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Draft:Spanish period of Belize

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Spanish
1500–1638
LocationBelize
Including
  • Conquest (to 1544)
  • Post conquest (to 1638)
Monarch(s)
Leader(s)xx
Key events
  • Spanish conquest
  • Catholic prosyletisation
  • rise of piracy
  • Maya rebellion
Chronology
Postclassic Precolonial class-skin-invert-image

The Spanish period of Belizean history began with the arrival of the Spanish in 1500, and ended with the Tipu rebellion in 1638. xx.[n 1]

Geography

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Political map of Belize prior to Spanish conquest / 2024 map based on Becquey, Feldman, Jones & Roys 1957–2012 / via Commons

At the start of the Spanish period, Belize, then part of the central and southern Maya Lowlands, is thought to have been split into at least two cultures (Yucatecan, Cholan) and four polities (Chetumal, Dzuluinicob, Mopan, Manche Chol).[n 2]

Upon Spanish conquest, said polities came 'theoretically' under Yucatan's (and therefore New Spain's) jurisdiction.[1] Practically, however, the lower polities were further claimed by Verapaz (and therefore Guatemala), resulting in a grey zone of 'two poorly delimited colonial jurisdictions' that persisted into the Precolonial period.[n 3]

History

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Political map of Belize after Spanish conquest / 2024 map based on Becquey, Feldman, Jones & Roys 1957–2012 / via Commons

Conquest

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First contact with the Maya civilisation is ascribed to the 1502 Honduran leg of Columbus's fourth voyage, 1508–1509 Pinzon–Solis voyage, 1511 stranding of Guerrero, Aguilar, and company, or 1517 Hernandez de Cordoba expedition.[n 4] News of these events is thought to have 'travelled rapidly' across the Maya region, trickling down through long-established trade routes, thereby giving even uncontacted polities prior notice of the Spanish.[2] Belize's polities, in particular, 'almost certainly' heard tell of Columbus's 1502 landing, with Chetumal further benefitting from Guerrero's insider knowledge (said sailor having relocated or been relocated there from Ecab).[3]

The first impact of conquest, even prior to its proper start in 1527, is thought to have been either disease, economic collapse, or impressment or enslavement.[4] xx. And so, by the time the Spaniards arrived to conquer, they may have come upon 'a wary population and a hard-hit landscape.'[5]

Conquest did not properly start, however, until Montejo's failed entrada of 1527–1528, which entered Chetumal by sea, and further intended to enter by land.[6] In xx, Montejo decided they needed a more strategic location for their recently founded villa of Salamanca de Xelha.[7] He set off due south in a brig, while his lieutenant, Davila, followed over land.[8] Montejo entered the port of Chetumal (possibly Santa Rita) in xx.[8] Its officials led him to believe that Davila had met an ill end, and so Montajo carried on his reconnaisance south.[9] Davila, meanwhile, was told that Montejo had met an ill end, leading him to turn back without reaching Chetumal.[10] The manoeuvre afforded Chetumal, and lower polities, a brief respite from Spanish incursions.[10]

The next entrada to Chetumal, Davila's of 1531–1533, likewise failed, but this time not so easily.[11] Davila managed to actually take over the port in 1531, rechristening it Villa Real, was were eventually routed in 1532.[12] Chetumal and the lower polities 'were left to their own devices until late 1543 or 1544, when a most cruel conquest of the area bagan.'[13]

The final entrada to Chetumal and lower polities, Melchor and Alonso Pacheco's of 1543–1544, is thought to have been particularly brutal, even for the time.[14] Their atrocities reportedly included the use of dogs, starvation, and mutilation.[15] In the end, though, the Pachecos are thought to have conquered at least Chetumal and Dzuluinicob, founding their villa, Salamanca de Bacalar, in xx 1544.[n 5]

The work of conquest was still not done, however, as widespread revolts erupted in 1546–1547.[16] Not until these were put down could the Yucatan province, including the Bacalar district, 'be said to have been pacified.'[16]

