Women's suffrage in Ohio: Difference between revisions
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{{Short description|History of women's suffrage in Ohio}} |
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[[File:Let_Ohio_Women_Vote.jpg|thumb|Let Ohio Women Vote postcard |
[[File:Let_Ohio_Women_Vote.jpg|thumb|Let Ohio Women Vote postcard]] |
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[[Women's rights]] issues in [[Ohio]] were put into the public eye in the early 1850s. Women inspired by the [[Declaration of Sentiments|Declaration of Rights and Sentiments]] at the 1848 [[Seneca Falls Convention]] created newspapers and then set up their own conventions, including the 1850 [[Ohio Women's Convention at Salem in 1850|Ohio Women's Rights Convention]] which was the first women's right's convention outside of [[New York (state)|New York]] and the first that was planned and run solely by women. These early efforts towards women's suffrage affected people in other states and helped energize the women's suffrage movement in Ohio. Women's rights groups formed throughout the state, with the [[Ohio Women's Rights Association]] (OWRA) founded in 1853. Other local women's suffrage groups are formed in the late 1860s. In 1894, women won the right to vote in [[Board of education|school board]] elections in Ohio. The [[National American Woman Suffrage Association]] (NAWSA) was headquartered for a time in [[Warren, Ohio]]. Two efforts to vote on a constitutional amendment, one in 1912 and the other 1914 were unsuccessful, but drew national attention to women's suffrage. In 1916, women in [[East Cleveland, Ohio|East Cleveland]] gained the right to vote in [[Municipality|municipal]] elections. A year later, women in [[Lakewood, Ohio]] and [[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]] were given the right to vote in municipal elections. Also in 1917, the Reynolds Bill, which would allow women to vote in the next presidential election was passed, and then quickly repealed by a voter referendum sponsored by special-interest groups. On June 16, 1919, Ohio became the fifth state to ratify the [[Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Nineteenth Amendment]]. |
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== Early efforts == |
== Early efforts == |
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[[File:Sojourner_Truth_postcard.jpg|thumb|[[Sojourner Truth]] postcard |
[[File:Sojourner_Truth_postcard.jpg|thumb|[[Sojourner Truth]] postcard]] |
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The [[Declaration of Sentiments|Declaration of Rights and Sentiments]] created at the 1848 [[Seneca Falls Convention]] inspired many women in [[Ohio]] to work towards women's rights.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web |
The [[Declaration of Sentiments|Declaration of Rights and Sentiments]] created at the 1848 [[Seneca Falls Convention]] inspired many women in [[Ohio]] to work towards women's rights.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web |title=First Women's Rights Movement |url=https://ohiohistorycentral.org/w/First_Women%27s_Rights_Movement |access-date=2020-09-06|website=Ohio History Central}}</ref> [[Elizabeth Bisbee]] of Columbus decided to create a [[women's suffrage]] newspaper, the ''Alliance'' after reading the Declaration.<ref name=":9" /> Heading into the early 1850s, there began to be considerable support for women's suffrage in Ohio.{{Sfn|Shilling|1916|p=167}} |
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The first [[Ohio Women's Convention at Salem in 1850|Ohio Women's Rights Convention]] took place in [[Salem, Ohio]] in April |
The first [[Ohio Women's Convention at Salem in 1850|Ohio Women's Rights Convention]] took place in [[Salem, Ohio]] in April 1850.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Ohio and the 19th Amendment |url=https://www.nps.gov/articles/ohio-and-the-19th-amendment.htm|access-date=2020-09-04 |website=U.S. National Park Service}}</ref> President of the convention was [[Betsy Mix Cowles]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Women's Suffrage |url=https://massillonmuseum.org/442|access-date=2020-09-05|website=Massillon Museum}}</ref> This convention, attended by around 500 people, was the first women's right's convention held outside of [[New York (state)|New York]].<ref name=":1" /> It was also the first convention completely organized and run by women.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web|title=Ohio's Connections|url=https://www.ohiosuffragecentennial.com/connections/|access-date=2020-09-12|website=Ohio Suffrage Centennial}}</ref> Only women were allowed to speak or vote during the convention.{{Sfn|Cravens|1887|p=7}} Women said of the men attending the convention, "They then learned for the first time in the world's history how it felt to sit in silence when questions in which they were interested were being discussed."{{Sfn|Cravens|1887|p=7}} Women at this convention published ''Address to the Women of Ohio''.{{Sfn|Little|2005|p=186}} The effects of the convention were later felt as far west as [[Wyoming]], where [[John Allen Campbell]] in 1869 signed the first bill granting equal women's suffrage in the [[United States]].<ref name=":14" /> Campbell had attended the Salem conference as a young man.<ref name=":14" /> |
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In 1851, a second Ohio Women's Rights Convention took place in [[Akron, Ohio]] |
In 1851, a second [[Ohio Women's Convention at Akron in 1851|Ohio Women's Rights Convention]] took place in [[Akron, Ohio]]<ref name=":1" /> with [[Frances Dana Barker Gage|Frances Gage]] as president.{{Sfn|Cravens|1887|p=7}} [[Sojourner Truth]] was one of the speakers at the Akron convention,<ref name=":1" /> presenting a speech, ''[[Ain't I a Woman?|"Ain't I A Woman?"]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Cain|first=Samantha|date=17 December 2017|title=Sojourner Truth Building; of Sojourner Truth's Women's Rights Speech "Ain't I a Woman?"|url=https://theclio.com/|access-date=2020-09-12|website=Clio: Your Guide to History}}</ref> Truth's words had a profound effect on the audience.{{Sfn|Cravens|1887|p=8}} One of the women who was inspired by Truth was [[Cleveland]] suffragist, [[Caroline Severance]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Caroline Severance and Women's Rights Associations |url=https://scalar.case.edu/19th-at-100/caroline-severance-and-womens-rights-associations |access-date=2020-09-07|website=19th at 100: Commemorating the Suffrage Struggle and Its Legacies in Northeast Ohio}}</ref> |
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At these conferences and at other women's rights meetings, Gage collected signatures to influence delegates to the [[Constitution of Ohio#1851 Constitution|1850 Ohio Constitutional Convention]] to include women's suffrage.<ref name=":9" /> Many people also submitted petitions to the convention to allow |
At these conferences and at other women's rights meetings, Gage collected signatures to influence delegates to the [[Constitution of Ohio#1851 Constitution|1850 Ohio Constitutional Convention]] to include women's suffrage.<ref name=":9" /> Many people also submitted petitions to the convention to allow voting "regardless of color or sex."{{Sfn|Shilling|1916|pp=167–168}} Thousands of signatures were collected and the [[debate]]s at the Constitutional Convention were so heated, that the exact words were not kept in the official records of the proceedings.{{Sfn|Little|2005|pp=187–188}} The delegates to the convention decided to only extend voting rights to [[White people|white]] men and by a large majority voted against both women's suffrage and suffrage for [[African Americans|African-American]] people.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ohio Constitutional Convention of 1850-1851 |url=https://ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Ohio_Constitutional_Convention_of_1850-1851|access-date=2020-09-06 |website=Ohio History Central}}</ref> Only delegates from the [[Connecticut Western Reserve|Western Reserve]] area of Ohio favored giving the vote to African-Americans in the state.{{Sfn|Steinglass|Scarselli|2004|p=22}} |
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On May 27, 1852, a third Women's Rights Convention was held in [[Massillon, Ohio]].<ref name=":9" />{{Sfn|Little|2005|p=190}} The convention drew women from all over Ohio and from different social classes.{{Sfn|Little|2005|p=190}} Attendees of the convention decided to create the [[Ohio Woman's Rights Association]] (OWRA).<ref name=":9" /> OWRA met for the first time in [[Ravenna, Ohio|Ravenna]] on May 25, 1853 with members from around the state.<ref name=":9" /> The group extended membership to any interested person and the first president was Severance.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |
On May 27, 1852, a third [[Ohio Women's Convention at Massillon in 1852|Women's Rights Convention]] was held in [[Massillon, Ohio]].<ref name=":9" />{{Sfn|Little|2005|p=190}} The convention drew women from all over Ohio and from different social classes.{{Sfn|Little|2005|p=190}} Attendees of the convention decided to create the [[Ohio Woman's Rights Association]] (OWRA).<ref name=":9" /> OWRA met for the first time in [[Ravenna, Ohio|Ravenna]] on May 25, 1853 with members from around the state.<ref name=":9" /> The group extended membership to any interested person and the first president was Severance.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web|title=Ohio Women's Rights Association |url=https://ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Ohio_Women%27s_Rights_Association |access-date=2020-09-06|website=Ohio History Central}}</ref> The group immediately began working on a petition to present to the [[Ohio General Assembly|Ohio Legislature]] requesting women's suffrage.<ref name=":10" /> On April 1, 1854, Severance brought the petition to the [[Ohio Senate]].<ref name=":10" /> |
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Cleveland held the fourth [[National Women's Rights Convention]] on October 6, 1853.{{Sfn|Little|2005|p=191}} Well-known suffragists such as [[Susan B. Anthony]], [[Amelia Bloomer]], [[Antoinette Brown Blackwell|Antoinette Brown]], [[Lucretia Mott]] and [[Lucy Stone]] all came to participate in the convention that drew women from around the country.{{Sfn|Little|2005|p=191}} At |
Cleveland held the fourth [[National Women's Rights Convention]] on October 6, 1853.{{Sfn|Little|2005|p=191}} Well-known suffragists such as [[Susan B. Anthony]], [[Amelia Bloomer]], [[Antoinette Brown Blackwell|Antoinette Brown]], [[Lucretia Mott]] and [[Lucy Stone]] all came to participate in the convention that drew women from around the country.{{Sfn|Little|2005|p=191}} At the convention, women discussed various women's rights.{{Sfn|Little|2005|p=192}} One of the rights they outlined was "That women be exempted from [[tax]]ation until their right of suffrage is practically acknowledged."{{Sfn|Little|2005|p=192}} In 1855 on October 17 the sixth National Women's Rights Convention was held in [[Cincinnati]].{{Sfn|Little|2005|p=192}} |
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A national suffrage organization, the [[American Woman Suffrage Association]] (AWSA) was established in [[Cleveland]] in 1869 on |
