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* [[Child development]]
* [[Child development]]
* [[Dyslexia in fiction]]
* [[Dyslexia in fiction]]

==Further Reading==



{{cite book |title=The Gift of Dyslexia: Why Some of the Brightest People Can't Read and How They Can Learn |last=Davis |first=Ronald |year=1997 |publisher=Souvenir Press Ltd |location= |isbn=0285634127 |pages=272 |url=http://www.amazon.co.uk/Gift-Dyslexia-Brightest-People-Learn/dp/0285634127/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1246885121&sr=8-1 }}

{{cite book |title=A Memory Therapy & Study Guide For Dyslexia, Adhd, Learning Impairment & Poor Verbal Memory: Improve Your Verbal Memory |last=Rowan |first=James |year=2008 |publisher=Createspace Ltd |location= |isbn=1440495238 |pages= |url=http://www.amazon.com/Memory-Therapy-Dyslexia-Learning-Impairment/dp/1440495238/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1246880031&sr=8-1 }}

{{cite book |title=How to Identify and Support Children with Dyslexia |last=Neanon|first=Chris |year=2002 |publisher=LDA |location= |isbn=1855033569 |pages=64 |url=http://www.amazon.co.uk/How-Identify-Support-Children-Dyslexia/dp/1855033569/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1246885121&sr=8-2 }}


==References==
==References==

Revision as of 13:42, 6 July 2009

This article is about developmental dyslexia. For acquired dyslexia, see Alexia (acquired dyslexia).

Dyslexia is a learning disability that makes itself manifest primarily as a difficulty with the visual notation of speech or written language, particularly with reading the various man-made writing systems. It is separate and distinct from reading difficulties resulting from other causes, such as a non-neurological deficiency with vision or hearing, or from poor or inadequate reading instruction.[1] This suggests that dyslexia results from differences in how the brain processes written and spoken language.

Definition

There are many definitions of dyslexia but no consensus. Some definitions are purely descriptive, while others embody causal theories. It appears that ‘dyslexia’ is not one thing but many, in so far as it serves as a conceptual clearing-house for a number of reading skills deficits and difficulties, with a number of causes.[2]

The majority of currently available dyslexia research relates to the alphabet writing system, and especially languages of European origin, however more research is becoming available regarding dyslexia and the other writing systems. This will provide a broader and more universal perspective of dyslexia.

Castles and Coltheart, 1993, described phonological and surface types of developmental dyslexia by analogy to classical subtypes of acquired dyslexia (alexia) which are classified according to the rate of errors in reading non-words.[3] However the distinction between surface and phonlogical dyslexia has not replaced the old empirical terminology of dysphonetic versus dyseidetic types of dyslexia (Boder 1973). The surface/phonological distinction is only descriptive, and devoid of any aetiological assumption as to the underlying brain mechanisms, where as the dysphonetic/dyseidetic distinction refers to two different mechanisms one relates to a speech discrimination deficit, and the other to a visual preception impairment. (Most people with dyslexia who have Boder's Dysiedetic type, have attentional and spatial difficulties which interfere with the reading acquisition process.[4]

Although dyslexia is thought to be the result of a neurological difference, it is not an intellectual disability. Dyslexia is diagnosed in people of all levels of intelligence.[5][6]

Diagnosis

Formal diagnosis of dyslexia is made by a qualified professional, such as a neurologist or an educational psychologist. Evaluation generally includes testing of reading ability together with measures of underlying skills such as tests of rapid naming to evaluate short term memory and sequencing skills, and nonword reading to evaluate phonological coding skills. Evaluation will usually also include an IQ test to establish a profile of learning strengths and weaknesses. While such "discrepancy" tests between full scale IQ and reading level have, on their own, been shown to be flawed,[7], the tests often include interdisciplinary testing to exclude other possible causes for reading difficulties, such as a more generalized cognitive impairment or physical causes such as problems with vision or hearing.