Post conquest

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Bacalar soon found itself cut off from the rest of Yucatan, given 'poor roads [...] many of which remained impassable throughout the year,' and obstructed sea routes dotted by 'dangerous shallows and reefs,' resulting in the villa's protracted poverty, and a tenuous grip on northern Belize.[17]

Catholic proselytisation

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Evangelising work may have begun upon Cortes's 1525 crossing of Mopan and Manche Chol territory, or Montejo's 1528 landing in Chetumal.[n 6] xx. Bacalar may have had no resident clergy in its first two decades, though, as the earliest record of such dates to 1565 with the arrival of xx, a secular priest.[18]

Missionary efforts notably extended into the temporal realm, both to the boon and detriment of natives. Franciscans, for instance, 'in general tried to keep Indian communities separate and protected from encomienda exploitation.'[19] On the other hand, they and the mendicants 'possessed an unchallenged authority' xx and 'planned towns, built churches, and governed and educated [native] communities,' all of which 'came at the expense of indigenous ways of life, and did not reflect indigenous choice but instead Spanish ideas of what was good for the Indians.'[20] xx Missionary efforts were further noted for being 'militantly anti-pagan.'[21]

Franciscan efforts in Belize are thought to have been assidious, and to have extended 'as far south as Monkey River,' with Dominican work more periodic and restricted to southern Belize.[22]

Spanish missions in Belize xx, and are thought to have likely been Franciscan.

The Dominicans of Verapaz were aware of and ventured into at least the Manche Chol territory in southern Belize.[23]

Piracy

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Piracy was first introduced to the Bay in xx by the French.xx In July 1558, they took Truxillo for the first time, followed by Puerto Caballos in 1559.[24]

The French were followed into the Bay by the Dutch and English.[25] xx

The rise in piracy is thought to have 'largely contributed to emptying the coasts' of the Bay by xx.[26]

Maya rebellion

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By the opening years of the seventeenth century, 'resistance and rebellion were in the air' in the Bacalar district.[27] The yet unconquered Peten Itza kingdom is thought to have been the primary driver of resistance, encouraging widespread flight towards its zone of refuge.[28]

Demographics

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The majority of the pre-conquest population is thought to have been settled in riverine towns and villages during the wet and dry seasons, with a minority moving to coastal villages during the dry.[n 7]

xx

Economy

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Belize's pre-conquest polities are thought to have been especially focussed on trade.[29] Archaeological findings strongly suggest Chetumal, for instance, maintained overland or maritime trade with at least Uaymil (a neighbouring polity) and Acalan, Ecab, and Mani (polities further afield), while Dzuluinicob and Manche Chol maintained heavy overland trade with at least Peten Itza.[30]

Society

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Warfare

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Though little is known of Maya warfare prior to conquest, its rules of engagement are broadly thought to have been quite distinct to Spanish ones.[31] Most starkly, Mayanists have noted the 'tacitcal discrepancy between the Spaniards' willingness to kill large numbers of Mayas indiscriminately, and the Mayas' preference for person-to-person combat and the taking of captives.'[32] Furthermore, batttle is thought to have been ritualised, with rules of engagement 'which were agreed upon by all parties concerned–except, of course, Spanish soldiers.'[33] Aims of warfare have also historically been thought to differ, with the Spanish waging war for acquisition of territory, profit, and conversion to Catholicism, and the Maya for acquisition of slaves and human sacrifice.[34] The latter has come under scrutiny recently though, with some scholars arguing that profit (via the acquisition of tributary rights) was likely the primary motive for war.[34]

Government

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Pre conquest

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Maya polities at the eve of conquest are now thought to have been primarily defined as networks of interpersonal relationships, rather than well-delimited territories.[n 8] That is, the polity is thought to have been constituted by a set of people (and whatever space they happened to inhabit), rather than being made up of a demarcated space (and whatever people happened to inhabit it).[35] Polities may have arisen from pre-existing chibals, and the newly-formed interpersonal relationships further knitting them together may have been patron-client ones entailing allegiance, tribute, among other rights and obligations.[36] That is, an ambitious chibal may have risen to power (and thus formed a polity) 'not based on control of resources through acquisition of territory in which the actual resources lay or grew or were extracted, but rather, on control of resources through acquisition of rights to what was produced.'[37]