A national suffrage organization, the [[American Woman Suffrage Association]] (AWSA) was established in [[Cleveland]] in 1869 on November 24 and 25 at a convention held at [[Case Hall]].<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|last=Morton |first=Marian|title=How Cleveland Women Got the Vote - and What They Did With It|url=http://teachingcleveland.org/category/progressive-eratom-l-johnsonnewton-d-baker-19/how-cleveland-women-got-the-vote/|access-date=2020-09-06 |website=Teaching Cleveland Digital}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite web|date=2018-05-11|title=AMERICAN WOMEN'S SUFFRAGE ASSN.|url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/a/american-womens-suffrage-assn|access-date=2020-09-10 |website=Encyclopedia of Cleveland History {{!}} Case Western Reserve University}}</ref> AWSA was meant to be a "less radical" group compared to the [[National Woman Suffrage Association]] (NWSA).<ref name=":12" /> Early on, [[Toledo, Ohio|Toledo]] and [[Dayton, Ohio|Dayton]] also created women's suffrage organizations. The Toledo Woman's Suffrage Association (TWSA) and the Dayton Woman's Suffrage Association were both formed around 1869.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last1=Borchardt|first1=Jackie|last2=Balmert|first2=Jessie|date=14 June 2019|title=100 years ago Ohio ratified the 19th Amendment. Here are 6 women who made suffrage reality |url=https://www.cincinnati.com/story/news/politics/2019/06/14/womens-suffrage-six-ohio-women-who-helped-get-women-vote/1330734001/|access-date=2020-09-04|website=The Cincinnati Enquirer}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=McCarty|first=Mary|date=18 August 2020|title=The empowering story of how Dayton was at the forefront of women's suffrage movement|url=https://www.dayton.com/local/the-empowering-story-of-how-dayton-was-at-the-forefront-of-womens-suffrage-movement/BW35OO6CHBHCBPMK2ZFASD2WUM/|access-date=2020-09-05|website=Dayton.com}}</ref> |
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Some women in [[South Newbury, Ohio]] voted in elections between 1871 and 1876, though the women's votes were never counted.<ref name=":8" /> In 1873, women brought a petition for women's suffrage to another Ohio constitutional convention.{{Sfn|Little|2005|p=197}} The petitions had almost 8,000 signatures and represented thirty-three Ohio counties.{{Sfn|Shilling|1916|p=170}} At the |
Some women in [[South Newbury, Ohio]] voted in elections between 1871 and 1876, though the women's votes were never counted.<ref name=":8" /> In 1873, women brought a petition for women's suffrage to another Ohio constitutional convention.{{Sfn|Little|2005|p=197}} The petitions had almost 8,000 signatures and represented thirty-three Ohio counties.{{Sfn|Shilling|1916|p=170}} At the convention, delegates formed a women's suffrage committee to report on the issue and submitted an equal suffrage proposal to the convention.{{Sfn|Shilling|1916|p=172}} The proposal was debated for two days and some delegates used "the [[Bible]] to prove that man's position was and should be superior to that of woman."{{Sfn|Shilling|1916|p=172}} Others argued that women's suffrage would help women be better wives, mothers and [[Christians]].{{Sfn|Shilling|1916|p=172}} The proposal never came before the electors of the convention and failed by 4 votes.{{Sfn|Shilling|1916|p=172}} |
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[[File:Invitation_to_1898_National_Woman_Suffrage_Conference_in_Cincinnati.jpg|thumb|Invitation to 1898 National Woman Suffrage Conference in [[Cincinnati]] |
[[File:Invitation_to_1898_National_Woman_Suffrage_Conference_in_Cincinnati.jpg|thumb|Invitation to 1898 National Woman Suffrage Conference in [[Cincinnati]]]] |
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In May |
In May 1885, the [[Ohio Woman Suffrage Association]] (OWSA) was founded in [[Painesville, Ohio|Painesville]].<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|title=Ohio Woman Suffrage Association |url=https://ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Ohio_Woman_Suffrage_Association |access-date=2020-09-05|website=Ohio History Central}}</ref> OWSA focused on changing local and state laws to provide suffrage to women.<ref name=":6" /> |
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After the creation of the WCTU, there was |
After the creation of the WCTU, there was an influence on women's suffrage around the state. In [[Shelby, Ohio|Shelby]], a small town with a disproportionate number of saloons, women became involved in political organizing over prohibition and creating alternative places for men to visit, such as reading rooms.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|last=Drain|first=Christina Yetzer|date=2 September 2020|title=Shelby was a hotbed of activity during women's suffrage movement|url=https://www.richlandsource.com/area_history/shelby-was-a-hotbed-of-activity-during-womens-suffrage-movement/article_67658720-ea5f-11ea-98a8-2b02630038fb.html|access-date=2020-09-07|website=Richland Source}}</ref> The Shelby Equal Franchise Association was also created as an offshoot of the WCTU.<ref name=":11" /> |
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To counter the idea that women |
To counter the idea that women did not really want to vote, [[Louise Southworth]] in Cleveland became the national superintendent of enrollment.{{Sfn|Anthony|1902|p=878}} Starting in 1888, she created a list of people in Ohio who endorsed women's suffrage.{{Sfn|Anthony|1902|p=878}} |
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Women gained the right to vote in school board elections in 1894 |
Women gained the right to vote in school board elections in 1894 but the right did not extend to allowing women to vote on bonds involving school infrastructure.{{Sfn|Upton|1910|p=93}}{{Sfn|Upton|1910|p=188}} The [[National Woman Suffrage Conference]] was held in Cincinnati in April 1898.{{Sfn|Staples|2020|p=79}} |
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| ⚫ | In 1899, [[Harriet Taylor Upton]] was elected president of OWSA.<ref name=":2" /> Upton also served as the [[treasurer]] for the [[National American Woman Suffrage Association]] (NAWSA) from 1894 to 1910.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |last=Dismore|first=David M.|date=3 September 2020|title=Today in Feminist History: The Temporary Halt in Ohio (September 3, 1912)|url=https://msmagazine.com/2020/09/03/today-in-feminist-history-the-temporary-halt-in-ohio-september-3-1912/|access-date=2020-09-05|website=Ms. Magazine}}</ref> Starting in the Spring of 1900, Upton visited fifteen important Ohio towns and helped organize local suffrage efforts there.{{Sfn|Anthony|1902|p=879}} By the end of 1900, she had doubled participation in organized suffrage efforts.{{Sfn|Anthony|1902|p=880}} |
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The [[National Woman Suffrage Conference]] was held in Cincinnati in April of 1898.{{Sfn|Staples|2020|p=79}} |
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| ⚫ | In 1900, the [[Ohio General Assembly]] considered a suffrage bill in January.<ref name=":17">{{Cite news|date=1900-01-27|title=Women Suffrage Again|pages=4|work=The Dayton Herald|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/59638675/the-dayton-herald/|access-date=2020-09-20|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> ''[[Dayton Daily News|The Dayton Herald]]'' pointed out that it was significant that the [[Ohio Federation of Women's Clubs]] (OFWC) had not yet endorsed women's suffrage.<ref name=":17" /> |
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| ⚫ | In 1899, [[Harriet Taylor Upton]] was elected president of OWSA.<ref name=":2" /> Upton also served as the [[treasurer]] for the [[National American Woman Suffrage Association]] (NAWSA) from 1894 to 1910.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Dismore|first=David M.|date=3 September 2020|title=Today in Feminist History: The Temporary Halt in Ohio (September 3, 1912)|url=https://msmagazine.com/2020/09/03/today-in-feminist-history-the-temporary-halt-in-ohio-september-3-1912/ |
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| ⚫ | In 1903, NAWSA moved their national headquarters to [[Warren, Ohio]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|last=Morton|first=Marian J.|title=Elizabeth J. Hauser: The Woman Who Wrote Tom L. Johnson's Autobiography |url=http://teachingcleveland.org/elizabeth-j-hauser-the-woman-who-wrote-tom-l-johnsons-autobiography-by-marian-j-morton/|access-date=2020-09-05|website=Teaching Cleveland Digital}}</ref> NAWSA used [[Harriet Taylor Upton House|Upton's house]] as a temporary center before moving to the [[Trumbull County, Ohio|Trumbull County]] Courthouse in 1905.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Shiller|first=Beth|date=4 June 2019|title=Upton House honors women's right to vote |url=https://www.tribtoday.com/news/local-news/2019/06/upton-house-honors-womens-right-to-vote/|access-date=2020-09-05|website=Tribune Chronicle}}</ref> |
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| ⚫ | In 1900, the [[Ohio General Assembly]] considered a suffrage bill in January.<ref name=":17">{{Cite news |
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| ⚫ | In 1903, NAWSA moved their national headquarters to [[Warren, Ohio]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|last=Morton|first=Marian J. |
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== School board suffrage == |
== School board suffrage == |
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In the Ohio House of Representatives, E. W. Doty introduced a bill for both women's suffrage on school board elections and to allow them to serve on these boards.{{Sfn|Anthony|1902|p=881}} Doty's bill lost by seven votes and he brought it forward again in the House in 1893, where it lost by six votes.{{Sfn|Anthony|1902|p=881}} In January |
In the Ohio House of Representatives, E. W. Doty introduced a bill for both women's suffrage on school board elections and to allow them to serve on these boards.{{Sfn|Anthony|1902|p=881}} Doty's bill lost by seven votes and he brought it forward again in the House in 1893, where it lost by six votes.{{Sfn|Anthony|1902|p=881}} In January 1894, Representative Gustavus A. Wood introduced another bill, that was again narrowly defeated.{{Sfn|Anthony|1902|p=881}} [[Caroline McCullough Everhard]], who helped form the Equal Rights Association of Massillon and Canton, was a wealthy woman who was taxed, but unable to vote.<ref name=":0" /> In 1894, Everhard and Governor [[William McKinley]] worked together to lobby Ohio lawmakers on the issue of women voting in school board elections.<ref name=":0" /> Everhard convinced Senator William T. Clark to bring up a school board suffrage bill in the Ohio Senate.{{Sfn|Anthony|1902|p=881}} The Senate bill, which also would provide the right for women to run for the school board, passed on April 10 in the Senate and the House on April 24.{{Sfn|Anthony|1902|p=881}} |
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In 1895, women voted for the first time in school board elections.<ref name=":15">{{Cite web|last=Bulford|first=Sally Farran|date=8 September 1997|title=Ohio Continues Lead for Women's Rights|url=https://www.bizjournals.com/columbus/stories/1997/09/08/editorial2.html |
In 1895, women voted for the first time in school board elections.<ref name=":15">{{Cite web|last=Bulford|first=Sally Farran|date=8 September 1997|title=Ohio Continues Lead for Women's Rights |url=https://www.bizjournals.com/columbus/stories/1997/09/08/editorial2.html|access-date=2020-09-12|website=Columbus Business First}}</ref> Everhard also worked to promote [[Elizabeth Folger]] in her successful run for the school board in [[Massillon, Ohio]] in 1895.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Brown|first=Gary|date=24 September 2018|title=The Monday After: Caroline McCullough Everhard was voice for women's rights |url=https://www.cantonrep.com/news/20180924/monday-after-caroline-mccullough-everhard-was-voice-for-womens-rights|access-date=2020-09-05|website=The Repository}}</ref> In [[Xenia, Ohio]], Mary Moore and [[Eliza Carruthers]] also won positions on their local school boards.<ref name=":15"/> |
