-green algai mats of open and
20 mangrove areas in the Farasan Archipielago (Saudi Arabia), Red Sea. Bot. Mar. 36: ;7’I-388.
1 Jones, K. 1992. DiumaJ nitrogen tixation in tropical marine cyanobacteria: a comparison between
2 adjacent communities of non-heterocystous Lvnebva sp. and heterocystous Calothrix sp. Br.
4 Li. C.Y.. Massicote. H.B., and Moore, L.V.H. 1992. Nitrogen-fixing Bacillus sp. associated with
6 López-Cortés, A. 1990. Microbial mats in tidal channels at San Carlos. Baja California Sur,
Y
7 Metico. Geomicrobiol. J. 8: 71-87.
8 Por, F.D. 1984. The state of the art. _ Hydrobiology of the mangal. Edited bv F.D. Por, and 1.
10 Potts, AM. 1979. Nitrogen fixation (acetylene reduction) associated with communities of
12 .39: 359-373.
13 Potts, M. 1980. Blue-green algae (Cyanophyta) in marine coastal environments of the Sinai
14 Peninsula; distribution, zonation, stratification and tauonomic diversity. Phycologia 19: 60-73.
15 Potts. IM. 1984. Nitrogen tixation in mangrove forests. _ Hydrobiology of the mangal. Edited bu
17 Potts. M., and Whitton. B.A. 1980. Vegetation of the intertidal zone of the lagoon of Aldabra.
18 with particular referente to the photosvnthetic prokaryotic communities. Proc. R. Soc. Lond.
19 B 208. 13-55.
20 Rippka. R.. Deruelles. J., Waterbury, J.B., Herdman. M.. and Stanier, R.Y. 1979 Generic
23
1 Legends to figures
2 Figure 1. Schematic representation of an assembly used for measuring nitrogen fixation on intact
3 pneumatophores in the field. Note that for clarity, parts of the assembly are not to the same scale.
5 pneumatophore of black mangrove Note that Microcoleus sp. filaments share a common sheath
6 (s), (sf-single filaments). Lvngbva filaments embedded in a thick sheath (s). (B) Typical
10 Figure 3(A). SEM of the lower part of the pneumatophore showing mainly the filamentous
Il cyanobacteria LPP-B. (B) insert in Fig. 3(A) showing bundles of filarnentous. sheath material,
12 heterotrophic bacteria and a filament of heterocystous cyanobacteria. (C) The central par-t of the
13 pneumatophore showing tilaments of LPP-B cyanobacteria resembling Microcoleus sp. Scale bar
15 s-sheath material.
16 Figure 4. SEM of the higher part of the pneumatophore. (A) small, and (D) big coccoidal
17 colonies. (B) insert of Fig. 4 A showing the colonies embedded in sheath material. (C) light
18 microscopy of a typical mixture of fiiaments and coccoidal colonies. (E) release of coccoidal cells
2’6
1 Villbrandt. M., Krumbein, W.E., and Stal, L.J. 1991, Diurna1 and seasonal variations of nitrogen
3 Zuberer, D.A., and Silver, W.S. 1974. Mangrove-associated nitrogen f?xation. _ Procedings of
5 Snedaker, and H. Teas. Institute of Food and Agricultura1 Sciences. University of Florida. pp
6 643-652.
7 Zuberer, D.-A., and Silver, W.S. 1978. Biological dinitrogen fixation (acetylene reduction)
9 Zuberer, D.A., and Silver, W.S. 1979. N,-fixation (acetylene reduction) and the microbial
ll
25
1 Figure 7. Xbsorption spectra of 90% methanolic extracts of the pneumatophores AITOWS show
3 hours periods (each composed of 8 separate samplings, total 320 measurements) throughout the
5 year. Columns followed by a different fetter differ significantiy at PI 0.05 in One-way ANOVI-\.
6 Figure 9. Diurna1 nitrogen fixation on black mangrove pneumatophores during the year and the
10 symbol). Continues lines (in A,B,D,E,G,H,J,K) represent jrd order regressions of the
11 environmental conditions. Regression coefficients are; A=(O) 0.9163 (*)0.9192, B=(A)0.7497
14 (A)O.3853. Sub-figure “L” is from Toledo and Bashan. 1994 (by permission of the publisher).