Chetumal is thought to have been a unitary cuchcabal, last led by Nachan Kan.[38] xx

The first order subdivision of a polity is thought to have been a cah.[37] xx

Post conquest

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xx

Some aspects of pre-conquest political organisation 'were maintained under Spanish rule,' such as tribute arrangements.[39]

Legacy

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In culture

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The Spanish colonial project in Belize is popularly deemed a failure.[40]

Though Spanish conquest and settlement failed, Catholic misions 'had a lasting religious impact,' with Graham contending that Mayas genuinely came to see themselves as Christians, and so kept said faith even upon Spanish withdrawal.[41]

In scholarship

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Spanish records are especially scarce and unreliable for Belize, particularly for its southern half.[n 9] Such historical and ethnographic sources nonetheless remain the mainstay of scholarship on this period, though increasingly supplemented by archaeological evidence, especially in Mayanist works. Graham, for instance, used excavations at Tipu and Lamanai for their study of Hispano–Maya religious interaction.[42]

Timeline

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Prominent Spanish period events in Belize and periphery.[n 10]
Start End Place Event Notes
14 Jul 1502 Aug 1502 BayH Honduran leg of Columbus's fourth voyage cf [n 11]
Jun 1508 29 Aug 1509 BayY Pinzon–Solis voyage cf [n 12]
Jan 1511 Dec 1514 Chet Stranding of Guerrero and company cf [43]
Jan 1515 Dec 1515 Bay First Spanish slaving expeditions cf [44]
Feb 1517 Dec 1517 BayY Hernandez de Cordoba expedition cf [45]
14 Nov 1518 14 Nov 1518 Far Velazquez named Adelantado of Yucatan cf [n 13]
Jan 1519 Dec 1519 xx Alvarez de Pineda map cf [n 14]
Aug 1519 Oct 1521 Near Smallpox or measles epidemic cf [n 15]
3 May 1524 3 May 1524 BayH Triunfo de la Cruz established cf [n 16]
Mar 1525 Dec 1525 MnMp Cortes crossing cf [46]
Jul 1527 Jul 1528 Chet Montejo entrada cf [n 17]
Jun 1531 Mar 1533 Chet Davila entrada cf [n 18]
Jan 1537 Dec 1537 Far Casas–Maldonado pact cf [n 19]
22 Feb 1542 22 Feb 1542 BayH First landing of bozal slaves cf [n 20]
Apr 1543 Dec 1544 ChDz Pachecos entrada cf [n 21]
Jul 1544 1 Feb 1547 Bacl Bienvenida voyage cf [n 22]
Nov 1544 Dec 1544 BayH Braques cruise cf [n 23]
Nov 1546 Jun 1547 Bacl Avila survey cf [n 24]
8 Nov 1546 Mar 1547 Bacl Pixtemax revolt cf [n 25]
Jan 1553 Dec 1553 Bacl Lopez retasacion cf [n 26]
Jul 1558 Dec 1558 BayH Truxillo sacked cf [n 27]
Jan 1559 Dec 1559 Far Campeachy sacked cf [n 28]
Jan 1560 Dec 1561 Far Toral assumes bishopric cf [n 29]
Jan 1565 Dec 1565 Bacl Bacalar parish established cf [n 30]
Apr 1568 Dec 1568 Bacl Garzon entrada and reduccion cf [47]
13 Jan 1572 13 Jan 1572 BayH Lutheran raid of Puerto Caballos cf [n 31]
23 Feb 1573 22 Mar 1573 BayH Honduran leg of Drake's expedition cf [n 32]
Oct 1577 Apr 1578 Bacl Acles sacks Bacalar cf [n 33]
Jan 1598 Dec 1598 BayH Parker sacks Puerto Caballos cf [48]
Jan 1602 Dec 1602 Far Blauveldt sets up base in Bluefields cf [49]
Jan 1603 Dec 1603 ManC Esguerra reduccions cf [n 34]
Jan 1605 Dec 1606 Bacl Bacalar reduccions cf [n 35]
Jan 1608 Dec 1608 Bacl Tipu reduccions cf [n 36]
Jan 1615 Dec 1615 Bacl Sanchez reduccions cf [n 37]
1 Apr 1618 8 Dec 1618 Bacl Fuensalida–Orbita mision cf [n 38]
Jan 1620 Dec 1620 Bacl Diaz visita cf [n 39]
Jan 1620 Dec 1620 ManC Salazar voyage and survey cf [n 40]
9 Mar 1622 31 Mar 1624 Bacl Mirones entrada, Delgado mision, Sakalum massacre cf [50]
Sep 1628 Dec 1630 Bacl Vargas repartimientos and Arguellos inquiry cf [n 41]
Mar 1630 Mar 1631 Bacl Xibun–Soite flight, Sanchez reduccion cf [n 42]
Apr 1631 Dec 1631 ManC First Tovilla entrada cf [n 43]
Jan 1632 Dec 1632 ManC Second Tovilla entrada cf [n 44]
Jan 1633 Dec 1633 ManC Manche Chol revolt cf [n 45]
Jan 1633 Dec 1633 BayH Truxillo sacked by Dutch cf [n 46]
Jan 1637 Dec 1637 Bacl Tipu petition cf [n 47]
Jan 1637 Dec 1637 Bacl Lamanai reduccion cf [n 48]
Jan 1637 Dec 1637 ManC Salazar reduccion cf [n 49]
Jan 1638 Dec 1638 Bacl Cogolludo–Vivar voyage cf [n 50]
Jan 1638 Dec 1638 Bacl Tipu rebellion cf [n 51]