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== State amendments == |
== State amendments == |
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[[File:1912_Ohio_women_Headquarters.jpg|thumb|1912 Ohio Woman Suffrage Association Headquarters in Cleveland |
[[File:1912_Ohio_women_Headquarters.jpg|thumb|1912 Ohio Woman Suffrage Association Headquarters in Cleveland]] |
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When [[Women's suffrage in California|California]] gave women the right to vote in 1911, many women in Ohio were equally encouraged in their work on women's suffrage.{{Sfn|Shilling|1916|p=173}} In 1911, [[Elizabeth Hauser]] of Cleveland questioned each of the six candidates running for mayor on whether they supported women's suffrage and only one publicly did not.<ref name=":4" /> [[Florence |
When [[Women's suffrage in California|California]] gave women the right to vote in 1911, many women in Ohio were equally encouraged in their work on women's suffrage.{{Sfn|Shilling|1916|p=173}} In 1911, [[Elizabeth Hauser]] of Cleveland questioned each of the six candidates running for mayor on whether they supported women's suffrage and only one publicly did not.<ref name=":4" /> [[Florence E. Allen]] traveled to 66 counties in Ohio in 1911 speaking to farmers' groups and unions about women's suffrage.<ref name=":2" /> |
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Upton was heavily involved as a leader in the campaign to add women's suffrage to the [[Constitution of Ohio|Ohio Constitution]] during the 1912 constitutional convention.<ref name=":2" /> There was a campaign to collect signatures for a referendum to change the words in the constitution from describing voters as "white male" to "every citizen."<ref name=":8" /> Only issues relating to women's suffrage at the convention were limited in time by the committees.{{Sfn|Shilling|1916| |
Upton was heavily involved as a leader in the campaign to add women's suffrage to the [[Constitution of Ohio|Ohio Constitution]] during the 1912 constitutional convention.<ref name=":2" /> There was a campaign to collect signatures for a referendum to change the words in the constitution from describing voters as "white male" to "every citizen."<ref name=":8" /> Only issues relating to women's suffrage at the convention were limited in time by the committees.{{Sfn|Shilling|1916|pp=173–174}} Unlike other issues, like bond issues for roads which had a two-week discussion, only three minutes were allowed for debate on women's suffrage and only over the course of two days.{{Sfn|Shilling|1916|pp=173–174}} A proposal for a voter referendum created by the Committee on the Elective Franchise at the convention passed by a vote of 76 to 34.{{Sfn|Shilling|1916|p=174}} Now the referendum would go out for a state-wide vote.{{Sfn|Shilling|1916|p=174}} |
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Women in Dayton distributed around 20,000 leaflets and letters in support of women's suffrage leading up to the 1912 referendum election.<ref name=":3" /> From Cleveland, Hauser brought [[ |
Women in Dayton distributed around 20,000 leaflets and letters in support of women's suffrage leading up to the 1912 referendum election.<ref name=":3" /> From Cleveland, Hauser brought [[petition]]s to the Ohio State Legislature and then started working as a lobbyist for suffrage there.<ref name=":4" /> Suffragists in Cincinnati reached out to [[German Americans|German-American]] voters, who were normally anti-suffrage.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=von Klenze|first=Henrietta|date=August 1912|title=Suffrage Campaign Among the Germans|url=https://archive.org/details/womanvoter00woma_23/page/20/mode/1up?q=ohio|magazine=The Woman Voter|page=21|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> OWSA organized a parade in support of women's suffrage in Columbus on August 27.<ref name=":6" /> Ohio received national attention for the possibility of passing the amendment.{{Sfn|Steinglass|Scarselli|2004|p=40}} |
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[[File:Harriet_Taylor_Upton_speaks_at_the_Ohio_Satehouse_in_1914.jpg|thumb|left|[[Harriet Taylor Upton]] speaks at the Ohio Statehouse in 1914|alt=Harriet Taylor Upton speaks at the Ohoi Statehouse in 1914]] |
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[[Anti-suffragism|Anti-suffragists]] were also campaigning against the amendment during this time.<ref name=":7" /> A campaign using anonymous [[Flyer (pamphlet)|handbills]] tied the issue of women's suffrage to [[prohibition]], making it unpopular.<ref name=":7" /> OWSA offered a $100 reward for information about who was passing out these anti-suffrage handbills, but the authors were never discovered.<ref name=":7" /> |
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The 1912 women's suffrage amendment failed |
The 1912 women's suffrage amendment failed with 88 counties opposing and 24 supporting.<ref name=":3" /> Nearly 100,000 people voted against the measure.{{Sfn|Shilling|1916|p=174}} The vote may not have passed for several reasons. There were worries that women's suffrage would lead to prohibition and anti-prohibitionist, [[Percy Andreae]], claimed that the vote had become a "wet and dry issue" rather than one on suffrage.{{Sfn|Steinglass|Scarselli|2004|p=41}} Suffragists had also aligned themselves with [[Theodore Roosevelt]] who was running as a [[List of third party and independent performances in United States elections|third-party candidate]] which was seen as a negative by the press.{{Sfn|Steinglass|Scarselli|2004|p=41}} |
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After the women's suffrage measure failed, women regrouped and reorganized. In [[Franklin County, Ohio|Franklin County]], women founded the Franklin County Women's Suffrage Association (FCWSA) which was an umbrella group that included the Woman's Taxpayers' League (WTL), the College Equal Suffrage League, the Columbus Equal Suffrage League, the First Voter's League, the Men's League for Equal Suffrage and the Sojourner Truth Women's Suffrage Association (STWSA).{{Sfn|Pliley|2008| |
After the women's suffrage measure failed, women regrouped and reorganized. In [[Franklin County, Ohio|Franklin County]], women founded the Franklin County Women's Suffrage Association (FCWSA) which was an umbrella group that included the Woman's Taxpayers' League (WTL), the College Equal Suffrage League, the Columbus Equal Suffrage League, the First Voter's League, the [[The Men's League|Men's League for Equal Suffrage]] and the Sojourner Truth Women's Suffrage Association (STWSA).{{Sfn|Pliley|2008|pp=8–9}} |
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The new Ohio constitution now allowed voter [[ |
The new Ohio constitution now allowed voter [[referendum]]s to be placed on the ballot for constitutional amendments.{{Sfn|Pliley|2008|p=8}} The suffragists in Ohio decided to take advantage of this, putting a woman's suffrage issue before Ohio voters.{{Sfn|Pliley|2008|p=8}} Between March and July 1914, activists were able to gather more than 130,000 signatures for a women's suffrage referendum.{{Sfn|Pliley|2008|p=8}} |
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[[File:Vote_yes_on_suffrage_in_Ohio_1914.jpg|thumb|A broadside promoting the referendum on the Ohio ballot from the Ohio Woman Suffrage Association |
[[File:Vote_yes_on_suffrage_in_Ohio_1914.jpg|thumb|upright|A broadside promoting the referendum on the Ohio ballot from the Ohio Woman Suffrage Association in 1914]] |
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OWSA also worked to lobby the major political parties in Ohio in 1914 |
OWSA also worked to lobby the major political parties in Ohio in 1914 in support of suffrage efforts.{{Sfn|Pliley|2008|p=22}} By January 1914, both the [[Socialist Party of America|Socialist]] and [[Progressive Party (United States, 1912)|Progressive]] parties in Ohio said they would support women's suffrage.{{Sfn|Pliley|2008|p=20}} The Republican party in Ohio also began to support suffrage in tentative ways, but never fully committed themselves that year.{{Sfn|Pliley|2008|pp=20–21}} On May 9, Mother's Day, preachers who were part of the Ministerial Association of Columbus gave sermons on how women's suffrage was a way for women to better exercise their duties as mothers.{{Sfn|Pliley|2008|p=14}} [[Jews]] in Columbus, including those at the B'Nai Israel Synagogue were also supportive of women's suffrage.{{Sfn|Pliley|2008|p=15}} [[Rosalie Gardiner Jones|Rosalie G. Jones]] and [[Elisabeth Freeman|Elizabeth Freeman]] took out "The Little Yellow Wagon" in July 1912 from Cleveland and traveled to [[Medina]], promoting the women's vote.<ref>{{Cite magazine|date=August 1912|title=The Little Yellow Wagon |url=https://archive.org/details/womanvoter00woma_23/page/18/mode/2up?q=ohio|magazine=The Woman Voter|pages=18–19|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> Leading up to the 1914 amendment vote, the Wright family, including [[Katharine Wright]] and [[Wright brothers|Orville Wright]] helped campaign for women's suffrage.<ref name=":3" /> Katharine organized a suffrage parade on October 24, 1914 in Dayton where Orville and her father, Bishop Milton Wright, also marched.<ref name=":3" /> In [[Lima, Ohio|Lima]], [[Bessie Crayton]] organized an October suffrage parade that drew around 1,500 people, including a 96-year-old man who marched for women's suffrage.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hoersten|first=Greg |date=2019-03-19|title=The Persistent Bessie Crayton|url=https://www.limaohio.com/features/lifestyle/346972/the-persistent-bessie-crayton|access-date=2020-09-05|website=The Lima News}}</ref> |
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On the same ballot, the Anti-Saloon League |
On the same ballot, the Anti-Saloon League introduced a referendum on prohibition.{{Sfn|Pliley|2008|p=8}} The suffragists worried that the prohibition initiative would be negatively tied to their cause and women's suffrage would lose support.{{Sfn|Pliley|2008|pp=8–9}} The suffrage referendum failed.{{Sfn|Pliley|2008|p=25}} |
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== Targeted suffrage efforts == |
== Targeted suffrage efforts == |
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Many suffragists in Ohio began to focus on more narrow suffrage goals after the 1914 amendment defeat.<ref name=":4" /> |
Many suffragists in Ohio began to focus on more narrow suffrage goals after the 1914 amendment defeat.<ref name=":4" /> |
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In [[East Cleveland, Ohio|East Cleveland]], women won the right to vote in [[Municipality|municipal]] elections on June 6, 1916.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":13">{{Cite web|last=Nickoloff|first=Anne|date=2016-06-07|title=100 years ago today, East Cleveland gave women the right to vote|url=https://www.cleveland.com/metro/2016/06/100_years_ago_today_east_cleve.html |