28
1 embedded in sheath material From a colony under light microscopy. Arrows in Fig. 3 D (black)
3 and in Fig. 4 E (white) show the possible release exit of coccoidal cells. Scale bars represenred
6 diatoms, fiiamentous cyanobacteria, possible green algae and bacteria. Large arrow in Fis. 5 !:
7 indicates uncolonized glass surface 18 month after insertion on the surface in the pneumatoplroi e
9 coccoidal colonies 18 months af%er insertion of the wood in the pneumatophore area. (D) ¡I~YXW
10 in Fig. 5 C showing the location and magnitude of the cyanobacteria coionization. Scale Ixlic
13 these groups.
14 Figure 6. Colonization of the surrounding sediment of the pneumatophore zone. (A) Iight
16 Anabaena sp. (B) magnitication of small portion of Fig. 6 X showing typical Xnabaena sp.
17 filaments. (C) SEM of the same area in May, 1993 showing random colonization by diatoms and
18 a few LPP-B cyanobacterial filaments, all embedded in a massive sheath. Note the absence of
19 Anabaena sp. colonization. Scale bars represent (A) 100 um. (B.C) 10 Pm. Abbreviatians;
27
hole
\
crew cap
30 ml test tube
Y
inner rubber ser>tum
*
\!
air + 8 % acetylene ‘b
N iron wire
1 Iayer water-resistIant
/ adhesive film
soil surface
\
5 ’ Department of Microbiolow. The Center for Biological Research (CIB). P.O. Box 128,t_&z_,
9 ’ Electron Microscopv Facilitv. Department of Botanv and Plant Patholow, Oreeon State
13 Number of figures: 5
14
1 Toledo, G., Bashan, Y., and Soeldner, A. 1994. Interaction between cyanobacteria and black
2 mangroves. II: increased nitrogen fixation and colonization of plantlets inoculated with
3 filamentous cyanobacteria. Can. J. Microbiol. 000-000.
4 One strain of the filamentous cyanobacteria Microcoleus sp. was isolated fìom black
5 mangrove pneumatophores and inoculated onto young mangrove plantlets to evaluate its
6 nitrogen fixation and root colonization capacities. N2-fixation (acetylene reduction) gradually
7 increased with time and reach its peak 5 days &er inoculation. Later, it decreased sharply. The
S level of N,-fixation in the presente of plantlets was significantly higher than the amount of
9 nitrogen fixed by a similar quantity of cyanobacteria in N-fìee growth medium. The main feature
10 of the root colonization pattem was a gradual production of sheath in which cyanobacterial
ll filaments were embedded. Visible sheath production increased with time until it completely
12 covered the entire root system of the plantlet. The sheath also allowed in-and-out movement of
13 filaments towards the uncolonized portions of the root. This work presents the first report of
3
30
T
l
30
20
1 13
3
1 Introduction
2 The inoculation of crep and forest plants with associative beneficial bacteria has generatud
3 well-documented techniques which have recently reach their experimental peak in route to
4 commercialization (Okon 1994; Tang 1994; Paau et al. 1991). The most common organisms
5 used belong to the bio-control group of pseudomonads (Kloepper et al. 1989) Azosnirillum
6 (Bashan and Levanony 1990), Klebsieila (Haahtela et al. 1986) Azotobacter (Pandey et al. 19W)
7 and Bacillus (Berge et al. 1990; Holl and Chanway 1992). The inoculation of cyanobacteria onto
8 plants has been virtually neglected except for few recent studies on the inoculation of wh~2.t
10 Mangrove forests are an essential prerequisite for a sustainable coastal fisheries. They
11 supply large amounts of carbon and nitrogen to the environment and act as a major re&ge foi.
-
12 many economically important fish and shellfish. Once a mangrove forest has been cleared the
13 resulting effect on the coastal fishing industry is irreversible decimation (Por 1984).
14 Diazotrophic activity in mangroves and in other marine plants has been observed
15 worldwide (Holguin et al. 1992; Potts 1984; van der Valk and Attiwiil 1984; Zuberer 1984;
16 Zuberer and Silver 1978). but usually without any referente to the particular species of
17 microorganism, which vary From site to site. Marine cyanobacterial population are an integral and
18 a major component of the micro-biota in every mangrove system (Hussain and Khoja 1993. Potts
19 1979, 1980;Potts and Whitton 1980). They colonize any submerged surface such as sediment.