Glossary

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Glossary of terms employed in literature of the Spanish period of Belize.[51]
Term Gloss Definition Notes
adelantado xx someone entrusted with command of a maritime expedition, and granted in advance authority over discovered or conquered lands cf [n 52]
alcalde mayor xx xx —
batab cah governor in Yucatan, most senior officeholder in a cah cf [37]
bozal xx slave recently taken from Africa cf [n 53]
cacique cacique in Yucatan, a batab or higher office holder —
cah community, home in Yucatan, town or village, plus surrounding places to which residents had rights of access or use cf [n 54]
capitan general xx most senior officeholder in a capitania general —
capitania general xx first order military subdivision of a virreinato —
chibal patronym group, lineage in Yucatan, group of individuals sharing surname or paternal ancestry cf [n 55]
cuchcabal kuuchkabal province in Yucatan, a pre-conquest polity cf [n 56]
distrito district first order subdivision of provincia —
encomienda xx arrangement by which a native was required to render labour or tribute to a Spaniard —
entrada xx hostile military mobilisation or action against natives —
fray xx title for friar —
gobernador xx xx —
halach uinic regional lord in Yucatan, most senior office holder in a cuchcabal cf [52]
juicio de residencia xx routine job performance review which public officials underwent upon vacating office —
mision xx ambulating expedition by Spanish clergy or missionaries to proselytise natives —
nacom war chief in Yucatan, xx cf [33]
oidor xx xx —
provincia province first order civil subdivision of a virreinato cf [n 57]
real audiencia audiencia real xx high court of justice with civil (sala de oidores) and criminal (sala de alcaldes) jurisdiction —
reduccion xx forcible relocation or resettlement of natives cf [n 58]
regular regular friar in a mendicant order cf [53]
repartimiento xx collective form of encomienda —
requerimiento xx manifesto conquistadors were required to read to natives before engaging in hostilities —
retasacion xx xx —
secular secular cleric who is not a regular cf [54]
vecino xx someone who paid taxes to and held land or property in a town —
villa xx xx —
virreinato viceroyalty xx —
visita xx xx —