In [[East Cleveland, Ohio|East Cleveland]], women won the right to vote in [[Municipality|municipal]] elections on June 6, 1916.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":13">{{Cite web|last=Nickoloff|first=Anne|date=2016-06-07|title=100 years ago today, East Cleveland gave women the right to vote|url=https://www.cleveland.com/metro/2016/06/100_years_ago_today_east_cleve.html|access-date=2020-09-11|website=Cleveland.com}}</ref> The victory in East Cleveland was the first women won for municipal voting east of the [[Mississippi River|Mississippi]].<ref name=":13" /> With 936 for suffrage and 508 against, the success was written into the new [[Municipal charter|city charter]].<ref name=":13" /><ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-05-11|title=EAST CLEVELAND|url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/e/east-cleveland|access-date=2020-09-19|website=Encyclopedia of Cleveland History {{!}} Case Western Reserve University}}</ref> In 1917, women in [[Lakewood, Ohio]] and Columbus also won the right to vote in municipal elections.<ref name=":7" /> The driving force behind suffrage efforts in Lakewood came from a group of 123 women who created a Political Study Club.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-03-23|title=Lakewood Chapter|url=https://my.lwv.org/ohio/greater-cleveland/chapters/lakewood-chapter|access-date=2020-09-19|website=MyLO}}</ref> Attempts were made to pass municipal suffrage in [[Sandusky, Ohio]], but the effort failed.{{Sfn|Pliley|2008|p=26}} |
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[[James A. Reynolds]], a state representative from [[Cuyahoga County, Ohio|Cuyahoga County]] introduced |
[[James A. Reynolds]], a state representative from [[Cuyahoga County, Ohio|Cuyahoga County]] introduced the so-called Reynolds Bill, in the Ohio Legislature.<ref name=":22">{{Cite web|last1=Trowbridge|first1=David J.|last2=Metzger |first2=Kayla|date=4 June 2020|title=Cleveland Woman's Suffrage Party Headquarters|url=https://www.theclio.com/entry/3944|access-date=2020-09-04|website=Clio: Your Guide to History}}</ref> It would allow women to vote in presidential elections.<ref name=":22" /> [[Harriet Taylor Upton]], acting as president of the [[Ohio Woman Suffrage Association]] (OWSA), along with [[Florence E. Allen]], [[Grace Drake (suffrage)|Grace Drake]] and [[Elizabeth Hauser]] all testified in January 1917 before the Ohio legislature on the subject of women voting in presidential elections.<ref>{{Cite news|date=1917-01-25|title=Woman Suffrage Advocates Speak for Pending Bill|pages=1|work=The Sandusky Star-Journal|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/59215082/the-sandusky-star-journal/|access-date=2020-09-13|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> Upton said that there were no good arguments against giving women the vote and pointed out that women had turned out in Ohio in good numbers for the elections they were eligible to vote in.<ref>{{Cite news|date=1917-01-05|title=To Open Fight for Presidential Vote|pages=1 |work=Bucyrus Journal |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/59234250/bucyrus-journal/|access-date=2020-09-13|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> Governor [[James M. Cox]] was supportive of the bill.<ref>{{Cite news|date=1917-01-04|title=Cox Promises to Support Suffrage Bill|pages=1|work=The Lima News|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/59216469/the-lima-news/|access-date=2020-09-13|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> The bill to allow women to vote in presidential elections passed in 1917.<ref name=":8" /> The Reynolds Bill was signed into law in February.{{Sfn|Pliley|2008|p=26}} The passage of the bill gave hope to suffragists in other states.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=29 September 1917|title=The Irrepressible Ohioans |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YdERAQAAMAAJ&q=suffrage%20ohio|journal=The Woman Citizen|volume=1|issue=18|pages=325}}</ref> |
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Immediately after the bill passed, [[Anti-suffragism|anti-suffragists]] vowed to start a referendum to repeal the actions of the Reynolds Bill.<ref>{{Cite news |
Immediately after the bill passed, [[Anti-suffragism|anti-suffragists]] vowed to start a referendum to repeal the actions of the Reynolds Bill.<ref>{{Cite news|date=1917-02-22|title=Anti-Suffragists Plan Referendum on Reynolds Bill |pages=3|work=The Dayton Herald|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/59236215/the-dayton-herald/|access-date=2020-09-13|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> Anti-suffragists were able to included a referendum on the ballot to repeal the Reynolds Bill.<ref name=":8" /> This was despite allegations of [[fraud]] in connection to the signatures filed on the petitions.<ref>{{Cite news|date=1917-09-04|title=Campaign Frauds|pages=4|work=The Chronicle-Telegram |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/59238866/the-chronicle-telegram/|access-date=2020-09-13|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> The OWSA found that in four counties, [[Scioto County, Ohio|Scioto]], [[Trumbull County, Ohio|Trumbull]], [[Mahoning County, Ohio|Mahoning]] and [[Cuyahoga County, Ohio|Cuyahoga]], out of 9,964 names on the petition, 8,661 were fraudulent.<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|date=27 October 1917|title=Suffrage |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YdERAQAAMAAJ&dq=suffrage+%22lakewood,+ohio%22&pg=PA412|journal=The Woman Citizen|volume=1|issue=22|pages=412}}</ref> However, other counties were not examined and the referendum was allowed to stand.<ref name=":16" /> ''[[Woman's Journal|The Woman Citizen]]'' pointed out that the petitions did not represent a [[grassroots]] movement and were instead the result of [[Advocacy group|special interests]] against women's suffrage.<ref name=":16" /> The referendum narrowly passed, removing the right of women to vote in presidential elections.<ref name=":8" /> |
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== Ratification == |
== Ratification == |
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[[File:Women_practice_voting_in_Dayton_Oct._27,_1920.jpg|thumb|Women practice voting in [[Dayton, Ohio]] Oct. 27, 1920]] |
[[File:Women_practice_voting_in_Dayton_Oct._27,_1920.jpg|thumb|Women practice voting in [[Dayton, Ohio]] Oct. 27, 1920]] |
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Ohio ratified the [[Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Nineteenth Amendment]] on June 16, 1919 |
Ohio ratified the [[Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Nineteenth Amendment]] on June 16, 1919,<ref name=":1" /> becoming the fifth state to ratify.<ref name=":2" /> |
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An effort to put a voter referendum on the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment |
An effort to put a voter referendum on the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment was ended by [[Ohio Secretary of State]], [[Harvey C. Smith]].<ref>{{Cite news|date=4 June 1920|title=Ohio Suffrage Referendum Called Off Due to Ruling|work=The Gazette Times|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=OaFRAAAAIBAJ&pg=4652%2C6484998|access-date=13 September 2020}}</ref> |
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In 1923 a referendum vote |
In 1923 a referendum vote succeeded in removing the phrase "white male" from the description of a voter in the Ohio Constitution.{{Sfn|Steinglass|Scarselli|2004|p=48}} |
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== African-American women and suffrage in Ohio == |
== African-American women and suffrage in Ohio == |
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Some parts of Ohio were inclusive and worked with [[African Americans|African-American]] women towards women's suffrage. In the Ohio Women's Rights Convention in [[Akron, Ohio]] in 1851, [[Sojourner Truth]] gave her famous ''[[Ain't I a Woman?]]'' speech.<ref name=":19">{{Cite web |
Some parts of Ohio were inclusive and worked with [[African Americans|African-American]] women towards women's suffrage. In the Ohio Women's Rights Convention in [[Akron, Ohio]] in 1851, [[Sojourner Truth]] gave her famous ''[[Ain't I a Woman?]]'' speech.<ref name=":19">{{Cite web|title=Ohio Women Vote: 100 Years of Change: Significant Ohio Women Biographies|url=https://www.ohiohistory.org/OHC/media/OHC-Media/Learn/Education%20Blog/Significant-Ohio-Women-Biographies.pdf|access-date=19 September 2020|website=Ohio History Collection}}</ref> [[Mary Church Terrell]], an influential [[Woman's club movement|clubwoman]], attended [[Oberlin College]].<ref name=":19" /> [[Hallie Quinn Brown]], who was involved with [[Woman's club movement|women's clubs]] and the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]], was an important suffrage leader in Ohio.<ref name=":19" /> |
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Dayton was fairly inclusive in its suffrage activities.<ref name=":3" /> In Cincinnati, suffragists like Dr. [[Louise Southgate]] promoted the inclusion of African-American women in the suffrage movement.{{Sfn|Staples|2020|p=80}} In Franklin County, the larger umbrella group for women's suffrage, the Franklin County Women's Suffrage Association (FCWSA), was formed in 1912 and worked with the Black women's group, the Sojourner Truth Women's Suffrage Association (STWSA).{{Sfn|Pliley|2008|pp=8–9}} The Ministerial Association of Colored Preachers in Cincinnati was also supportive of women's suffrage.{{Sfn|Hauser|1912|p=3}} |
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When an equal rights bill was defeated by the Republican-majority legislature in Ohio in 1919, Black women demonstrated their displeasure.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |
When an equal rights bill was defeated by the Republican-majority legislature in Ohio in 1919, Black women demonstrated their displeasure.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|title=Woman Suffrage in the Midwest |url=https://www.nps.gov/articles/woman-suffrage-in-the-midwest.htm|access-date=2020-09-05|website=U.S. National Park Service}}</ref> They changed the name of the Colored Women's Republican Club to the [[Colored Women's Independent Political League]], signalling a "public repudiation" of the Republican Party.<ref name=":5" /> |
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== Male allies == |
== Male allies == |
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Men worked towards women's suffrage early in Ohio history. [[Timothy Walker (judge)|Timothy Walker]], who founded the law school at the [[University of Cincinnati]], helped create a foundation for understanding women's legal's rights.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Weingartner|first=Tana|date=27 January 2020|title=Exhibit Examines Ohio |
Men worked towards women's suffrage early in Ohio history. [[Timothy Walker (judge)|Timothy Walker]], who founded the law school at the [[University of Cincinnati]], helped create a foundation for understanding women's legal's rights.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Weingartner|first=Tana|date=27 January 2020|title=Exhibit Examines Ohio's Forgotten Role In The Women's Suffrage Movement|url=https://www.wvxu.org/post/exhibit-examines-ohios-forgotten-role-womens-suffrage-movement|access-date=2020-09-05|website=WVXU}}</ref> Much later, when the [[American Woman Suffrage Association]] (AWSA) was formed during an 1869 convention, [[Henry Ward Beecher]] was elected president of the group and [[William Lloyd Garrison]] as vice president.<ref name=":12" /> When famous suffragists including Susan B. Anthony campaigned in Ohio in 1867, they brought [[George Francis Train]] with them on the tour.<ref>{{Cite news |date=1867-11-13|title=To Stump Ohio for Women's Suffrage|pages=2|work=Daily Ohio Statesman|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/47144527/daily-ohio-statesman/|access-date=2020-09-18|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> |