20 roots. aerial roots. branches and trunks of mangrove (Hicks and Silvester 1985; Sheridan 199 1;
21 Zuberer and Silver 1978). Yet. the exact interaction between cyanobacteria and mangroves or
3
1 All cyanobacteria adhering to surfaces share two properties: (i) they have a hydrophobic
2 cell surface, and (ii) they form sheaths (Zuberer 1984). During the colonization process, the
3 membrane changes fìom hydrophilic to hydrophobic which enhances the attachment (Shilo
5 sp. produces colonies containing many filaments usually embedded in a common sheath (Rippka
6 et al. 1979). These colonies are then attached to a surface by the sheath. Black mangrove
7 pneumatophores (aerial roots) in Balandra lagoon, Baja California Sur, Mexico are also the
8 natural habitat of the nitrogen fixer Microcoleus sp.(Toledo et al. submitted to Can. J.
9 Microbiol.).
10 The aims of the present study were to observe the pattem of root colonization in black
l l mangrove plantlets after inoculation with the N2-fixing cyanobacteria Microcoleus sp. and to
15 We collected black mangrove propaguls (Avicennia eerminans (L.) Stem) fiom the same
16 locality of the in situ nitrogen fixation measurements described in our previous paper (Toledo et
17 al. submitted to Can. J. Microbiol.) and fìom approximately the same trees. The seasonal
18 production of propaguls began at Balandra lagoon in August 1993 and lasted for approximately
19 -10 days. Propaguls measuring 4 cm were directly picked fiom the trees. transferred to the lab.
20 and examined; those with small insect holes were discarded. The disinfection process was done
4
1 by serial washings. first with Tween 20 (polyoxyethylene sorbitan monolaurate, Sigma, USA)
2 (2% v/v) for 5 rnin, then rinsed with sterile tap water. Later. propaguls containing the skin were
3 treated with NaOCl 1% (Clorox, Mexico) for 5 min. Then, the propaguls were peeled with
4 sterile scalpel and the skin was discarded. The “naked” propaguls were further disinfected with
5 0.1% NaOCl and finally rinsed with sterile tap water six times. All these steps were carried out
6 under sterile conditions. The efficiency of our disinfection process was checked by light and
8 White sand was collected fiom a sandy beach in Balandra lagoon and washed lo- 12 times
9 with pressurized salty tap water (2560 pmhos cm-‘) until the discarding supematant was
10 completely clear. The wet sand was then incubated at room temperature (28-33 “C) for 24 hours
l l to allow the spores of any microorganisms time to germinate. Then, it was sterilized in an oven at
12 250 “C ovemight. Sand samples (260 g each) were then loosely packed into cylindrical, 900 ml
13 transparent glass beakers (17 x 7.5 cm). Each beaker was supplemented with a mineral solution
14 portion of Murashige and Skoog medium (1962) containing the following: (mg 1-l): NH,NO,
15 1650, KNO, 1900, K_PO, 170, MgSO,? ?? 7&0 370, CaCh? ?? 2_0 440, FeSO,? ?? 7Id_O 27.8,
16 Na-EDTA 37.3. H,BO, 1.55. .MnSO, eI-& 4.22, ZnSO,? ?? 7I-&O 2.15, KI 2, NaMoO, -2I-LO
17 0.0735, CUSO, ?? 5H_O 0.125, CoCI,? ?? 6H.O 0.125, Glycine 0.02, Myo-inositol 1, Nicotinic acid
19 chloride. The volume of the solution in the beakers was adjusted to allow for the formation of a
20 water-film approximately 3 mm over the sand surface. The beakers were then vertically
21 autoclaved for 20 min with a loose covering of thick aluminum foil. Afterwards, the foils were
22 further fastened and sealed with elastic bands. Al1 these procedures were essential to obtain
c
1 sterile assemblies in which to grow the plantlets. Three disinfected propaguls were then planted
3 with sterile forceps 1 cm deep in the sand of each beaker. The plantlets were grown at 22 f 1°C
3 under 50 umol m-’ se’ of continuous fluorescent light for 1 month. Fresh mineral medium was
4 added only when required to maintain the level of solution in each beaker. All procedures were
6 Cvanobacterial cultures
7 The inoculated Microcoleus sp. strain (Bl) was isolated from the black mangroves
8 pneumatophores and grown in N-fiee ASN-III medium (Rippka et.al 1979) as described in the
9 previous paper (Toledo et al. submitted to Can. J. Microbio].). The cyanobacterial culture was
l l First, it was washed in N-free ASN-III, homogenized in a tissue homogenizer (LFE, model WB,
13 USA) to obtain a slurry cell suspension. The sluny was further centrifuged at 3000 g for 10 min
13 to discard disrupted filaments which were suspended in the discarded supematant. The pellet was
14 resuspended in the same medium and adjusted to an optical density of 0.27 at 540 nm which was
15 used as an inoculum. This inoculum concentration was equivalent to 1.48 mg mi“ of chlorophyll
16 a and to about 1.16 x 10’ filaments per mi (counted in a hemocytometer under light microscopy).