See also

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Notes and references

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Notes

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  1. ^ Masne, para. 19, map 3; Restall, p. 3; Graham, pp. 110–113, 142.
  2. ^ Graham, p. 122.
  3. ^ Graham, pp. 122, 124, 126–127.
  4. ^ Graham, pp. 109, 121, 123–124, 130, 133–134.
  5. ^ Graham, p. 130.
  6. ^ Reichert, pp. 18–19; Graham, pp. 124–127.
  7. ^ Graham, pp. 125–126.
  8. ^ a b Graham, p. 126.
  9. ^ Graham, pp. 126–127.
  10. ^ a b Graham, p. 127.
  11. ^ Graham, p. 128.
  12. ^ Graham, pp. 128–129.
  13. ^ Graham, pp. 132–133.
  14. ^ Graham, pp. 133, 153, 157.
  15. ^ Graham, p. 133.
  16. ^ a b Graham, p. 132.
  17. ^ Reichert, pp. 20–21; Masne, map 2; Graham, p. 111.
  18. ^ Graham, pp. 142, 151.
  19. ^ Graham, p. 141.
  20. ^ Graham, pp. 144–145.
  21. ^ Graham, pp. 143, 150–151.
  22. ^ Graham, p. 138-139, 148.
  23. ^ Graham, pp. 135, 139.
  24. ^ Masne, para. 27; Reichert, p. 22.
  25. ^ Masne, para. 28.
  26. ^ Masne, para. 29.
  27. ^ Graham, p. 50.
  28. ^ Graham, pp. 50–51.
  29. ^ Graham, pp. 45, 47, 58, 116, 119.
  30. ^ Graham, pp. 47, 52, 157.
  31. ^ Graham, pp. 40–41.
  32. ^ Graham, p. 41.
  33. ^ a b Graham, p. 42.
  34. ^ a b Graham, pp. 40–43.
  35. ^ Graham, pp. 34, 36.
  36. ^ Graham, pp. 31, 34, 38.
  37. ^ a b c Graham, p. 38.
  38. ^ Graham, p. 47.
  39. ^ Graham, p. 37.
  40. ^ Graham, pp. 105, 107–108.
  41. ^ Restall, p. 10; Graham, p. 3.
  42. ^ Graham, pp. 1, 3–4, 12, 16–19.
  43. ^ RAH, art. 'Gonzalo Guerrero'; Reichert, pp. 14–15; Graham, pp. 124–125.
  44. ^ Graham, p. 130.
  45. ^ Reichert, p. 15.
  46. ^ Graham, p. 157.
  47. ^ Graham, p. 314.
  48. ^ Reichert, p. 22.
  49. ^ Reichert, p. 23.
  50. ^ Graham, p. 315; Jones, pp. 157–158, 163.
  51. ^ RAE; RAE a; Graham, pp. 375–384 xx add to tab.
  52. ^ Graham, p. 46.
  53. ^ Graham, pp. 138–139.
  54. ^ Graham, p. 139.
  1. ^ The Spanish period is variously dated in literature. See Periodisation of the history of Belize for further discussion. Some terms used in a historical sense, eg Bay of Honduras to mean the gulf bound by Cape Catoche and Cape Gracias a Dios (Reichert, pp. 11, 13; Graham, p. 112); Yucatan Peninsula to mean headland bound by Laguna de Terminos and Amatique Bay (Aliphat, pp. 870–872; Restall, p. 8).
  2. ^ Becquey, paras. 10, 19; Graham, pp. 32–33, 108. With possibly a number of unorganised settlements, eg in cayes and western Orange Walk. Political geography of Belize prior to conquest 'still not known with certainty' though (Graham, p. 29). Furthermore, polities may have been primarily organised as interpersonal networks, rather than 'a delimited space or place' (Graham, pp. 30–34).
  3. ^ Masne, para. 19, map 3; Graham, pp. 111–112, 134–135. Lower Toledo possibly claimed by a Guatemalan province other than Verapaz, at least since 1570 (Graham, p. 112). Notably, Yucatan and Guatemala contested the conquest of Peten (including Manche Chol territory) in the 1680s–1690s, with the latter winning secular and the former ecclesiastical jurisdiction in the end (Aliphat, pp. 851–853, 865).
  4. ^ Reichert, pp. 13–15; Graham, pp. 122–125. In particular, the second is thought to have sailed up Belize's coast or reef, and the third to have set foot in the country by 1514 (Reichert, p. 14). Other candidates possible, given likelihood of maritime voyages 'for which no records are preserved' (Graham, p. 123).
  5. ^ (Graham, pp. 133, 157). They were originally tasked with conquering territory 'as far south as the Golfo Dulce' (Graham, p. 133).
  6. ^ Graham, pp. 126, 131, 140, 157. Franciscan friars with Cortes are known to have preached in Peten Itza, to moderate success (Graham, p. 157). Montejo's secular chaplain is likewise known to have proselytised enthusiastically (Graham, pp. 126, 131, 140).
  7. ^ Except for San Pedro and Santa Rita, coastal pre-conquest settlements seem to have been seasonal villages only (Graham, pp. 118–119).
  8. ^ (Graham, pp. 29–34, 46). Originally elucidated by Roys, and historically since the Spanish period, 'rather too strictly in terms of territorial boundaries' (Graham, pp. 29–30).
  9. ^ Geographically and ethnographically (Aliphat, pp. 839–840, 845–846, 849–851, 869–872; Becquey, paras. 2-3; Masne, para. 34, fn. 31; Restall, pp. 5–6; Graham, pp. 37, 39, 46–47, 110–111.). In this regard, Graham noted –