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In Cleveland, a Men's Equal Suffrage League was established in 1911 to support women's suffrage.<ref name=":8" /> The next year, in [[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], an [[Ohio State University]] (OSU) professor, J. V. Denney, helped found a chapter of the league in February.{{Sfn|Pliley|2008|p=17}} By 1912, there were men's leagues in [[Cincinnati]], [[Salem, Ohio|Salem]], [[Springfield, Ohio|Springfield]] and [[Youngstown, Ohio|Youngstown]].<ref>{{Cite |
In Cleveland, a Men's Equal Suffrage League was established in 1911 to support women's suffrage.<ref name=":8" /> The next year, in [[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], an [[Ohio State University]] (OSU) professor, J. V. Denney, helped found a chapter of the league in February.{{Sfn|Pliley|2008|p=17}} By 1912, there were men's leagues in [[Cincinnati]], [[Salem, Ohio|Salem]], [[Springfield, Ohio|Springfield]] and [[Youngstown, Ohio|Youngstown]].<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Hauser|first=Elizabeth J.|date=August 1912a|title=A Few Facts in Ohio's History|url=https://archive.org/details/womanvoter00woma_23/page/8/mode/2up?q=ohio|magazine=The Woman Voter|pages=9|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> |
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Men's groups helped bridge communications between the women in the suffrage organizations and "formal politics," which was dominated by men.{{Sfn|Pliley|2008|p=17}} |
Men's groups helped bridge communications between the women in the suffrage organizations and "formal politics," which was dominated by men.{{Sfn|Pliley|2008|p=17}} |
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== Anti-suffragists == |
== Anti-suffragists == |
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[[File:Start_Hearings_on_Suffrage_headline_from_The_Tribune_of_Hicksville_Ohio_1_FEB_1917.png|thumb|"Start Hearings on Suffrage" headline from ''[[The Tribune]]'' of [[Hicksville, Ohio]], February 1, 1917]] |
[[File:Start_Hearings_on_Suffrage_headline_from_The_Tribune_of_Hicksville_Ohio_1_FEB_1917.png|thumb|"Start Hearings on Suffrage" headline from ''[[The Tribune]]'' of [[Hicksville, Ohio]], February 1, 1917]] |
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Companies involved with the [[liquor]] industry in Ohio were generally opposed to women voting.<ref name=":4" /> Women's suffrage in Ohio was closely tied to the issue of |
Companies involved with the [[liquor]] industry in Ohio were generally opposed to women voting.<ref name=":4" /> Women's suffrage in Ohio was closely tied to the issue of prohibition.{{Sfn|Pliley|2008|p=7}} There were certainly ties between many suffragists and temperance advocates in Ohio, even if suffragists attempted to maintain distance between their activism.{{Sfn|Pliley|2008|p=13}} Suffragist leader, [[Harriet Taylor Upton]], made this explicit during one campaign, saying "There will be no union of forces with the [[Prohibition|drys]] this fall to secure our equal rights amendment to the constitution."{{Sfn|Pliley|2008|p=13}} Liquor interests continued to fight against women's suffrage, even resorting to fraud, to try to stop women from voting in Ohio.<ref name=":16" /> |
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Women who were opposed to suffrage in Ohio, including [[Maria Longworth Storer]], |
Women who were opposed to suffrage in Ohio, including [[Maria Longworth Storer]], did not feel that women needed to vote.{{Sfn|Staples|2020|p=80}} Women who were part of the privileged and wealthy class did not face many of the problems experienced by working-class women.{{Sfn|Staples|2020|p=80}} In a novel by Longworth Storer, ''The Villa'' (1918), she described suffragists as "unsexed" criminals.{{Sfn|Staples|2020|p=81}} |
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Other women believed that women's influence was more powerful through working in civic organizations or women's clubs.{{Sfn|Staples|2020|p=81}} A petition circulating in Columbus in 1912 expressed the idea that women already had "their full share of influence and responsibility for the public welfare" without the need to vote.<ref>{{Cite news |
Other women believed that women's influence was more powerful through working in civic organizations or women's clubs.{{Sfn|Staples|2020|p=81}} A petition circulating in Columbus in 1912 expressed the idea that women already had "their full share of influence and responsibility for the public welfare" without the need to vote.<ref>{{Cite news|date=13 February 1912|title=Anti-Suffrage Fight Started|work=The Democratic Banner|url=https://owsnewspaperproject.blogspot.com/2019/06/normal-0-false-false-false-en-us-x-none.html|access-date=19 September 2020}}</ref> |
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The [[German Americans|German]] immigrant periodicals in Franklin County expressed opinions against women's suffrage.{{Sfn|Pliley|2008|p=20}} Both local papers, ''Wöchentliche Columbus Express'' and the ''Express Und Westbote'' described suffragists as unladylike and uplifted the idea of women as the ''[[Housewife|hausfrau]]''.{{Sfn|Pliley|2008|p=20}} English language periodicals in Columbus also sensationalized the more militant aspects of suffrage activism, publishing stories on the escalating tactics of suffragettes in London.{{Sfn|Pliley|2008|p=23}} Both the articles published and the imagery used in political cartoons about suffragists "contributed to the stereotype of suffragists as militant or at least as potentially threatening the established sex roles."{{Sfn|Pliley|2008|p=24}} The German American Alliance in Ohio also opposed women's suffrage.{{Sfn|Hauser|1912|p=6}} |
The [[German Americans|German]] immigrant periodicals in Franklin County expressed opinions against women's suffrage.{{Sfn|Pliley|2008|p=20}} Both local papers, ''Wöchentliche Columbus Express'' and the ''Express Und Westbote'' described suffragists as unladylike and uplifted the idea of women as the ''[[Housewife|hausfrau]]''.{{Sfn|Pliley|2008|p=20}} English language periodicals in Columbus also sensationalized the more militant aspects of suffrage activism, publishing stories on the escalating tactics of suffragettes in London.{{Sfn|Pliley|2008|p=23}} Both the articles published and the imagery used in political cartoons about suffragists "contributed to the stereotype of suffragists as militant or at least as potentially threatening the established sex roles."{{Sfn|Pliley|2008|p=24}} The German American Alliance in Ohio also opposed women's suffrage.{{Sfn|Hauser|1912|p=6}} |
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| Line 106: | Line 106: | ||
* [[List of Ohio suffragists]] |
* [[List of Ohio suffragists]] |
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* [[Timeline of |
* [[Timeline of women's suffrage in Ohio]] |
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* [[Women's suffrage in states of the United States]] |
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* [[Women's suffrage in the United States]] |
* [[Women's suffrage in the United States]] |
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== References == |
== References == |
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<! |
<!-- See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes on how to create references using <ref></ref> tags, these references will then appear here automatically --> |
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{{Reflist}} |
{{Reflist|30em}} |
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=== Sources === |
=== Sources === |
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* {{Cite book|last=Anthony|first=Susan B.|url=https:// |
* {{Cite book|last=Anthony|first=Susan B.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NbZVAAAAYAAJ&q=ohio|title=The History of Woman Suffrage|publisher=The Hollenbeck Press|year=1902|editor-last=Anthony|editor-first=Susan B.|volume=4|location=Indianapolis|editor-last2=Harper|editor-first2=Ida Husted}} |
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* {{Cite |
* {{Cite journal|last=Cravens|first=Mary J.|url=https://corescholar.libraries.wright.edu/special_ms147_ephemera/26/|title=A Glimpse of the History of Woman Suffrage|journal=Martha Mcclellan Brown Ephemera |publisher=Toledo Commercial Book and Job Printing |year=1887 |location=Toledo, Ohio}} |
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* {{Cite |
* {{Cite magazine|last=Hauser|first=Elizabeth J.|date=August 1912|title=A Bird's Eye View|url=https://archive.org/details/womanvoter00woma_23/page/2/mode/2up?q=ohio|magazine=The Woman Voter|pages=3–6|via=Internet Archive}} |
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* {{Cite journal|last=Little|first=Sarah Miller|date=Summer 2005|title=A Woman of Property: From Being It to Controlling It - A Bicentennial Perspective on Women and Ohio Property Law, 1803 to 2003|url=https://repository.uchastings.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1294&context=hwlj|journal=Hastings Law Journal|volume=16|issue=2|pages= |
* {{Cite journal|last=Little|first=Sarah Miller|date=Summer 2005|title=A Woman of Property: From Being It to Controlling It - A Bicentennial Perspective on Women and Ohio Property Law, 1803 to 2003 |url=https://repository.uchastings.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1294&context=hwlj|journal=Hastings Law Journal|volume=16|issue=2|pages=177–200}} |
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* {{Cite journal|last=Pliley|first=Jessica R.|date=2008|title=Voting for the Devil: Unequal Partnerships in the Ohio Women's Suffrage Campaign of 1914 |
* {{Cite journal|last=Pliley|first=Jessica R.|date=2008|title=Voting for the Devil: Unequal Partnerships in the Ohio Women's Suffrage Campaign of 1914|journal=Ohio History|volume=115|pages=4–27 |doi=10.1353/ohh.0.0018 |s2cid=144676061 }} |
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* {{Cite journal|last=Shilling|first=D. C.|date=1916|title=Woman's Suffrage in the Constitutional Convention of Ohio|url=http://devel-drupal.law.csuohio.edu/lawlibrary/resources/lawpubs/ohioconlaw/documents/Shilling.pdf |
* {{Cite journal|last=Shilling|first=D. C.|date=1916|title=Woman's Suffrage in the Constitutional Convention of Ohio |journal=Ohio Arch. And Hist. Society Publications|volume=25|pages=166–175 |url=http://devel-drupal.law.csuohio.edu/lawlibrary/resources/lawpubs/ohioconlaw/documents/Shilling.pdf}} |
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* {{Cite journal|last=Staples|first=Sarah|date=Spring 2020|title=The Fight to Let Cincinnati Women Vote|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/752841|journal=Ohio Valley History|volume=20|issue=1|pages= |
* {{Cite journal|last=Staples|first=Sarah|date=Spring 2020|title=The Fight to Let Cincinnati Women Vote|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/752841|journal=Ohio Valley History|volume=20|issue=1|pages=79–83|url-access=subscription |via=Project MUSE}} |
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* {{Cite book| |
* {{Cite book|last1=Steinglass|first1=Steven H.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mQQ_eD1C2CsC&q=suffrage|title=The Ohio State Constitution: A Reference Guide|last2=Scarselli|first2=Gino J. |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=2004|isbn=0313267650|location=Westport, Connecticut}} |
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* {{Cite book|last=Upton|first=Harriet Taylor|url=https:// |
* {{Cite book|last=Upton|first=Harriet Taylor |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KjcWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP1 |title=History of the Western Reserve|publisher=The Lewis Publishing Company |year=1910 |editor-last=Cutler|editor-first=Harry Gardner|location=Chicago |author-link=Harriet Taylor Upton}} |
