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Gang rape occurs when a group of people participate in the rape of a single victim. Rape involving at least two or more violators (typically at least three^[1]) is widely reported to occur in many parts of the world. Systematic information on the extent of the problem, however, is scant.

One study showed that offenders and victims in gang rape incidents were younger with a higher possibility of being unemployed. Gang rapes involved more alcohol and drug use, night attacks and severe sexual assault outcomes and less victim resistance and fewer weapons than individual rapes.^[2] Another study found that group sexual assaults were more violent and had greater resistance from the victim than individual sexual assaults and that victims of group sexual assaults were more likely to seek crisis and police services, to contemplate suicide and seek therapy than those involved in individual assaults. The two groups were about the same in the amount of drug use and drinking during the assault. ^[3]

Gang rape is sometimes referred to as group rape or party rape or multiple perpetrator rape in scholarly literature.^[4]

Causes and characteristics

Gang rapes often involve three or more men as perpetrators. These rapes have characteristics beyond those found in rape by individuals; for example, gang rapists tend to be younger and serial in their crimes, the gang is more often under the influence of drugs or alcohol, of the same race or religion or place of residence thereby forming a close-knit peer pressure group, encouraged by the behavior of their fellow criminals. Gang rapes are more violent; the sexual and non-sexual injuries to the victim are often far more severe. The gang members typically dehumanize their target victim(s) before and during the rape.^[5]^[6]^[7]

Porter and Alison have analyzed 739 gang rape cases from US and UK, and found over 20% of the gang rape victim died from injuries from the gang rape.^[8] A 2013 study based on 25 year crime data from US and Europe, between 10% to 20% of all rapes were gang rapes. Less than 1 in 3 gang rapes are reported, while less than 1 in 20 attempted but failed gang rapes are reported.^[4]

Gang rapes during civil wars and ethnic riots take added dimension of becoming a means of revenge, sending a message to the victims' community, inducing fear in the opponent, creating a sense of solidarity among the soldiers or militants or the violent group.^[9]^[10]

Gang rape is sometimes stereotyped^{[by whom?]} as a crime of poor, minorities or culture; however, gang rape incidence rates are high in wealthy college campuses, among non-minorities and every culture.^[11] Everywhere there is a tendency to blame the victim; however, gang rapes are almost always pre-meditated in their intent, target victim(s), social proof and psychological causes.^[12]^[13] Certain events such as civil wars, hate propaganda, and ethnic conflicts increase the incidence rate of gang rapes.^[14]^[15]

According to one study,^[16] over 70% of the victims were gang raped by rapists of same race and religion. Most covered and debated gang rapes tend to be those involving victim and rapists of different race or religion or social class.

Specific countries

This is an incomplete list of countries, where government and media have acknowledged the problem of gang rape.

Brazil

In the state of Rio de Janeiro, over 6000 rapes are reported every year (or about 78 per 100,000 women). The arrest rates for rape of 4% are amongst the lowest in the world.^[17] Over 20% of these rapes are gang rapes.

A gang rape of American student on a transit van in Copacabana tourist district was described as one of routine rapes on public buses. This case gathered significant local and international media attention, leading to review of several Brazilian procedures for rape crimes.^[18]

China

The data on rapes in China is disputed. The U.S. Department of State claimed in 2007 that China officially reports 31,833 rapes a year. Tsun-yin claims that this number is a small fraction of actual rapes.^[19] In 2009, China's Ministry of Public Security claimed to have 'solved' 26,404 rape cases, compared to 24,495 solved cases in 2008, without disclosing the number of unsolved rape cases.^[20] A 2013 Tianjin University survey claims 25% of men said they had raped a woman, and 1.25% admitted to have gang raped.^[21]

In July 2013, the son of a Chinese general was charged with 4 other men to being part of a gang rape. This case raised significant public anger over seemingly privileged treatment of elite gang rape criminals.^[22]

Egypt

Over two dozen gang rapes were reported during civil protests in Egypt from January to March 2013; however, activists claim that many more gang rapes often go unreported because most women are too ashamed to go to the police or even tell their relatives.^[23]^[24]

During July 2013 mass protests in Egypt, a Dutch journalist was gang-raped in Tahrir Square.^[25]^[26] A similar gang rape and gang beating was reported by an American journalist in 2011. In a separate survey, over 90% of Egyptian women claimed to have experienced sexual violence in their lifetime.^[27]

France

Between 5000 to 7000 gang rapes are reported in France every year.^[28]

The expression la tournante is a French noun meaning "the turning" and is used as a slang term to mean a gang rape.