    Belize never crystallised as a place in European consciousness of the sixteenth century. If Belize was anything, it was a liminal, elusive, shifting, dangerous space, neither land nor sea, neither here nor there, betwixt and between an idea of a ‘Yucatan’ and an idea of a ‘Kingdom of Guatemala.’

    — Graham, p. 107.
    Which sentiment Restall felt applied likewise into the Precolonial period (Restall, pp. 2–3).
  10. ^ Upper and lower bounds given. Some dates in Julian calendar. Polities abbreviated as Bacl (Bacalar), ChDz (Chet and Dzul), Chet (Chetumal), Dzul (Dzuluinicob), Far (none of those listed here), ManC (Manche Chol), MnMp (ManC and Mopn), Mopn (Mopan), Near (surrounding polities). Bodies of water abbreviated as BayA (waters off Amatique or otherwise equidistant from BayH and BayY), BayH (waters off Honduras including islands), BayY (waters of Belize and Quintana Roo including atolls, cayes, islands, reefs), Bay (any of the preceding). No other places given. Only one place given per entry. Places in or off Belize given in preference to or to exclusion of others.
  11. ^ RAH, art. 'Cristóbal Colón'; Graham, p. 122. Earliest notice of Honduras Bay (Reichert, p. 13). Though Pinzon possibly in Bay in 1496–1499 (Graham, p. 123).
  12. ^ RAH, art. 'Vicente Yáñez Pinzón'; Reichert, p. 14; Graham, pp. 122–123. Possibly noted the Cockscombs, Belize's 'most conspicuous landmark from the sea' (Graham, p. 122). Pinzon possibly in Honduras Bay in 1496–1499 too (Graham, p. 123).
  13. ^ First such (RAH, art. 'Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar'). Title and offices pass to Montejo on 8 Dec 1526 (RAH, art. 'Francisco de Montejo').
  14. ^ First to depict Yucatan as a peninsula 'clearly and with some accuracy' (Reichert, p. 8).
  15. ^ xx
  16. ^ Earliest Spanish settlement in Bay (Masne, map 2). First founded 'a few miles east of Puerto de Caballos' (Melendez, p. 76). Relocated east and renamed Truxillo (modern Trujillo) on 18 May 1525 (Melendez, p. 76). (Confused with Puerto Caballos (settled 1525 and 1544–1605; port use since 1524 and especially since 1536) in Reichert, p. 16 (Melendez, pp. 69–70, 72–73). San Gil de Buenavista also established 1524, but in mouth of Golfo Dulce, and shortly moved inland to Valle de Naco by 1527 (Melendez, p. 71; Reichert, p. 16).)
  17. ^ Graham, pp. 125–127. Including earliest (non-permanent) Spanish settlement in Peninsula, Salamanca de Xelha, near Tulum (Reichert, pp. 18–19).
  18. ^ Also called de Avila entrada (Reichert, p. 19). Including earliest (non-permanent) Spanish settlement in Belize, Villa Real de Chetumal, near Chetumal (Reichert, p. 19). Including coasting down the shore of Belize (likely inside the reef) from Chetumal Bay to Truxillo (Reichert, p. 19; Graham, pp. 107, 128–130).
