Catholic Church
The Roman Catholic Church, officially known as the Catholic Church,[1][2][3] is the world's largest Christian church and represents over half of all Christians and one-sixth of the world's population.[4][5] It is made up of one Western church (the Latin Rite) and 22 Eastern Catholic churches, divided into 2,782 jurisdictional areas around the world.[6] The Church looks to the Pope, currently Benedict XVI, as its highest human authority in matters of faith, morality and Church governance.[7][8] The Church community is composed of an ordained ministry and the laity.[9] Both groups may become members of religious communities such as the Dominicans, Carmelites and Jesuits.[9]
The Catholic Church defines its mission as spreading the message of Jesus Christ, found in the four Gospels, administering sacraments that aid the spiritual growth of its members and the exercise of charity.[7][10][11] To further its mission, the Church operates social programs and institutions throughout the world. These include schools, universities, hospitals, missions and shelters, as well as Catholic Relief Services and Catholic Charities that help the poor, families, the elderly and the sick.[12][13]
Through Apostolic succession, the Church believes itself to be the continuation of the Christian community founded by Jesus in his consecration of Saint Peter.[14][15] The Church has defined its doctrines through various ecumenical councils, following the example set by the first Apostles in the Council of Jerusalem.[16][17][18] Catholic faith is summarized in the Nicene Creed and detailed in the Catechism of the Catholic Church.[19] Formal Catholic worship is ordered by the liturgy, which is regulated by Church authority. The Eucharist, one of seven Church sacraments and a key part of every Catholic Mass, is considered to be the center of Catholic worship.[20]
From at least the 4th century, the Church has played a prominent role in the history of Western civilization.[21] In the 11th century, the Eastern, Orthodox Church, and the Western, Catholic Church, split, largely over disagreements regarding papal primacy.[22][23] Eastern churches which maintained or later re-established communion with Rome now form the Eastern Catholic Churches. In the 16th century, partly in response to the Protestant Reformation, the Church engaged in a substantial process of reform and renewal, known as the Counter-Reformation.[24]
The Catholic Church believes that it is the "one, holy, catholic and apostolic church" founded by Jesus, but acknowledges that the Holy Spirit can make use of Christian communities separated from itself to bring people to salvation.[25] The Church teaches that it is called by the Holy Spirit to work for unity among all Christians—a movement known as ecumenism.[26][27] Modern challenges facing the Church include the rise of secularism and opposition to its pro-life stance on abortion, contraception and euthanasia.[28]
Origin and mission
The Catholic Church traces its foundation to Jesus and the Twelve Apostles. It sees the bishops of the Church as the successors of the apostles and the pope in particular as the successor of Peter, leader of the apostles.[29][30] Catholics cite Jesus' words in the Gospel of Matthew to support this view: "... you are Peter, and upon this rock I will build my church ... I will give you the keys to the kingdom of heaven. Whatever you bind on earth shall be bound in heaven; whatever you loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven."[7][8][31] According to Catholic belief, the coming of the Holy Spirit upon the apostles in an event known by Christians as Pentecost brought this promised "church" fully into the world.[30]
Scholars such as Edward Norman believe the Catholic Church was founded by Jesus and that the historical record confirms that it was considered a Christian doctrinal authority from its beginning.[15] Some scholars like John McManners cite a letter from Pope Clement I to the church in Corinth (c. 95) as evidence of a presiding Roman cleric.[32] Others, like Eamon Duffy, doubt that there was a ruling bishop in the Roman church in the first century, and question the concept of apostolic succession.[33] Duffy described the second-century list of popes by Irenaeus as "suspiciously tidy", and stated that "There is no sure way to settle on a date by which the office of ruling bishop had emerged in Rome, and so to name the first pope, but the process was certainly complete by the time of Anicetus in the mid-150s, when Polycarp, the aged bishop of Smyrna, visited Rome, and he and Anicetus debated amicably the question of the date of Easter".[34]
The Church believes that its mission is founded upon Jesus' biblical command to his followers to spread the faith across the world:[15] "Go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, teaching them to observe all that I have commanded you: and Lo, I am with you always, until the close of the age".[35][36][37] Pope Benedict XVI summarized the Church's mission as a threefold responsibility to proclaim the word of God, celebrate the sacraments, and exercise the ministry of charity. He has stated that these duties presuppose each other and are thus inseparable.[10] As part of its ministry of charity the Church runs Catholic Relief Services, Catholic Charities, Catholic schools, universities, hospitals, shelters and ministries to the poor, as well as ministries to families, the elderly and the marginalized. Through these social programs the Church applies the tenets of Catholic social teaching and tends to the corporal and spiritual needs of others.[13]
Beliefs
The Catholic Church's beliefs are detailed in the Catechism of the Catholic Church.[19][38] Catholic teachings have been refined and clarified over the centuries by councils of the Church convened by Church leaders at important points throughout history.[18] The first such council, the Council of Jerusalem, was convened by the apostles around the year 50.[17] The most recent was the Second Vatican Council, which closed in 1965.[39]
The Catholic Church is trinitarian since it believes that there is one eternal God who exists as a mutual indwelling of three persons: the Father, the Son Jesus and the Holy Spirit. The Church believes that it is guided by the Holy Spirit and so protected from falling into doctrinal error. It bases this belief on biblical promises that Jesus made to his apostles.[16] In the Gospel of Matthew, Jesus tells Peter, "the gates of the netherworld shall not prevail against [the church]",[31] and in the Gospel of John, Jesus says, "... when He comes, the Spirit of truth, He will guide you to all truth".[7][40][41]
The Church teaches that the Holy Spirit reveals God's truth through Sacred Scripture, Sacred Tradition and the Magisterium. The sacred scriptures consist of the 73 books of the Catholic Bible. These are made up of those contained in the Greek version of the Old Testament—known as the Septuagint[42]—and the New Testament writings found in the Codex Vaticanus and listed in Athanasius' Thirty-Ninth Festal Letter.[43] Sacred Tradition consists of those teachings believed by the Church to have been handed down since the time of the Apostles.[41] Sacred Scripture and Sacred Tradition are collectively known as the "deposit of faith". These are in turn interpreted by the Magisterium, or the teaching authority of the Church. The Magisterium includes infallible pronouncements of the pope,[44] pronouncements of ecumenical councils, and those of the college of bishops acting in union with the pope to define truths or to condemn interpretations of scripture believed to be false.[44]
According to the Catechism, Jesus instituted seven sacraments and entrusted them to the Church.[45] These are Baptism, Confirmation, the Eucharist, Penance, Anointing of the Sick, Holy Orders and Holy Matrimony. Sacraments are visible rituals which Catholics see as providing God's grace to all those who receive them with the proper mindset or disposition (ex opere operato).[46][47] Differing liturgical traditions, or rites, exist throughout the worldwide Church. These reflect historical and cultural diversity rather than a diversity in beliefs.[48] The most commonly used is the Western or Latin rite. Others are the Byzantine rite, the Alexandrian or Coptic rite, the Syriac, Armenian, Maronite and Chaldean rites.