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== External links == |
== External links == |
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* [http://www.example.com www.example.com] |
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* ''[[iarchive:womanvoter00woma 23/page/2/mode/2up|The Woman Voter]]'', Ohio Edition August 1912 |
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<!--- Categories ---> |
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{{Women's suffrage in the United States}} |
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Ohio women's suffrage movement}} |
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[[Category:Politics of Ohio]] |
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[[Category:Suffrage referendums]] |
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[[Category:Women's suffrage in Ohio]] |
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Latest revision as of 03:12, 9 June 2024
Women's rights issues in Ohio were put into the public eye in the early 1850s. Women inspired by the Declaration of Rights and Sentiments at the 1848 Seneca Falls Convention created newspapers and then set up their own conventions, including the 1850 Ohio Women's Rights Convention which was the first women's right's convention outside of New York and the first that was planned and run solely by women. These early efforts towards women's suffrage affected people in other states and helped energize the women's suffrage movement in Ohio. Women's rights groups formed throughout the state, with the Ohio Women's Rights Association (OWRA) founded in 1853. Other local women's suffrage groups are formed in the late 1860s. In 1894, women won the right to vote in school board elections in Ohio. The National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) was headquartered for a time in Warren, Ohio. Two efforts to vote on a constitutional amendment, one in 1912 and the other 1914 were unsuccessful, but drew national attention to women's suffrage. In 1916, women in East Cleveland gained the right to vote in municipal elections. A year later, women in Lakewood, Ohio and Columbus were given the right to vote in municipal elections. Also in 1917, the Reynolds Bill, which would allow women to vote in the next presidential election was passed, and then quickly repealed by a voter referendum sponsored by special-interest groups. On June 16, 1919, Ohio became the fifth state to ratify the Nineteenth Amendment.
Early efforts
[edit]
The Declaration of Rights and Sentiments created at the 1848 Seneca Falls Convention inspired many women in Ohio to work towards women's rights.[1] Elizabeth Bisbee of Columbus decided to create a women's suffrage newspaper, the Alliance after reading the Declaration.[1] Heading into the early 1850s, there began to be considerable support for women's suffrage in Ohio.[2]
The first Ohio Women's Rights Convention took place in Salem, Ohio in April 1850.[3] President of the convention was Betsy Mix Cowles.[4] This convention, attended by around 500 people, was the first women's right's convention held outside of New York.[3] It was also the first convention completely organized and run by women.[5] Only women were allowed to speak or vote during the convention.[6] Women said of the men attending the convention, "They then learned for the first time in the world's history how it felt to sit in silence when questions in which they were interested were being discussed."[6] Women at this convention published Address to the Women of Ohio.[7] The effects of the convention were later felt as far west as Wyoming, where John Allen Campbell in 1869 signed the first bill granting equal women's suffrage in the United States.[5] Campbell had attended the Salem conference as a young man.[5]
In 1851, a second Ohio Women's Rights Convention took place in Akron, Ohio[3] with Frances Gage as president.[6] Sojourner Truth was one of the speakers at the Akron convention,[3] presenting a speech, "Ain't I A Woman?".[8] Truth's words had a profound effect on the audience.[9] One of the women who was inspired by Truth was Cleveland suffragist, Caroline Severance.[10]
At these conferences and at other women's rights meetings, Gage collected signatures to influence delegates to the 1850 Ohio Constitutional Convention to include women's suffrage.[1] Many people also submitted petitions to the convention to allow voting "regardless of color or sex."[11] Thousands of signatures were collected and the debates at the Constitutional Convention were so heated, that the exact words were not kept in the official records of the proceedings.[12] The delegates to the convention decided to only extend voting rights to white men and by a large majority voted against both women's suffrage and suffrage for African-American people.[13] Only delegates from the Western Reserve area of Ohio favored giving the vote to African-Americans in the state.[14]
On May 27, 1852, a third Women's Rights Convention was held in Massillon, Ohio.[1][15] The convention drew women from all over Ohio and from different social classes.[15] Attendees of the convention decided to create the Ohio Woman's Rights Association (OWRA).[1] OWRA met for the first time in Ravenna on May 25, 1853 with members from around the state.[1] The group extended membership to any interested person and the first president was Severance.[16] The group immediately began working on a petition to present to the Ohio Legislature requesting women's suffrage.[16] On April 1, 1854, Severance brought the petition to the Ohio Senate.[16]
Cleveland held the fourth National Women's Rights Convention on October 6, 1853.[17] Well-known suffragists such as Susan B. Anthony, Amelia Bloomer, Antoinette Brown, Lucretia Mott and Lucy Stone all came to participate in the convention that drew women from around the country.[17] At the convention, women discussed various women's rights.[18] One of the rights they outlined was "That women be exempted from taxation until their right of suffrage is practically acknowledged."[18] In 1855 on October 17 the sixth National Women's Rights Convention was held in Cincinnati.[18]
A national suffrage organization, the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA) was established in Cleveland in 1869 on November 24 and 25 at a convention held at Case Hall.[19][20] AWSA was meant to be a "less radical" group compared to the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA).[20] Early on, Toledo and Dayton also created women's suffrage organizations. The Toledo Woman's Suffrage Association (TWSA) and the Dayton Woman's Suffrage Association were both formed around 1869.[21][22]
Some women in South Newbury, Ohio voted in elections between 1871 and 1876, though the women's votes were never counted.[19] In 1873, women brought a petition for women's suffrage to another Ohio constitutional convention.[23] The petitions had almost 8,000 signatures and represented thirty-three Ohio counties.[24] At the convention, delegates formed a women's suffrage committee to report on the issue and submitted an equal suffrage proposal to the convention.[25] The proposal was debated for two days and some delegates used "the Bible to prove that man's position was and should be superior to that of woman."[25] Others argued that women's suffrage would help women be better wives, mothers and Christians.[25] The proposal never came before the electors of the convention and failed by 4 votes.[25]
In May 1885, the Ohio Woman Suffrage Association (OWSA) was founded in Painesville.[26] OWSA focused on changing local and state laws to provide suffrage to women.[26]
After the creation of the WCTU, there was an influence on women's suffrage around the state. In Shelby, a small town with a disproportionate number of saloons, women became involved in political organizing over prohibition and creating alternative places for men to visit, such as reading rooms.[27] The Shelby Equal Franchise Association was also created as an offshoot of the WCTU.[27]
To counter the idea that women did not really want to vote, Louise Southworth in Cleveland became the national superintendent of enrollment.[28] Starting in 1888, she created a list of people in Ohio who endorsed women's suffrage.[28]
Women gained the right to vote in school board elections in 1894 but the right did not extend to allowing women to vote on bonds involving school infrastructure.[29][30] The National Woman Suffrage Conference was held in Cincinnati in April 1898.[31]
In 1899, Harriet Taylor Upton was elected president of OWSA.[21] Upton also served as the treasurer for the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) from 1894 to 1910.[32] Starting in the Spring of 1900, Upton visited fifteen important Ohio towns and helped organize local suffrage efforts there.[33] By the end of 1900, she had doubled participation in organized suffrage efforts.[34]
In 1900, the Ohio General Assembly considered a suffrage bill in January.[35] The Dayton Herald pointed out that it was significant that the Ohio Federation of Women's Clubs (OFWC) had not yet endorsed women's suffrage.[35]
In 1903, NAWSA moved their national headquarters to Warren, Ohio.[36] NAWSA used Upton's house as a temporary center before moving to the Trumbull County Courthouse in 1905.[37]
School board suffrage
[edit]In the Ohio House of Representatives, E. W. Doty introduced a bill for both women's suffrage on school board elections and to allow them to serve on these boards.[38] Doty's bill lost by seven votes and he brought it forward again in the House in 1893, where it lost by six votes.[38] In January 1894, Representative Gustavus A. Wood introduced another bill, that was again narrowly defeated.[38] Caroline McCullough Everhard, who helped form the Equal Rights Association of Massillon and Canton, was a wealthy woman who was taxed, but unable to vote.[4] In 1894, Everhard and Governor William McKinley worked together to lobby Ohio lawmakers on the issue of women voting in school board elections.[4] Everhard convinced Senator William T. Clark to bring up a school board suffrage bill in the Ohio Senate.[38] The Senate bill, which also would provide the right for women to run for the school board, passed on April 10 in the Senate and the House on April 24.[38]
In 1895, women voted for the first time in school board elections.[39] Everhard also worked to promote Elizabeth Folger in her successful run for the school board in Massillon, Ohio in 1895.[40] In Xenia, Ohio, Mary Moore and Eliza Carruthers also won positions on their local school boards.[39]
State amendments
[edit]
When California gave women the right to vote in 1911, many women in Ohio were equally encouraged in their work on women's suffrage.[41] In 1911, Elizabeth Hauser of Cleveland questioned each of the six candidates running for mayor on whether they supported women's suffrage and only one publicly did not.[36] Florence E. Allen traveled to 66 counties in Ohio in 1911 speaking to farmers' groups and unions about women's suffrage.[21]
Upton was heavily involved as a leader in the campaign to add women's suffrage to the Ohio Constitution during the 1912 constitutional convention.[21] There was a campaign to collect signatures for a referendum to change the words in the constitution from describing voters as "white male" to "every citizen."[19] Only issues relating to women's suffrage at the convention were limited in time by the committees.[42] Unlike other issues, like bond issues for roads which had a two-week discussion, only three minutes were allowed for debate on women's suffrage and only over the course of two days.[42] A proposal for a voter referendum created by the Committee on the Elective Franchise at the convention passed by a vote of 76 to 34.[43] Now the referendum would go out for a state-wide vote.[43]