In October 2012, two girls near Paris reported experiencing daily gang rapes, sometimes by scores of boys, after one was found brutally beaten by a female police officer. 10 of the 14 defendants who were minor at the time of gang rape were released without any sentence, while remaining 4 adults found guilty were given 0 to 12 months in prison. This case shocked France.^[29]^[30]

India

India reports about 22,000 rapes a year, about 1.8 rapes per 100,000 population.^[31] As with other countries, India does not collect separate data on gang rapes.

The gang rape of a 23-year-old student on a public bus, on 16 December 2012 has focused international attention on India’s legal system, especially laws pertaining to the protection of women. It sparked large protests across the capital of India, Delhi.^[32] In the 24-hour period after the gang rape of the victim, at least two girls under the age of 18 were gang raped and one of them was murdered.^[33] Reports of gang rape of 2 foreign tourists in India have been a serious issue inside the country.^[34]^[35]

Iran

Many incidents of gang rapes have been reported in Iran. In several cases, the police officials have blamed the victim for not wearing hijab, and in one case arresting the victim and two activists, who were trying to bring attention to the gang rape.^[36]^[37]

While official statistics on reported and pending gang rapes in Iran are not published by the Iranian government, public hangings for gang rapes are routinely reported in Iranian newspapers.^[38]^[39]^[40]

Nigeria

Nigeria reports thousands of gang rapes every year.^[41]^[42] In 2011, Absu gang rape, where the gang videotaped their crime, drew widespread attention and protests inside Nigeria.^[43] The prevalence of group rape has been proposed as a significant contributor to spread of sexual diseases and AIDs.^[44]^[45]

Pakistan

The 2013 National Crime Data report for Pakistan suggest a current rape rate of 8.4 women per 100,000 population (16.8 per 100,000 women), of which about 10% were gang rapes.^[46]

In some cases such as Mukhtar Mai gang rape in Muzaffargarh, village elder's council (jirga) in Pakistan have ordered that the girl in a family be gang-raped as a means of punishing her brother, and this punishment was then carried out in public with everyone watching.^[47] In 2011, Pakistan's Supreme Court freed 5 men who committed the gang-rape because their action was on orders of the village council.^[48]^[49] Other gang rape cases reported in 2013 include Bahawalpur gang rape,^[50] Lahore gang rape,^[51] Peshawar gang rape,^[52] Karachi gang rape of a polio-disabled girl^[53] among others.

South Africa

Gang rape is common in South Africa,^[54] and in certain parts it is called jackrolling.^[55] South Africa reported over 64,000 rapes in 2012, or about 127.5 women per 100,000 population (255 rapes per 100,000 women).^[56] With one woman raped every 4 minutes, South Africa has world's highest rape incidence rate per 100,000 women.^[57] Between 10% to 33% of all rapes are gang rapes involving three or more people. About 25% of youth near Johannesburg described gang rape as recreational and fun.^[55]^[58]

In certain parts of South Africa where boys are often involved in gang rapes, called jackrolling, rape rates are higher.^[55] 40% of reported rape cases are on children below the age of 12.^[59]

Vogelman and Lewis report 44% of rapists in South Africa have engaged in gang rape. The National Institute of Crime Rehabilitation of South Africa claims only 1 out of 20 rapes are reported in South Africa, suggesting 1,300 women are raped every day.^[60]

In February 2013, Anene Booysen, a 17-year old girl was gang raped, mutilated and left to die in a town near Cape Town. This led to widespread protests.^[57]

United Arab Emirates

In several recent cases, the courts of UAE have sentenced the gang raped woman to prison under its laws. For example, a British woman, after she reported being gang raped by three men, was charged with the crime of drinking alcohol in UAE; an Arab woman was sentenced to one year in prison for illicit sex after she complained of gang rape; an Australian woman was similarly sentenced to jail after she reported gang rape in UAE, while a Norwegian woman was jailed for illicit sex when she reported rape by Arabic men.^[61] In another recent case, a 18 year Arab woman withdrew her complaint of gang rape inside a car by 6 men when the prosecution threatened her with a long jail term for consensual sex with multiple men.^[62]