Leppänen PH et al., investigated whether children born to families with a history of dyslexia are at an elevated risk for the disorder. They studied 6-month-old infants with and without a high risk of familial dyslexia and measured differences in electrical activation in the brain generated by changes in the temporal structure of speech sounds, a critical cuing feature in speech. The infants at risk differed from control infants in both their initial responsiveness to sounds and in their change-detection responses dependent on the stimulus context. This indicates that infants at risk due to a familial background of reading problems process auditory temporal cues of speech sounds differently than infants without such risk even before they learn to speak, and that incidence of familial dyslexia may assist in diagnosis.[8] [9]

Recent dyslexia research using neuroimaging suggests that it may one day be possible to identify children with dyslexia before they learn to read.[8] [9]

Disagreement exists in dyslexia research as to whether dyslexia exists as a condition, or whether it simply reflects individual differences among different readers.[10]

Dyslexia has many underlying causes that are believed to be a neurological conditions that influence the ability to read written language.[4]

The following conditions may be contributory or overlapping factors, or underlying cause of the dyslexic symptoms as they can lead to difficulty reading:

  • Auditory processing disorder is a condition that affects the ability to process auditory information. Auditory Processing Disorder is a Listening Disability.[11] It can lead to problems with auditory memory and auditory sequencing. Many people with dyslexia have auditory processing problems including history of auditory reversals, and may develop their own Logographic cues to compensate for this type of deficit. Auditory processing disorder is recognized as one of the major causes of dyslexia.[11][12][13][14] Some children can acquire auditory processing disorder as a result of experiencing otitis media with effusion (Glue Ear, Sticky Ear, Grommits) and other severe ear conditions.[citation needed]

The following are related variations with possible shared underlying neurological causes.[citation needed]

  • Dysgraphia is a disorder which expresses itself primarily during writing or typing, although in some cases it may also affect eye-hand coordination in such direction or sequence oriented processes as tying knots or carrying out a repetitive task. Dysgraphia is distinct from Dyspraxia in that the person may have the word to be written or the proper order of steps in mind clearly, but carries the sequence out in the wrong order.
  • Dyscalculia is a neurological condition characterized by a problem with learning fundamentals and one or more of the basic numerical skills. Often people with this condition can understand very complex mathematical concepts and principles but have difficulty processing formulas and even basic addition and subtraction.
  • Specific Language Impairment is a developmental language disorder that can affect both expressive and receptive language. SLI is defined as a "pure" language impairment, meaning that is not related to or caused by other developmental disorders, hearing loss or acquired brain injury. A study by the Universities of Maastricht and Utrecht examined speech perception and speech production in 3-year-old Dutch children at familial risk of developing dyslexia. Their performance in speech sound categorisation and their production of words was compared to that of age-matched children with specific language impairment (SLI) and typically developing controls. The results of the at-risk and SLI-group were highly similar. Analysis of the individual data revealed that both groups contained subgroups with good and poorly performing children. Their impaired expressive phonology seemed to be related to a deficit in speech perception. The findings indicate that both dyslexia and SLI can be explained by a multi-risk model which includes cognitive processes as well as genetic factors.[19]
  • Cluttering is a speech fluency disorder involving both the rate and rhythm of speech, and resulting in impaired speech intelligibility. Speech is erratic and dysrhythmic, consisting of rapid and jerky spurts that usually involve faulty phrasing. The personality of the clutterer bears striking resemblance to the personalities of those with learning disabilities.[20]

Characteristics

Further information: Characteristics of dyslexia

Some shared symptoms of the speech/hearing deficits and dyslexia:[citation needed]

  1. Confusion with before/after, right/left, and so on
  2. Difficulty learning the alphabet
  3. Difficulty with word retrieval or naming problems
  4. Difficulty identifying or generating rhyming words, or counting syllables in words (phonological awareness)
  5. Difficulty with hearing and manipulating sounds in words (phonemic awareness)
  6. Difficulty distinguishing different sounds in words (auditory discrimination)
  7. Difficulty in learning the sounds of letters
  8. Difficulty associating individual words with their correct meanings
  9. Difficulty with time keeping and concept of time
  10. Confusion with combinations of words
  11. Due to fear of speaking incorrectly, some children become withdrawn and shy or become bullies out of their inability to understand the social cues in their environment
  12. Difficulty in organization skills