Women in Dayton distributed around 20,000 leaflets and letters in support of women's suffrage leading up to the 1912 referendum election.[22] From Cleveland, Hauser brought petitions to the Ohio State Legislature and then started working as a lobbyist for suffrage there.[36] Suffragists in Cincinnati reached out to German-American voters, who were normally anti-suffrage.[44] OWSA organized a parade in support of women's suffrage in Columbus on August 27.[26] Ohio received national attention for the possibility of passing the amendment.[45]
Anti-suffragists were also campaigning against the amendment during this time.[32] A campaign using anonymous handbills tied the issue of women's suffrage to prohibition, making it unpopular.[32] OWSA offered a $100 reward for information about who was passing out these anti-suffrage handbills, but the authors were never discovered.[32]
The 1912 women's suffrage amendment failed with 88 counties opposing and 24 supporting.[22] Nearly 100,000 people voted against the measure.[43] The vote may not have passed for several reasons. There were worries that women's suffrage would lead to prohibition and anti-prohibitionist, Percy Andreae, claimed that the vote had become a "wet and dry issue" rather than one on suffrage.[46] Suffragists had also aligned themselves with Theodore Roosevelt who was running as a third-party candidate which was seen as a negative by the press.[46]
After the women's suffrage measure failed, women regrouped and reorganized. In Franklin County, women founded the Franklin County Women's Suffrage Association (FCWSA) which was an umbrella group that included the Woman's Taxpayers' League (WTL), the College Equal Suffrage League, the Columbus Equal Suffrage League, the First Voter's League, the Men's League for Equal Suffrage and the Sojourner Truth Women's Suffrage Association (STWSA).[47]
The new Ohio constitution now allowed voter referendums to be placed on the ballot for constitutional amendments.[48] The suffragists in Ohio decided to take advantage of this, putting a woman's suffrage issue before Ohio voters.[48] Between March and July 1914, activists were able to gather more than 130,000 signatures for a women's suffrage referendum.[48]
OWSA also worked to lobby the major political parties in Ohio in 1914 in support of suffrage efforts.[49] By January 1914, both the Socialist and Progressive parties in Ohio said they would support women's suffrage.[50] The Republican party in Ohio also began to support suffrage in tentative ways, but never fully committed themselves that year.[51] On May 9, Mother's Day, preachers who were part of the Ministerial Association of Columbus gave sermons on how women's suffrage was a way for women to better exercise their duties as mothers.[52] Jews in Columbus, including those at the B'Nai Israel Synagogue were also supportive of women's suffrage.[53] Rosalie G. Jones and Elizabeth Freeman took out "The Little Yellow Wagon" in July 1912 from Cleveland and traveled to Medina, promoting the women's vote.[54] Leading up to the 1914 amendment vote, the Wright family, including Katharine Wright and Orville Wright helped campaign for women's suffrage.[22] Katharine organized a suffrage parade on October 24, 1914 in Dayton where Orville and her father, Bishop Milton Wright, also marched.[22] In Lima, Bessie Crayton organized an October suffrage parade that drew around 1,500 people, including a 96-year-old man who marched for women's suffrage.[55]
On the same ballot, the Anti-Saloon League introduced a referendum on prohibition.[48] The suffragists worried that the prohibition initiative would be negatively tied to their cause and women's suffrage would lose support.[47] The suffrage referendum failed.[56]
Targeted suffrage efforts
[edit]Many suffragists in Ohio began to focus on more narrow suffrage goals after the 1914 amendment defeat.[36]
In East Cleveland, women won the right to vote in municipal elections on June 6, 1916.[32][57] The victory in East Cleveland was the first women won for municipal voting east of the Mississippi.[57] With 936 for suffrage and 508 against, the success was written into the new city charter.[57][58] In 1917, women in Lakewood, Ohio and Columbus also won the right to vote in municipal elections.[32] The driving force behind suffrage efforts in Lakewood came from a group of 123 women who created a Political Study Club.[59] Attempts were made to pass municipal suffrage in Sandusky, Ohio, but the effort failed.[60]
James A. Reynolds, a state representative from Cuyahoga County introduced the so-called Reynolds Bill, in the Ohio Legislature.[61] It would allow women to vote in presidential elections.[61] Harriet Taylor Upton, acting as president of the Ohio Woman Suffrage Association (OWSA), along with Florence E. Allen, Grace Drake and Elizabeth Hauser all testified in January 1917 before the Ohio legislature on the subject of women voting in presidential elections.[62] Upton said that there were no good arguments against giving women the vote and pointed out that women had turned out in Ohio in good numbers for the elections they were eligible to vote in.[63] Governor James M. Cox was supportive of the bill.[64] The bill to allow women to vote in presidential elections passed in 1917.[19] The Reynolds Bill was signed into law in February.[60] The passage of the bill gave hope to suffragists in other states.[65]
Immediately after the bill passed, anti-suffragists vowed to start a referendum to repeal the actions of the Reynolds Bill.[66] Anti-suffragists were able to included a referendum on the ballot to repeal the Reynolds Bill.[19] This was despite allegations of fraud in connection to the signatures filed on the petitions.[67] The OWSA found that in four counties, Scioto, Trumbull, Mahoning and Cuyahoga, out of 9,964 names on the petition, 8,661 were fraudulent.[68] However, other counties were not examined and the referendum was allowed to stand.[68] The Woman Citizen pointed out that the petitions did not represent a grassroots movement and were instead the result of special interests against women's suffrage.[68] The referendum narrowly passed, removing the right of women to vote in presidential elections.[19]
Ratification
[edit]
Ohio ratified the Nineteenth Amendment on June 16, 1919,[3] becoming the fifth state to ratify.[21]
An effort to put a voter referendum on the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment was ended by Ohio Secretary of State, Harvey C. Smith.[69]
In 1923 a referendum vote succeeded in removing the phrase "white male" from the description of a voter in the Ohio Constitution.[70]
African-American women and suffrage in Ohio
[edit]Some parts of Ohio were inclusive and worked with African-American women towards women's suffrage. In the Ohio Women's Rights Convention in Akron, Ohio in 1851, Sojourner Truth gave her famous Ain't I a Woman? speech.[71] Mary Church Terrell, an influential clubwoman, attended Oberlin College.[71] Hallie Quinn Brown, who was involved with women's clubs and the Republican Party, was an important suffrage leader in Ohio.[71]
Dayton was fairly inclusive in its suffrage activities.[22] In Cincinnati, suffragists like Dr. Louise Southgate promoted the inclusion of African-American women in the suffrage movement.[72] In Franklin County, the larger umbrella group for women's suffrage, the Franklin County Women's Suffrage Association (FCWSA), was formed in 1912 and worked with the Black women's group, the Sojourner Truth Women's Suffrage Association (STWSA).[47] The Ministerial Association of Colored Preachers in Cincinnati was also supportive of women's suffrage.[73]
When an equal rights bill was defeated by the Republican-majority legislature in Ohio in 1919, Black women demonstrated their displeasure.[74] They changed the name of the Colored Women's Republican Club to the Colored Women's Independent Political League, signalling a "public repudiation" of the Republican Party.[74]
Male allies
[edit]Men worked towards women's suffrage early in Ohio history. Timothy Walker, who founded the law school at the University of Cincinnati, helped create a foundation for understanding women's legal's rights.[75] Much later, when the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA) was formed during an 1869 convention, Henry Ward Beecher was elected president of the group and William Lloyd Garrison as vice president.[20] When famous suffragists including Susan B. Anthony campaigned in Ohio in 1867, they brought George Francis Train with them on the tour.[76]
In Cleveland, a Men's Equal Suffrage League was established in 1911 to support women's suffrage.[19] The next year, in Columbus, an Ohio State University (OSU) professor, J. V. Denney, helped found a chapter of the league in February.[77] By 1912, there were men's leagues in Cincinnati, Salem, Springfield and Youngstown.[78]
Men's groups helped bridge communications between the women in the suffrage organizations and "formal politics," which was dominated by men.[77]
Anti-suffragists
[edit]
Companies involved with the liquor industry in Ohio were generally opposed to women voting.[36] Women's suffrage in Ohio was closely tied to the issue of prohibition.[79] There were certainly ties between many suffragists and temperance advocates in Ohio, even if suffragists attempted to maintain distance between their activism.[80] Suffragist leader, Harriet Taylor Upton, made this explicit during one campaign, saying "There will be no union of forces with the drys this fall to secure our equal rights amendment to the constitution."[80] Liquor interests continued to fight against women's suffrage, even resorting to fraud, to try to stop women from voting in Ohio.[68]
Women who were opposed to suffrage in Ohio, including Maria Longworth Storer, did not feel that women needed to vote.[72] Women who were part of the privileged and wealthy class did not face many of the problems experienced by working-class women.[72] In a novel by Longworth Storer, The Villa (1918), she described suffragists as "unsexed" criminals.[81]
Other women believed that women's influence was more powerful through working in civic organizations or women's clubs.[81] A petition circulating in Columbus in 1912 expressed the idea that women already had "their full share of influence and responsibility for the public welfare" without the need to vote.[82]
The German immigrant periodicals in Franklin County expressed opinions against women's suffrage.[50] Both local papers, Wöchentliche Columbus Express and the Express Und Westbote described suffragists as unladylike and uplifted the idea of women as the hausfrau.[50] English language periodicals in Columbus also sensationalized the more militant aspects of suffrage activism, publishing stories on the escalating tactics of suffragettes in London.[83] Both the articles published and the imagery used in political cartoons about suffragists "contributed to the stereotype of suffragists as militant or at least as potentially threatening the established sex roles."[84] The German American Alliance in Ohio also opposed women's suffrage.[85]
Some Progressive Party candidates in Ohio did not endorse women's suffrage privately, though publicly they signaled support.[86]
See also
[edit]- List of Ohio suffragists
- Timeline of women's suffrage in Ohio
- Women's suffrage in states of the United States
- Women's suffrage in the United States
References
[edit]- ^ a b c d e f "First Women's Rights Movement". Ohio History Central. Retrieved 2020-09-06.