18 One month old plants were selected for each experiment. The plantlets selected were
19 always From the same lot, about the same height (approximately 100 mm) and had a similar
30 number and size of true leaves. Previous to inoculation, the roots were carefirlly washed in 40 ml
6
1 of sterile N-fiee ASN-III medium in a beaker to remove sand particles. Then, they were
2 transferred to 250 ml filtration flasks equipped with a cotton plug at the top, a rubber se1pcu.m al
3 the side-arm exit, and 25 ml of N-Free ASN-III medium containing cyanobacterial inoculum. Thc.
4 plantlets were first incubated for 24 h under the described growth conditions to allow roo:
8 added to each flask. The mixture produced a semisolid medium (0.8% agar) in the filtration Basf:
9 upon partial solidification. Then, the cotton plugs were removed and the flasks were hermetically
10 sealed with rubber stoppers. Ten ml of air were replaced by pure acetylene. Air samples WCR
ll drawn with 1 ml sterile syringes immediately after the acetylene injection and every %4 h
12 thereafler for five days. The air samples were collected in 5 ml serum bottles herrnetically sealed
13 with rubber septums. The analysis of the samples was done in a Varian 6000 gas chromatog;í aph
14 (Varian Instrument Group. USA) as described earlier (Toledo et al. submitted to Can. J.
15 Microbio].). The amount of ethylene produced was expressed as nmol ethylene per day per
16 plantlet.
18 acetylene) were selected to examine cyanobacterial root colonization using phase contrasi
19 microscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analyses. The roots were cm, and several
20 small pieces were obtained by a razor blade under dissecting microscope. These root pieces were
21 first shaken in a vortex mixer for 1 minute at mauimum speed to remove non-attached cells, i:!xri
7
1 rinsed with sterile liquid ASN-III medium. Preparation of the samples for SEM was described
3 At the end of the experiment, chlorophyll 3 was extracted fìom the semisolid medium
4 containing the roots by homogenization with acetone 90%. The extract was then measured
5 spectrophotometrically at 665 nm. The amount of chlorophyll 3 was calculated according to the
8 The N,-fixation experiment was repeated five times, each in eight replicates. A replicate
9 consisted of one filtration flask containing one plantlet. Controls consisted of non inoculated
10 plantlets, the same concentration of inoculated cyanobacteria in ASN-III medium without plants,
l l and flasks containing the different gases alone. The results are expressed as the mean values of all
12 experiments. One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was performed at P 10.05.
13 SEM observations were carried out in five replicates, using a single stub as a replicate.
16 questions: (i) 1s the potential microorganism capable of colonizing the host plant? This is a basic
17 requirement established for many terrestrial plant-bacteria interactions (Parke 199 1). (ii) Does the
18 microbe excrete any potential beneficial substance for plants or helps the plant scavenging
19 minerals that the plant needs. during the association? (AIexander and Zuberer 1993; Bashan et al.
30 1990; Li et al 1992; Mazzola et al. 1992; Neilands and Leong 1986; Paula et al. 1992) (iii) Does
8
1 the microbe survive long enough and in sufficient numbers to become a possible agent for further
3 Mangrove plants are always associated with cyanobacteria of diverse species. The nature
4 of the association (whether beneficial or not) is unknown, although it is visibly clear that the
6 life cycle of mangrove plants, although dense colonization of submerged parts of mangrovc trees
7 is fiequently observed (Dor and Levy 1984; Potts 1979; Sheridan 199 1; Toledo et al. strbmitred
8 to Can. J. Microbiol.).