  19. ^ xx. Las Casas spent 1537–1539 setting up Verapaz, the only colony where he deemed the Spanish had ius in re due to natives' 'freely given consent' (RAH, art. 'Bartolomé de las Casas').
  20. ^ First in Bay and Central America; 150 slaves (Masne, para. 25).
  21. ^ Graham, pp. 132–133. Including founding of Salamanca de Bacalar in 1544 (Reichert, p. 20).
  22. ^ Jones, p. 42; Graham, pp. 111, 158–160, 314. Earliest known friar in Belize (Graham, pp. 111, 314). Stayed in Bacalar 'for an unknown period of time' (Graham, p. 158).
  23. ^ xx
  24. ^ xx
  25. ^ xx
  26. ^ xx
  27. ^ Earliest such by pirates in Bay (Masne, para. 27; Reichert, p. 22).
  28. ^ Earliest such by pirates in Yucatan (Reichert, p. 25).
  29. ^ Fourth appointed but first to take office and reside in Yucatan (Graham, pp. 323–324).
  30. ^ xx
  31. ^ xx
  32. ^ xx
  33. ^ xx
  34. ^ 'Officially, the first Spanish incursion' into Manche Chol territory, though 'the very first contact' attributed to Davila's 1524 founding of San Gil Buenavista near Nito, or Cortes's 1525 crossing to Nito (Becquey, para. 20).
  35. ^ xx
  36. ^ xx
  37. ^ xx
  38. ^ Graham, p. 315; Jones, pp. 135–152. Orbita visited Peten Itza 'probably in 1617' (Graham, p. 314). Fuensalida visited again in 1619 (Graham, p. 315).
  39. ^ xx
  40. ^ First to circumnavigate the peninsula (Aliphat, p. 853). Map not extant (Aliphat, pp. 853–854).
  41. ^ xx
  42. ^ xx
  43. ^ Proved 'a real failure' (Becquey, para. 20). Breach of Verapaz's and Dominicans' pacifist policy (Becquey, para. 20).
  44. ^ Tovilla loses Real Audiencia of Guatemala support (Becquey, para. 20). Followed by a period of 'about forty years [to 1670s] during which the Manche Chol were again out of Spanish rule' (Becquey, para. 20).
  45. ^ xx
  46. ^ Resulting in period of 'decline and abandonment that lasted until the second half of the 18th century' (Reichert, p. 22).
  47. ^ xx
  48. ^ xx
  49. ^ xx
  50. ^ Jones, pp. 311–312, no. 31. Cogolludo possibly crosses Belize (Graham, p. 316).
  51. ^ xx
  52. ^ xx
  53. ^ As opposed to a ladino ie Hispanicised slave (Masne, para. 25).
  54. ^ Graham, pp. 37–38. Not territorially bound Graham, pp. 34, 37–38. '[T]he fundamental unit of Maya society and culture' (Graham, p. 37).
  55. ^ Thought to have formed 'a kind of extended family' within each cah, and fostered kinship outside one's cah, at least after conquest (Graham, p. 38).
  56. ^ Either unitary or confederal (Graham, p. 46).
  57. ^ In Yucatan, also a pre-conquest polity, and succeeding first order subdivisions of distritos (Graham, p. 37).
  58. ^ To concentrated settlements within their original territory, as opposed to expatriation, 'a coercive and violent means' which 'very quickly led to the assimilation and disappearance of' peoples like the Manche Chol (Becquey, para. 47).