The identification of these factors results from the study of patterns across many clinical observations of dyslexic children. In the UK, Thomas Richard Miles was important in such work and his observations led him to develop the Bangor Dyslexia Diagnostic Test.[21]

Dyslexia is about having problems with the visual notation of speech, which in most languages of European origin are problems with alphabet writing systems which have a phonetic construction. Experience of speech acquisition delays, and speech and language problems can be due to problems processing and decoding auditory input prior to reproducing their own version of speech, and may be observed as stuttering, cluttering or hesitant speech.[22][23]

These issues can be a shared component in the spelling and writing difficulties which people who have dyslexia can experience

Research into the Causes

Further information: Dyslexia research and Research into the causes of Dyslexia
History
Further information: History of developmental dyslexia and the history of dyslexia
  • In 1896, W. Pringle Morgan published a description of a reading-specific learning disorder in the British Medical Journal "Congenital Word Blindness".[27]
  • During the 1890s and early 1900s, James Hinshelwood published a series of articles in medical journals describing similar cases of congenital word blindness. In his 1917 book Congenital Word Blindness, Hinshelwood asserted that the primary disability was in visual memory for words and letters, and described symptoms including letter reversals, and difficulties with spelling and reading comprehension.[28]
  • 1925 Samuel T. Orton determined that there was a syndrome unrelated to brain damage that made learning to read difficult. Orton's theory strephosymbolia described individuals with dyslexia having difficulty associating the visual forms of words with their spoken forms.[29] Orton observed that reading deficits in dyslexia did not seem to stem from strictly visual deficits.[30] He believed the condition was caused by the failure to establish hemispheric dominance in the brain.[31] Orton later worked with psychologist and educator Anna Gillingham to develop an educational intervention that pioneered the use of simultaneous multisensory instruction.[32]
  • In contrast, Dearborn, Gates, Bennet and Blau considered a faulty guidance of the seeing mechanism to be the cause. They sought to discover if a conflict between spontaneous orientation of the scanning action of the eyes from right to left and training aimed at the acquisition of an opposite direction would allow an interpretation of the facts observed in the dyslexic disorder and especially of the ability to mirror-read.
  • 1949 research conducted under Clement Launay (thesis G. Mahec Paris 1951) went further. The phenomenon is clearly linked to the dynamics of sight as it disappears when the space between letters is increased, transforming the reading into spelling. This experience also explains the ability to mirror-read.
  • In the 1970s, a new hypothesis emerged that dyslexia stems from a deficit in phonological processing or difficulty in recognizing that spoken words are formed by discrete phonemes affected individuals have difficulty associating these sounds with the visual letters that make up written words. Key studies suggested the importance of phonological awareness,[33]
  • 1979 Galaburda and Kemper,[34] and Galaburda et al. 1985,[35] from the examination of post autopsy brains of people with dyslexia. Observed anatomical differences in the language center in a dyslexic brain, these studies and those of Cohen et al. 1989,[36] suggested abnormal cortical development which was presumed to occur before or during the sixth month of foetal brain development.[4]
  • 1993 Castles and Coltheart describe developmental dyslexia as two prevalent and distinct varieties using the subtypes of Alexia, Surface and Phonological Dyslexia.[3] Manis et al. 1996, concluded that there were probably more than two subtypes of dyslexia, which would be related to multiple underlying deficits.[37]
  • 1994 From post autopsy specimens Galaburda et al., reported : Abnormal auditory processing in people with dyslexia suggests that accompanying anatomical abnormalities might be present in the auditory system. Supported the reported behavioral findings of a left hemisphere-based phonological defect in dyslexic individuals.[38]
  • The development of neuroimaging technologies during the 1980s and 1990s enabled dyslexia research to make significant advances. Positron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies have revealed the neural signature of adult normal reading (e.g. Fiez and Petersen, 1998;[39] Turkeltaub et al., 2002[40]) and phonological processing (e.g., Gelfand and Bookheimer, 2003;[41] Poldrack et al., 1999[42]). Employing various experimental approaches and paradigms (e.g., the detection or judgment of rhymes, nonword reading, and implicit reading), these studies have localized dysfunctional phonological processing in dyslexia to left-hemisphere perisylvian regions, especially for the alphabetic writing system (Paulesu et al., 2001;[43] for review, see Eden and Zeffiro, 1998[44]). However, it has been demonstrated that in nonalphabetic scripts, where reading places less demands on phonemic processing and the integration of visual-orthographic information is crucial, dyslexia is associated with under activity of the left middle frontal gyrus (Siok et al., 2004).[45]
  • 1999 Wydell and Butterworth reported the case study of an English-Japanese bilingual with monolingual dyslexia.[46] Suggesting that any language where orthography-to-phonology mapping is transparent, or even opaque, or any language whose orthographic unit representing sound is coarse (i.e. at a whole character or word level) should not produce a high incidence of developmental phonological dyslexia, and that orthograpy can influence dyslexic symptoms
  • 2003 A review by Collins and Rourke concluded that the current models of the relation between the brain and dyslexia generally focus on some form of defective or delayed brain maturation.[47]
  • 2007 Lyytinen et al. Researchers are seeking a link between the neurological and genetic findings, and the reading disorder.[48]
  • 2008 S Heim et al. in a paper "Cognitive subtypes of dyslexia" describe how they compared different sub-groups of dyslexics in comparison with a control group. This is one of the first studies not to just compare dyslexics with a non dyslexic control, but to go further and compared the different cognitive sub groups with a non dyslexic control group.[49]
Theories of developmental dyslexia
Further information: Theories of dyslexia