According to ABC News, a French teenage boy was gang raped by three Dubai men. The authorities demanded that the tourist confess he is gay and that he asked for sex. The boy insisted he was raped and diplomatic pressure led to the arrest and conviction of the gang members.^[63]

United Kingdom

The UK reports about 16,000 rapes a year, about 27 rapes per 100,000 population (54 rapes every year per 100,000 women).^[31] The UK authorities do not separately collect data on gang rapes.

According to Metropolitan Police statistics, 85 gang rapes were reported in London alone in 2008. In 92 cases from January 2006 to March 2009, a total of 92 young people were convicted of involvement in gang rape. Of those convicted, 66 were black or mixed race, 13 were white and the remainder were from other countries such as Afghanistan, Iraq and Libya.^[64]

In May 2013, the French footballer Loïc Rémy and his two colleagues were arrested in London on charges of gang rape.^[65]

United States

The US reports about 85,000 rapes a year, about 29 rapes per 100,000 population (58 rapes every year per 100,000 women).^[31] There is a rape in the US every 6.2 minutes, with 1 in 5 women likely to be raped in her lifetime.^[31]^[66] As with other countries, the US does not collect separate data on gang rapes; Vogelman and Lewis estimate 25% of all rapes in the US are gang rapes.^[60] Peggy Sanday reports hundreds of prosecuted gang rape cases on college campuses.^[11] A Roger Williams University study estimates from survey of crime data that 16% of all male rapists in the US participated in a gang rape crime.^[67]

Some recent examples of gang rapes reported in local media include the Cleveland gang rape,^[68] Richmond gang rape,^[69] New Orleans gang rape,^[70] St Paul gang rape,^[71] Miami gang rape/murder,^[72] Chicago gang rape^[73] and Delaware park gang rape.^[74]

According to data from National Crime Victimization Survey, blacks committed 10,000 gang rapes against whites between 2001 and 2003, but there wasn't a single case of white-on-black gang rape.^[75]

Gang rapes during wars

Major ethnic conflicts and wars within the last 50 years have witnessed a campaign of gang rapes.^[76]

The Congo war saw thousands of gang rapes every week, with each relief center reporting 10 or more daily victims of gang rape with battering of women.^[77]^[78] The Rwandan genocide of 1994 witnessed numerous gang rapes by soldiers.^[79] Bosnia war during the 1990s saw a similar campaign of gang rapes.^[80]

More recently, civil war torn regions such as Sudan, Afghanistan and Syria have reported high rates of gang rapes by government soldiers as well as Islamic militants.^[81]^[82]^[83]^[84]