References

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  1. Aliphat F MM, Caso Barrera L (2013). "La construcción histórica de las tierras bajas mayas del sur por medio de mapas esquemáticos". Historia Mexicana. 63 (2): 839–875. JSTOR 23608600.
  2. Becquey C (2012). "Quelles frontières pour les populations cholanes?". Ateliers d’anthropologie. 37. doi:10.4000/ateliers.9181.
  3. Breuer KH (1993). Colonies of Happenstance: The English Settlements in Central America, 1525–1787 (MA thesis). University of Texas at Artlington. ProQuest 1352917.
  4. Breuer KH (2004). Reshaping the Cosmos: Maya Society on the Yucatecan Frontier (PhD thesis). Vanderbilt University. ProQuest 3127229.
  5. Escamilla Peraza R (2012). Los caminos de Yucatán en la encrucijada del siglo XVI (MA thesis). Centro de Investigaciones y Estudios Superiores en Antropología Social.
  6. Espinosa Sanchez JM, ed. (2011). Arte e historia en el sur colonial de Quintana Roo, siglos XVI–XVIII. Mexico City: Plaza y Valdés Editores. hdl:20.500.12249/1468. ISBN 9786074023879.
  7. Feldman LH, ed. (2000). Lost Shores, Forgotten Peoples: Spanish Explorations of the South East Mayan Lowlands. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press. ISBN 0-8223-2630-2. LCCN 00029397.
  8. Graham E (2011). Maya Christians and Their Churches in Sixteenth-Century Belize. Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida. ISBN 978-0-8130-3666-3. LCCN 2011011290.
  9. Jones GD (1989). Maya Resistance to Spanish Rule: Time and History on a Colonial Frontier. Albuquerque, New Mexico: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-1161-X. LCCN 89-36041.
  10. Jones GD (1998). The Conquest of the Last Maya Kingdom. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-3317-1. LCCN 98-16556.
  11. le Masne C (2011). "L'invention de la façade caraïbe centraméricaine: indios, negros, y piratas". Amerika. 4. doi:10.4000/amerika.2210.
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  13. Melendez Chaverri C (1977). "Ciudades fundadas en la América Central en el siglo XVI (sinópsis alfabética)". Anuario de Estudios Centroamericanos. 3: 57–79. JSTOR 25661609.
  14. Morales Rosas JJ (2008) [First published 1994 by CIE]. Bacalar: XVI siglos de historia (reprint of 1st ed.). Chetumal, Mexico: Secretaría de Cultura del Gobierno del Estado de Quintana Roo. ISBN 978-607-7707-06-6.
  15. Murillo DV, Schwaller RC, eds. (2024). Overlooked Places and Peoples: Indigenous and African Resistance in Colonial Spanish America, 1500-1800. New York: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781032721460. ISBN 978-1-032-72146-0. LCCN 2023059086.
  16. Quezada S (2014) [First published 1993 by CM in Spanish]. Maya Lords and Lordship: The Formation of Colonial Society in Yucatán, 1350–1600. Translated by Rugeley T. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-4422-1. LCCN 2013019099.
  17. Real Academia de la Historia. "Diccionario Biográfico electrónico".
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  20. Reichert R (2017). "El golfo de Honduras: estrategias geopolíticas y militares de una frontera imperial, siglos XVI–XVIII". Tzintzun. 65: 9–40. doi:10.35830/treh.vi65.623. ISSN 2007-963X.
  21. Restall M (2019). "Creating 'Belize': The Mapping and Naming History of a Liminal Locale". Terrae Incognitae. 51 (1): 1–31. doi:10.1080/00822884.2019.1573962.
  22. Smith ME, Berdan FF (2003). The Postclassic Mesoamerican World. Salt Lake City, Utah: University of Utah Press. ISBN 0-87480-734-4. LCCN 2002013834.
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