The following theories should not be viewed as competing, but viewed as theories trying to explain the underlying causes of a similar set of symptoms from a variety of research perspectives and background.[original research?]

  • Evolutionary hypothesis

This theory posits that reading is an unnatural act, and carried out by humans for an exceedingly brief period in our evolutionary history (Dalby, 1986). It has been less than a hundred years that most western societies promoted reading by the mass population and therefore the forces that shape our behavior have been weak. Many areas of the world still do not have access to reading for the majority of the population. There is no evidence that "pathology" underlies dyslexia but much evidence for cerebral variation or differences. It is these essential differences that are taxed with the artificial task of reading.[50]

  • Phonological deficit theory

The phonological deficit theory postulates that people with dyslexia have a specific impairment in the representation, storage and/or retrieval of speech sounds. It explains the reading impairment of people with dyslexia on the basis that learning to read an alphabetic system requires learning the grapheme/phoneme correspondence, i.e. the correspondence between letters and constituent sounds of speech.[51]

  • Rapid auditory processing theory

The rapid auditory processing theory is an alternative to the phonological deficit theory, which specifies that the primary deficit lies in the perception of short or rapidly varying sounds. Support for this theory arises from evidence that people with dyslexia show poor performance on a number of auditory tasks, including frequency discrimination and temporal order judgment.[51]

  • Visual theory

The visual theory reflects another long standing tradition in the study of dyslexia, that of considering it as a visual impairment giving rise to difficulties with the processing of letters and words on a page of text. This may take the form of unstable binocular fixations, poor vergence, or increased visual crowding. The visual theory does not exclude a phonological deficit.[51]

  • Cerebellar theory

Another view is represented by the automaticity/cerebellar theory of dyslexia. Here the biological claim is that the cerebellum of people with dyslexia is mildly dysfunctional and that a number of cognitive difficulties ensue.[51]

  • Magnocellular theory

There is a unifying theory that attempts to integrate all the findings mentioned above. A generalization of the visual theory, the magnocellular theory postulates that the magnocellular dysfunction is not restricted to the visual pathways but is generalized to all modalities (visual and auditory as well as tactile).[51]