References

^ Neumann, Stephani. Gang Rape: Examining Peer Support and Alcohol in Fraternities. Sex Crimes and Paraphilia. Hickey, Eric W., 397-407
^ Ullman, S. E. (1999). "A Comparison of Gang and Individual Rape Incidents". Violence and Victims. 14 (2): 123–133. PMID 10418766. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
^ Gidycz, C. A.; Koss, M. P. (1990). "A Comparison Of Group And Individual Sexual Assault Victims". Psychology of Women Quarterly. 14 (3): 325–342. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1990.tb00023.x.
^ ^a ^b Ullman, S. E. (2013). 11 Multiple perpetrator rape victimization. Handbook on the Study of Multiple Perpetrator Rape: A Multidisciplinary Response to an International Problem, Miranda A.H Horvath, Jessica Woodhams (Editors), 4, Chapter 11; ISBN 978-0415500449
^ Ullman, Sarah (1999). A comparison of gang and individual rape incidents. Violence and victims, 14(2), pp 123-133
^ Porter, L. E., & Alison, L. J. (2001). A Partially Ordered Scale of Influence in Violent Group Behavior An Example From Gang Rape. Small Group Research, 32(4), pp 475-497
^ Berkowitz, A. (1992). College men as perpetrators of acquaintance rape and sexual assault: A review of recent research. Journal of American College Health, 40(4), pp 175-181
^ Porter, L. E., & Alison, L. J. (2006). Examining group rape: A descriptive analysis of offender and victim behaviour. European Journal of Criminology,3(3), pp 357-381
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^ Miller, Jody, & Glassner, Barry (1997). The ‘inside’and the ‘outside’: finding realities in interviews. Qualitative research, pp 99-112, Chapter 8
^ ^a ^b Sanday, P. (2007). Fraternity gang rape: Sex, brotherhood, and privilege on campus. New York University Press, ISBN 978-0-8147-4038-5
^ Smith, Merril (Ed.). (2004). Encyclopedia of rape. Greenwood Publishing Group.
^ Ellis, Lee (Ed.). (1989). Theories of Rape: Recent Inquiries Into the Causes of Sexual Aggression. Taylor & Francis.
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^ Barnes, A. (Ed.). (2005). The handbook of women, psychology, and the law. John Wiley & Sons
^ Allison, Julie and Wrightsman, Lawrence (1993). Rape: The misunderstood crime. Sage, ISBN 978-0803937079
^ Rape in Brazil still an invisible crime, Fabiola Ortiz, Inter Press Service (June 24 2013)
^ Simon Romero (2013). 3 "Brazilians Convicted of Gang-raping American Student". New York Times. {{cite news}}: Check |url= value (help)
^ Rape in China, University of Southern California (May 7 2009)
^ "2 Countries, 2 Struggles for Justice". New York Times. February 26, 2013.
^ Sexual Violence in China, James Griffiths, Shanghaiist (May 2013)
^ China general's son charged over gang rape, France 24, AFP, (9 July 2013)^{[dead link]}
^ Marroushi, Nadine. "Raped Egypt Women Wish Death Over Life as Crimes Ignored". Bloomberg. Retrieved 2013-11-05.
^ Tadros, Mariz (2013-03-11). "Politically motivated sexual assault: the Egypt story none want to hear". The Guardian. Retrieved 2013-11-05.
^ Megan Levy (2012-04-13). "Dutch Journalist Raped In Tahrir Square". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 2013-11-05.
^ "Sexual Assaults Reportedly Rampant During Egypt Protests". NPR. 2013-07-07. Retrieved 2013-11-05.
^ Gang rape, the dark side of Egypt's protests, Nina Burleigh, CNN (July 3 2013)
^ Tournantes: le calvaire de Nina et Stéphanie, Caroline Politi (18 September 2012), L'Express France
^ Gang rape trial shocks France and sparks row over justice system, Angelique Chrisafis (9 October 2012), The Guradian
^ Light Gang Rape Penalities Provoke Outcry in France, Scott Sayare, New York Times (October 11 2012)
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d http://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/statistics/crime/CTS12_Sexual_violence.xls
^ "Video: Protests grow over gang rape of Indian woman". Telegraph. 19 Dec 2012. Retrieved 2012-12-21.
^ "Brutal India gang rape triggers outrage". CBS News. December 19, 2012. Retrieved 2012-12-21.
^ Outrage in India over U.S. tourist gang-rape, latest in attacks
^ Six men convicted of gang-raping Swiss tourist while she was camping with her husband in India
^ Iranian Women call for action on gang-rapes Amnesty International (1 August 2011)
^ Gang rapes in Iran cause fear and religious controversy BBC News (15 June 2011)
^ Four convicted rapists hanged Parvand Iran News (12 October 2011)
^ "Four sentenced to death for gang rape". Insideofiran.org. 2011-08-12. Retrieved 2013-11-05.
^ Six men hanged for gang rape August 2013
^ Onyejekwe, Chineze J. (2008). Nigeria: The Dominance of Rape. Journal of International Women's Studies, 10(1), pp 48-63
^ Akinade, E. A., Adewuyi, T. D. O., & Sulaiman, A. (2010). Socio-legal factors that influence the perpetuation of rape in Nigeria. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 5, pp 1760-1764