9 The goal of the present study was to explore the possibility that black mangrove plants
10 may associated with cyanobacteria from the onset of propagule establishment and to present the
13 Nitrogen fixation activity gradually increased when the plants were inoculated with the
13 cyanobacteria. However, 5 days afier inoculation there was a Sharp, statistically significar&
14 decrease in this activity for all repetitions (Fig. 1). The cyanobacterial growth was visibly denser
16 However. the chlorophyll a determinations to evaluate the quantity of cyanobacteria on the root
17 varied greatly. Therefore. the visible differences were not statistically significant by this analysis
18 (Fig. 1; columns).
19 The main feature of the colonization pattems was the production of sheath, as yet of
20 undefined nature. The cyanobacterial colonization process can start on any part of the root. but
21 was mainly obsetved in the root elongation zone, in places were lateral roots emerge or on thc
22 root cap (light microscopy. data is not shown). In the first 24 h. the cyanobacterial flamems
9
1 established small pocket-like colonies (Fig 2 AB) on many secondary roots. The fine texture of
3 On the second day after inoculation, the coloníes became denser, and cyanobacterial
4 aggregates covered a large portion of the root surfxe (Fig. 3 AB). On the third day, the trend
5 of building a massive sheath continued (light microscopy, data not shown). The sheath formed a
6 thick layer, wrapping the entire root by submerging almost all the former separate small colonies
7 (Fig. 3 C,D). SEM observations, and especially light microscopy, of live specimen revealed the
8 movement of filaments in and out of the sheath (Fig. 3 C,D and Fig. 4 E). This may allow the
9 cyanobacteria to establish the new small colonies we observed nearby on the roots (light
10 microscopy, data not shown). Four days a.tIer inoculation, the filaments produced extensive
1 1 multilayer sheath material which completely covered small roots (Fig. 4 AB). On the fifih day.
12 colonization was apparent to the naked eye. The macro-aggregates were located mainly in the
13 places were new roots emerged (Fig. 4 C arrow), or they “glued” together several small
14 secondary roots (Fig 4 D arrow). Six days after inoculation. the entire root system was
15 embedded in one thick sheath (Fig 5 B,C), in contrast to non colonized roots (Fig. 5 A). No
16 negative effects on plantlet growth was observed as a result of this massive colonization. On the
17 contrary, the inoculated plantlets were greener and slightly larger than non-inoculated plants
19 The extensive sheath formation observed along the roots may have allowed cyanobacteria
20 to build large macrocolonies thereby maintaining a suitable microenvironment for growth, similar
2 1 to cyanobacteria on aquatic duckweed plants (Zuberer 1984). Sheaths are also known to absorb
22 water (Dor 1984). The submerged parts of mangrove and surrounding sediment are subject to
10
1 daily desiccation (Jones 1992; Potts 1979, 1980; Potts and Whitton 1980) known to inhibit
3 increase the duration of the wet conditions which may provide prolonged periods for N,-fixation.
4 At the same time, a thick envelope may slow down the refease of cyanobacteria produced
6 Cyanobacteria, by virtue of their abundance in the mangrove forests and by their high
9
7 capacity for N,-fixation (Potts 1979, 1984). are natural candidates for the evaluation of seedliny,s
8 inoculation for future re-forestation and rehabilitation of destroyed coastal lagoons. At this point
9 of our study, it is unclear whether the nitrogen is directly transferred from the cyanobacteria to
10 the mangrove seedling since “N assimilation tests have not yet been done. However, this study
II pointed out the possibility of using cyanobacteria in general as a fi&ure inoculant for mangrove
12 plants.
13 In sum, this study shows that the cyanobacteria Microcoleus sp. intensely colonizes the
14 roots of black mangrove plantlets and fixes more nitrogen while it is in association with these
15 plants.
16 Acknowiedgments
18 Social (SEDESOL. Baja California Sur. IMexico) for granting us a large part of Balandra lagoon
19 as an experimental field. We appreciate the excellent technical assistance of Mr. Dariel Tovar.
20 Mr. Ariel Cruz. and .Miss Dalia Gomez, Mr. Oscar Armenda&for artwork, Dr. Eugenia Klein.
21 Electron Microscopy Unit, The Weizmann Institute of Science, Israel for her advice in electron
ll
1 microscopy and Mr. Roy Bowers for carefìll English corrections. Yoav Bashan participated in
2 this study in the memory of the late Mr. Avner Bashan from Israel. Gerardo Toiedo was partially
3 supported by grants #S3916 fiom CONACyT and #930108 from CICIMAR-PIFI (Mexico).