  • Perceptual visual-noise exclusion hypothesis

The concept of a perceptual noise exclusion (Visual-Noise) deficit is an emerging hypothesis, supported by research showing that subjects with dyslexia experience difficulty in performing visual tasks such as motion detection in the presence of perceptual distractions, but do not show the same impairment when the distracting factors are removed in an experimental setting.[52] The researchers have analogized their findings concerning visual discrimination tasks to findings in other research related to auditory discrimination tasks. They assert that dyslexic symptoms arise because of an impaired ability to filter out both visual and auditory distractions, and to categorize information so as to distinguish the important sensory data from the irrelevant.[53]

Research using brain scan technologies
Further information: Brain scan research into dyslexia

Modern neuroimaging techniques such as functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) and Positron Emission Tomography (PET) have produced clear evidence of structural differences in the brains of children with reading difficulties. It has been found that people with dyslexia have a deficit in parts of the left hemisphere of the brain involved in reading, which includes the inferior frontal gyrus, inferior parietal lobule, and middle and ventral temporal cortex.[54]

Brain activation studies using PET to study language have produced a breakthrough in our understanding of the neural basis of language over the past decade. A neural basis for the visual lexicon and for auditory verbal short term memory components have been proposed.[55] with some implication that the observed neural manifestation of developmental dyslexia is task-specific (i.e., functional rather than structural)[56]

A University of Hong Kong study argues that dyslexia affects different structural parts of children's brains depending on the language which the children read.[57] The study focused on comparing children that were raised reading English and children raised reading Chinese.

A University of Maastricht (Netherlands) study revealed that adult dyslexic readers underactivate superior temporal cortex for the integration of letters and speech sounds.[58]

Genetic research
Further information: Genetic research into dyslexia

Molecular studies have linked several forms of dyslexia to genetic markers for dyslexia.[59] Several candidate genes have been identified, including at the two regions first related to dyslexia: DCDC2[60] and KIAA0319[61] on chromosome 6,[62] and DYX1C1 on chromosome 15.

A 2007 review reported that no specific cognitive processes are known to be influenced by the proposed susceptibility genes.[63]

A unifying theoretical framework of three working memory components provides a systems perspective for discussing past and new findings in a 12-year research program that point to heterogeneity in the genetic and brain basis and behavioral expression of dyslexia.[64]

Effect of language orthography
Further information: Dyslexia: Orthography and the Effect of language orthography

Using both PET and fMRI, Paulescu et al. 2001, show that dyslexia in alphabet writing systems has a universal basis in the brain and can be characterized by the same neurocognitive deficit. Clearly, the manifestation in reading behavior is less severe in a shallow orthography.[43]

Controversy
Further information: Dyslexia research and What is Dyslexia

Distinguishing between categories of ‘dyslexia’ and ‘poor reader’ or ‘readingdisabled’ are scientifically unsupportable, arbitrary and therefore potentially discriminatory. While the potential of genetics and neuroscience for guiding assessment and educational practice at some stage in the future, there is a mistaken belief that current knowledge in these fields is sufficient to justify a category of dyslexia as a subset of those who encounter reading difficulties.[10]

Management

Further information: Management of dyslexia

There is no cure for dyslexia, but dyslexic individuals can learn to read and write with appropriate educational support.

For alphabet writing systems, the fundamental aim is increase a child's awareness of correspondences between graphemes and phonemes, and to relate these to reading and spelling. It has been found that training focused towards visual language and orthographic issues, yields longer-lasting gains than mere oral phonological training.[48]

The best approach is determined by the underlying neurological cause(s) of the dyslexic symptom.

Further information: Category:Dyslexia support by country and national statutory provision and support structures

There are many different national legal statutes and different national special education support structures with regard to special education provision which relate to the management of dyslexia.

See also

Further Reading

Davis, Ronald (1997). The Gift of Dyslexia: Why Some of the Brightest People Can't Read and How They Can Learn. Souvenir Press Ltd. p. 272. ISBN 0285634127.

Rowan, James (2008). A Memory Therapy & Study Guide For Dyslexia, Adhd, Learning Impairment & Poor Verbal Memory: Improve Your Verbal Memory. Createspace Ltd. ISBN 1440495238.

Neanon, Chris (2002). How to Identify and Support Children with Dyslexia. LDA. p. 64. ISBN 1855033569.

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Research papers, articles and media

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