^ Du Mont, J., & White, D. (2013). Sexual violence: what does it take for the world to care about women?. Journal of public health, 35(2), 182-184.
^ Dartnall, E., & Jewkes, R. (2012). Sexual violence against women: The scope of the problem. Best Practice & Research Clinical Obstetrics & Gynaecology.
^ Peters, T. O., & Olowa, O. W. (2010). Causes and Incidence of Rape among Middle Age and Young Adult in Lagos State, Nigeria. Research Journal of Biological Sciences, 5(10), pp 670-677
^ Crime report Shakeel Anjum, The News (Pakistan)
^ Pakistan: Girl gang-raped as local punishment IRIN, United Nations News Service (2 July 2002)
^ Pakistan Supreme Court frees five in gang-rape case that received global attention Pamela Constable, Washington Post (April 21, 2011)
^ Pakistan Supreme Court frees 5 accused of gang rape Alex Rodriguez, Los Angeles Times (April 22, 2011)
^ 9-year old Pakistani girl kidnapped and gang-raped RT News (January 5, 2013)
^ 13 being grilled over gang rape The Nation, Pakistan (June 22, 2013)
^ Alleged Pakistan gag-rape victim to appeal acquittals Radio Free Europe (February 1, 2013)
^ Polio-affected girl gang raped in Karachi CNBC (July 18, 2013)
^ South Africa, once called ‘the world’s rape capital,’ is running out of rape kits Caitlin Dewey, Washington Post, March 5, 2013
^ ^a ^b ^c "South Africa's rape shock". BBC News. 1999-01-19. Retrieved 2010-05-26.
^ Crime Research and Statistics, South African Police Service (2013)^{[dead link]}
^ ^a ^b The gang rape that horrified South Africa (12 February 2013)
^ Swart L et al. Rape surveillance through district surgeons’ offices in Johannesburg, 1996–1998: findings, evaluation and prevention implications.South African Journal of Psychology, 2000, 30:1–10.
^ "Rape has become a way of life in South Africa". Health Systems Trust. 2013-11-01. Retrieved 2013-11-05.
^ ^a ^b Gang Rape and the Culture of Violence in South Africa, Vogelman & Lewis, Illusion der Stärke: Jugenbanden, vergewaltigung und kultuur der gewalt in Südafrika, in Der Überblick, No. 2
^ Bakr, Amena. "Woman jailed in Dubai after reporting rape hopes to warn others". Reuters. Retrieved 2013-11-05.
^ "Emirati woman, 18, retracts claim of rape by six men". The National (Abu Dhabi). 2010-05-25. Retrieved 2013-11-05.
^ French Teen's Rape Case Exposes Dubai's Dark Side, ABC News
^ "Gang rape: Is it a race issue? - Crime - UK". The Independent. 2009-06-21. Retrieved 2013-11-05.
^ French footballer Remy grilled over gang rape (15 May 2013)
^ A Rape a Minute, A thousand corpses a year, Rebecca Solnit (January 24 2013), The Nation
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^ "Defendant in Cleveland gang rape case gets life sentence". Houston Chronicle. Retrieved 2013-11-05.
^ Gafni, Matthias. "Richmond gang-rape 'main participant' sentenced to 32 years - San Jose Mercury News". Mercurynews.com. Retrieved 2013-11-05.
^ St. Tammany Parish Sheriff's Office. "4 men found guilty in gang rape of 15-year-old in St. Tammany". The Times-Picayune. Retrieved 2013-11-05.
^ Gurnonegurnon, Emily (2013-07-15). "Teen in St. Paul gang rape gets more than three years". St. Paul Pioneer Press. Retrieved 2013-11-05.
^ "Ringleader of gang rape, murder sentenced to death". WSVN. Retrieved 2013-11-05.^{[dead link]}
^ "Cops: Girl, 14, abducted and raped by 6 men". redeyechicago.com. 2012-11-08. Retrieved 2013-11-05.
^ "2 women gang raped by 10-12 juveniles in Delaware park, report says". Fox News. 2013-08-31. Retrieved 2013-11-05.
^ U.S. Dept. of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics (2006-06-08). "NATIONAL CRIME VICTIMIZATION SURVEY, 1992-2003". Conducted by U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research [producer and distributor]. doi:10.3886/ICPSR03995.v4. ICPSR03995-v4. Retrieved 9 February 2014. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ Card, Claudia, Rape as a Weapon of War, Hypatia 11.4 (1996), pp 5-18
^ http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/07/world/africa/07congo.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0
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^ Morris, M. (1996). By force of arms: Rape, war, and military culture. Duke Law Journal, 45, pp 651-699
^ Stiglmayer, A. (Ed.). (1994). Mass rape: The war against women in Bosnia-Herzegovina, University of Nebraska Press
^ Farr, Kathryn. "Extreme war rape in today’s civil-war-torn states: A contextual and comparative analysis." Gender Issues 26.1 (2009): pp 1-41
^ Asfour, Hasibah. "Concepts of Social Justice and Islamic Perspective." American Journal of Law and Public Policy 3.1 (2013): 29-34.
^ Tuesday, November 5, 2013 9:17 AM EST Facebook Twitter RSS (2013-04-06). "Syrian women who fled to Jordan tell of horrific rapes back home | Toronto Star". Toronto Star. Retrieved 2013-11-05. {{cite news}}: |author= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^ "The Syrian Refugee Crisis". 20 January 2013.