4 Referentes
5 Alexander, D.B. and Zuberer, D.A. 1993. Responses by iron-efficient and inefficient oat cultivars
I
6 to inoculation with siderophore-producing bacteria in a calcareus soil. Soil Biol. Fertil. 16:
7 118-124.
8 Bashan, Y., Harrison, S.K., and Whitmoyer, B.E. 1990. Enhanced growth of wheat and soybean
9 plants inoculated with Azosoirillum brasilense is not necessarily due to general enhancement of
11 Bashan, Y., and Levanony, H. 1990. Current status of Azosnirillum inoculation technology:
13 Berge. 0.. Fages, J., Mulard. D., and Balandreau, J. 1990. Effects of inoculation with Bacillus
15 259-266.
16 Dor, 1.. and Levy, 1. 1984. Primary productivity of the benthic algae in the hard-bottom mangai
17 of Sinai. _ Hydrobioio_q of the mangal. Edited bu F.D. Por. and 1. Dor. Dr W. Junk
19 Gantar. M., Kerby. N.W.. Rowell. P.. and Obreht, Z. 1991. Colonization of wheat (Tricum
3 Gantar. M., Kerby, N.W., and Rowell, P. 1993. Colonization of wheat (Tricum vulgare L.) by
4 N,-fixing cyanobacteria: III. The role of a hormogonia-promoting factcr. New Phytol. 124:
5 505-S 13.
6 Haahtela, K., Laakso, T., and Korhonen, T.K. 1986. Associative nitrogen fixation by KJebsiella
7 spp.: Adhesion sites and inoculation effects on grass roots. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. SS:
8 1074-1079.
9 Holguin, G., Guzman, M.A., and Bashan, Y. 1992. Two new nitrogen-fixing bacteria fiom the
10 rhizosphere of mangrove trees: Their isolation, identification and in vitro interaction with
12 Hall, F.B., and Chanway, C.P. 1992. Rhizosphere colonization and seedling growth promotion of
14 Hicks, B.J., and Silvester, W.B. 1985. Nitrogen fixation associated with the New Zealand
15 mangrove (Avicennia marina (Forsk.) Vierh.. var. resinifera (F0rst.f) Bakh.). Appl. Environ.
17 Hussain. M.I., and Khoja T.M. 1993. Intertidal and subtidal blue-green alga1 mats of open and
18 mangrove areas in the Farasan Archipelago (Saudi Arabia), Red Sea. Bot. Mar. 36: 377-388.
19 Jones. K. 1992. Diurna1 nitrogen fixation in tropical marine cyanobacteria: a comparison between
20 adjacent communities of non-heterocystous Lvngbva sp. and heterocystous Calothrix sp. Br.
13
1 Kloepper, J.W., Lifshitz, R., and Zablotowicz, R.M. 1989. Free-living bacteria1 inocula for
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20 Pandey, A., Shende. S.T.. and Apte. R.G. 1989. Effect of Azotobacter chroococcum seed
21 inoculation on its establishment in rhizosphere, on growth and yield and yield attributing
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16
1 Legends to figures
2 Figure 1. Nitrogen fixation of inoculated Avicennia germinans plantlets with Microcolens sp.
3 Columns represent the amount of chlorophyll a and bars represent the standard
4 deviation. Points (for each day, separately) followed with a different letter diITer
5 significantly at P 5 0.05 by One-way ANOVA.
6 Figure 2. (A) The colonization process along the root surface by Microcoleus sp. one d;ìy
7 afier inoculation. Light microscopy ofpocket-like colony, and (B) SEM ofa
10 sheath on the root surface. (D and E) Inserts showing higher magnification of the
14 Figure 3. (A) On the second day of colonization. small colonies merged into larger.
16 (C) Three days af?er inoculation Microcoleus sp. filaments are embedded in a large
17 sheath.
18 (D) Inset-ts in Fig. 3 C showing filaments moving in and out of the sheaths.
20
17
1 Figure 4. (A). SEM four days afier inoculation, cyanobacteria embedded in thick sheath
4 (C) A heavy sheath production in site of emergence of new roots, and (D)
12 (B) Representative part of the root system of a plantlet completely covered with
13 sheath material.
14 (C) Enlargement of the arrow site in Fig. 5B showing massive multilayer sheath
17 material.
18
18