- ^ Shilling 1916, p. 167.
- ^ a b c d e "Ohio and the 19th Amendment". U.S. National Park Service. Retrieved 2020-09-04.
- ^ a b c "Women's Suffrage". Massillon Museum. Retrieved 2020-09-05.
- ^ a b c "Ohio's Connections". Ohio Suffrage Centennial. Retrieved 2020-09-12.
- ^ a b c Cravens 1887, p. 7.
- ^ Little 2005, p. 186.
- ^ Cain, Samantha (17 December 2017). "Sojourner Truth Building; of Sojourner Truth's Women's Rights Speech "Ain't I a Woman?"". Clio: Your Guide to History. Retrieved 2020-09-12.
- ^ Cravens 1887, p. 8.
- ^ "Caroline Severance and Women's Rights Associations". 19th at 100: Commemorating the Suffrage Struggle and Its Legacies in Northeast Ohio. Retrieved 2020-09-07.
- ^ Shilling 1916, pp. 167–168.
- ^ Little 2005, pp. 187–188.
- ^ "Ohio Constitutional Convention of 1850-1851". Ohio History Central. Retrieved 2020-09-06.
- ^ Steinglass & Scarselli 2004, p. 22.
- ^ a b Little 2005, p. 190.
- ^ a b c "Ohio Women's Rights Association". Ohio History Central. Retrieved 2020-09-06.
- ^ a b Little 2005, p. 191.
- ^ a b c Little 2005, p. 192.
- ^ a b c d e f g Morton, Marian. "How Cleveland Women Got the Vote - and What They Did With It". Teaching Cleveland Digital. Retrieved 2020-09-06.
- ^ a b c "AMERICAN WOMEN'S SUFFRAGE ASSN". Encyclopedia of Cleveland History | Case Western Reserve University. 2018-05-11. Retrieved 2020-09-10.
- ^ a b c d e Borchardt, Jackie; Balmert, Jessie (14 June 2019). "100 years ago Ohio ratified the 19th Amendment. Here are 6 women who made suffrage reality". The Cincinnati Enquirer. Retrieved 2020-09-04.
- ^ a b c d e f McCarty, Mary (18 August 2020). "The empowering story of how Dayton was at the forefront of women's suffrage movement". Dayton.com. Retrieved 2020-09-05.
- ^ Little 2005, p. 197.
- ^ Shilling 1916, p. 170.
- ^ a b c d Shilling 1916, p. 172.
- ^ a b c "Ohio Woman Suffrage Association". Ohio History Central. Retrieved 2020-09-05.
- ^ a b Drain, Christina Yetzer (2 September 2020). "Shelby was a hotbed of activity during women's suffrage movement". Richland Source. Retrieved 2020-09-07.
- ^ a b Anthony 1902, p. 878.
- ^ Upton 1910, p. 93.
- ^ Upton 1910, p. 188.
- ^ Staples 2020, p. 79.
- ^ a b c d e f Dismore, David M. (3 September 2020). "Today in Feminist History: The Temporary Halt in Ohio (September 3, 1912)". Ms. Magazine. Retrieved 2020-09-05.
- ^ Anthony 1902, p. 879.
- ^ Anthony 1902, p. 880.
- ^ a b "Women Suffrage Again". The Dayton Herald. 1900-01-27. p. 4. Retrieved 2020-09-20 – via Newspapers.com.
- ^ a b c d e Morton, Marian J. "Elizabeth J. Hauser: The Woman Who Wrote Tom L. Johnson's Autobiography". Teaching Cleveland Digital. Retrieved 2020-09-05.
- ^ Shiller, Beth (4 June 2019). "Upton House honors women's right to vote". Tribune Chronicle. Retrieved 2020-09-05.
- ^ a b c d e Anthony 1902, p. 881.
- ^ a b Bulford, Sally Farran (8 September 1997). "Ohio Continues Lead for Women's Rights". Columbus Business First. Retrieved 2020-09-12.
- ^ Brown, Gary (24 September 2018). "The Monday After: Caroline McCullough Everhard was voice for women's rights". The Repository. Retrieved 2020-09-05.
- ^ Shilling 1916, p. 173.
- ^ a b Shilling 1916, pp. 173–174.
- ^ a b c Shilling 1916, p. 174.
- ^ von Klenze, Henrietta (August 1912). "Suffrage Campaign Among the Germans". The Woman Voter. p. 21 – via Internet Archive.
- ^ Steinglass & Scarselli 2004, p. 40.
- ^ a b Steinglass & Scarselli 2004, p. 41.
- ^ a b c Pliley 2008, pp. 8–9.
- ^ a b c d Pliley 2008, p. 8.
- ^ Pliley 2008, p. 22.
- ^ a b c Pliley 2008, p. 20.
- ^ Pliley 2008, pp. 20–21.
- ^ Pliley 2008, p. 14.
- ^ Pliley 2008, p. 15.
- ^ "The Little Yellow Wagon". The Woman Voter. August 1912. pp. 18–19 – via Internet Archive.
- ^ Hoersten, Greg (2019-03-19). "The Persistent Bessie Crayton". The Lima News. Retrieved 2020-09-05.
- ^ Pliley 2008, p. 25.
- ^ a b c Nickoloff, Anne (2016-06-07). "100 years ago today, East Cleveland gave women the right to vote". Cleveland.com. Retrieved 2020-09-11.
- ^ "EAST CLEVELAND". Encyclopedia of Cleveland History | Case Western Reserve University. 2020-05-11. Retrieved 2020-09-19.
- ^ "Lakewood Chapter". MyLO. 2019-03-23. Retrieved 2020-09-19.
- ^ a b Pliley 2008, p. 26.
- ^ a b Trowbridge, David J.; Metzger, Kayla (4 June 2020). "Cleveland Woman's Suffrage Party Headquarters". Clio: Your Guide to History. Retrieved 2020-09-04.
- ^ "Woman Suffrage Advocates Speak for Pending Bill". The Sandusky Star-Journal. 1917-01-25. p. 1. Retrieved 2020-09-13 – via Newspapers.com.
- ^ "To Open Fight for Presidential Vote". Bucyrus Journal. 1917-01-05. p. 1. Retrieved 2020-09-13 – via Newspapers.com.
- ^ "Cox Promises to Support Suffrage Bill". The Lima News. 1917-01-04. p. 1. Retrieved 2020-09-13 – via Newspapers.com.
- ^ "The Irrepressible Ohioans". The Woman Citizen. 1 (18): 325. 29 September 1917.
- ^ "Anti-Suffragists Plan Referendum on Reynolds Bill". The Dayton Herald. 1917-02-22. p. 3. Retrieved 2020-09-13 – via Newspapers.com.
- ^ "Campaign Frauds". The Chronicle-Telegram. 1917-09-04. p. 4. Retrieved 2020-09-13 – via Newspapers.com.
- ^ a b c d "Suffrage". The Woman Citizen. 1 (22): 412. 27 October 1917.
- ^ "Ohio Suffrage Referendum Called Off Due to Ruling". The Gazette Times. 4 June 1920. Retrieved 13 September 2020.
- ^ Steinglass & Scarselli 2004, p. 48.
- ^ a b c "Ohio Women Vote: 100 Years of Change: Significant Ohio Women Biographies" (PDF). Ohio History Collection. Retrieved 19 September 2020.
- ^ a b c Staples 2020, p. 80.
- ^ Hauser 1912, p. 3.
- ^ a b "Woman Suffrage in the Midwest". U.S. National Park Service. Retrieved 2020-09-05.
- ^ Weingartner, Tana (27 January 2020). "Exhibit Examines Ohio's Forgotten Role In The Women's Suffrage Movement". WVXU. Retrieved 2020-09-05.
- ^ "To Stump Ohio for Women's Suffrage". Daily Ohio Statesman. 1867-11-13. p. 2. Retrieved 2020-09-18 – via Newspapers.com.
- ^ a b Pliley 2008, p. 17.
- ^ Hauser, Elizabeth J. (August 1912a). "A Few Facts in Ohio's History". The Woman Voter. p. 9 – via Internet Archive.
- ^ Pliley 2008, p. 7.
- ^ a b Pliley 2008, p. 13.
- ^ a b Staples 2020, p. 81.
- ^ "Anti-Suffrage Fight Started". The Democratic Banner. 13 February 1912. Retrieved 19 September 2020.
- ^ Pliley 2008, p. 23.
- ^ Pliley 2008, p. 24.
- ^ Hauser 1912, p. 6.
- ^ Pliley 2008, p. 4.
Sources
[edit]- Anthony, Susan B. (1902). Anthony, Susan B.; Harper, Ida Husted (eds.). The History of Woman Suffrage. Vol. 4. Indianapolis: The Hollenbeck Press.
- Cravens, Mary J. (1887). "A Glimpse of the History of Woman Suffrage". Martha Mcclellan Brown Ephemera. Toledo, Ohio: Toledo Commercial Book and Job Printing.
- Hauser, Elizabeth J. (August 1912). "A Bird's Eye View". The Woman Voter. pp. 3–6 – via Internet Archive.
- Little, Sarah Miller (Summer 2005). "A Woman of Property: From Being It to Controlling It - A Bicentennial Perspective on Women and Ohio Property Law, 1803 to 2003". Hastings Law Journal. 16 (2): 177–200.
- Pliley, Jessica R. (2008). "Voting for the Devil: Unequal Partnerships in the Ohio Women's Suffrage Campaign of 1914". Ohio History. 115: 4–27. doi:10.1353/ohh.0.0018. S2CID 144676061.
- Shilling, D. C. (1916). "Woman's Suffrage in the Constitutional Convention of Ohio" (PDF). Ohio Arch. And Hist. Society Publications. 25: 166–175.
- Staples, Sarah (Spring 2020). "The Fight to Let Cincinnati Women Vote". Ohio Valley History. 20 (1): 79–83 – via Project MUSE.
- Steinglass, Steven H.; Scarselli, Gino J. (2004). The Ohio State Constitution: A Reference Guide. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0313267650.
- Upton, Harriet Taylor (1910). Cutler, Harry Gardner (ed.). History of the Western Reserve. Chicago: The Lewis Publishing Company.
External links
[edit]- The Woman Voter, Ohio Edition August 1912