@@ Line 98: / Line 98: @@
 Some recent examples of gang rapes reported in local media include the Cleveland gang rape,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.chron.com/news/houston-texas/houston/article/Defendant-in-Cleveland-gang-rape-case-gets-life-4073766.php |title=Defendant in Cleveland gang rape case gets life sentence |publisher=[[Houston Chronicle]] |date= |accessdate=2013-11-05}}</ref> Richmond gang rape,<ref>{{cite web|last=Gafni |first=Matthias |url=http://www.mercurynews.com/news/ci_21810386/sentencing-today-key-richmong-gang-rape-suspect |title=Richmond gang-rape 'main participant' sentenced to 32 years - San Jose Mercury News |publisher=Mercurynews.com |date= |accessdate=2013-11-05}}</ref> New Orleans gang rape,<ref>{{cite news|author=St. Tammany Parish Sheriff's Office |url=http://www.nola.com/crime/index.ssf/2012/04/4_men_found_guilty_in_gang_rap.html |title=4 men found guilty in gang rape of 15-year-old in St. Tammany |publisher=[[The Times-Picayune]] |date= |accessdate=2013-11-05}}</ref> St Paul gang rape,<ref>{{cite news|last=Gurnonegurnon |first=Emily |url=http://www.twincities.com/stpaul/ci_23665333/teen-st-paul-gang-rape-gets-more-than |title=Teen in St. Paul gang rape gets more than three years |publisher=[[St. Paul Pioneer Press]] |date=2013-07-15 |accessdate=2013-11-05}}</ref> Miami gang rape/murder,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wsvn.com/news/articles/local/21009734985975/ringleader-of-gang-rape-and-murder-sentenced-to-death/ |title=Ringleader of gang rape, murder sentenced to death |publisher=[[WSVN]] |date= |accessdate=2013-11-05}}{{dead link|date=February 2014}}</ref> Chicago gang rape<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.redeyechicago.com/news/chi-police-6-men-abduct-girl-at-gunpoint-sexually-assault-her-20121107,0,7200533.story |title=Cops: Girl, 14, abducted and raped by 6 men |publisher=redeyechicago.com |date=2012-11-08 |accessdate=2013-11-05}}</ref> and Delaware park gang rape.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.foxnews.com/us/2013/08/31/2-women-gang-raped-by-10-12-juveniles-in-delaware-park-report-says/ |title=2 women gang raped by 10-12 juveniles in Delaware park, report says |publisher=[[Fox News]] |date=2013-08-31 |accessdate=2013-11-05}}</ref>
+According to data from [[National Crime Victimization Survey]], blacks committed 10,000 gang rapes against whites between 2001 and 2003, but there wasn't a single case of white-on-black gang rape.<ref>{{cite journal |author= U.S. Dept. of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics |date= 2006-06-08 |title= NATIONAL CRIME VICTIMIZATION SURVEY, 1992-2003 |department= Conducted by U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Bureau of the Census |id= ICPSR03995-v4 |url= http://www.icpsr.umich.edu/icpsrweb/NACJD/studies/3995/version/4 |location= Ann Arbor, MI |journal= |publisher= Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research [producer and distributor] |doi= 10.3886/ICPSR03995.v4 |accessdate=9 February 2014}}</ref>
 ==Gang rapes during wars==