The Nicene Creed is the core statement of Catholic Christian belief.[49] This creed is recited at Sunday Masses and is the central statement of belief in many other Christian denominations.[49][50] Eastern Orthodox Christians hold beliefs that are quite similar to those of Catholics, differing from them mainly with regard to papal infallibility, the filioque clause and the immaculate conception of Mary.[51][52] Protestant churches vary in their beliefs, but they generally differ from the Catholic Church regarding the authority of the pope and of church tradition, on the role of Mary and the saints, the role of the priesthood, and on issues pertaining to grace, good works and salvation.[53] The five solas, composed by Martin Luther in the 16th century, were one attempt to express these differences.[54]
God the Father, original sin, and Baptism
Catholic belief holds that God is the source and creator of nature and all that exists.[55] The Nicene Creed declares in its opening statement, "We believe in one God, the Father, the Almighty, maker of heaven and earth, of all that is seen and unseen ...". The Church perceives him as a loving and caring God who is involved in the world and in people's lives[56] and who desires his creatures to love him and to love each other.[57][58] Before the creation of mankind, however, the scriptures teach that God made spiritual beings called angels. In an event known as the "fall of the angels", a number of them chose to rebel against God and his reign.[59] The leader of this rebellion has been called "Lucifer", "Satan" and the devil among other names. The sin of pride, considered one of seven deadly sins, is attributed to Satan for wishing to be equal to God.[60] One of these fallen angels is believed to have tempted the first humans, Adam and Eve, whose act of original sin brought suffering and death into the world.
This event is known as the Fall of Man and according to Catholic belief, left humanity isolated from their original state of intimacy with God.[61][62] The Catechism states that the description of the fall described in Genesis 3 uses figurative language, but affirms "... a deed that took place at the beginning of the history of man" and resulted in "a deprivation of original holiness and justice" that makes each person "subject to ignorance, suffering, and the dominion of death: and inclined to sin".[59] The Church believes that people can be cleansed of original sin and all personal sins through Baptism.[63] This sacramental act of cleansing admits one as a full member of the natural and supernatural Church and is only conferred once in a person's lifetime.[63]
Jesus, sin, and Penance
In the messianic texts of the Jewish Tanakh which make up much of the Christian Old Testament, Christians believe God promises to send his people a savior.[64] The Church believes that this savior was Jesus who is described in the Nicene Creed as "... the only begotten son of God, ... one in being with the Father. Through him all things were made ...". In an event known as the Incarnation, the Church teaches that God descended from heaven for the salvation of humanity, and became man through the power of the Holy Spirit and was born of a virgin Jewish girl named Mary. Jesus' mission on earth is believed to have included giving people his word and example to follow, as recorded in the four Gospels.[65] The Church teaches that following the example of Jesus helps believers to become closer to him, and therefore to grow in true love, freedom, and the fullness of life.[66][67] Sinning is considered to be the opposite to following Jesus, robbing people of their resemblance to God and turning their souls away from his love.[68] Per Catholic teaching, people can sin by failing to obey the Ten Commandments, failing to love God, or failing to love other people. Some sins are held to be more serious than others. Sins range from lesser or venial sins, to grave or mortal sins which end a person's relationship with God.[69][68] Through the passion of Jesus and his crucifixion, the Church teaches that all people have an opportunity for forgiveness and freedom from sin, and so can be reconciled to God.[64][70] John the Baptist, respected by the Church as a prophet, called Jesus "the Lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world"[71] in reference to the ancient Jewish practice of offering sacrificial lambs to God to obtain some greater good. By reconciling with God and following Jesus' words and deeds, the Church believes one can enter the Kingdom of God which is not a place but a state of being defined by the Church as "... the reign of God over people's hearts and lives."[72][73]
Since Baptism can be received only once, the sacrament of Penance is the principal means by which Catholics can obtain forgiveness for subsequent sin and receive God's grace and assistance not to sin again. Catholics believe Jesus gave the apostles special authority to forgive sins in God's name based on Jesus' words to his disciples in the Gospel of John 20:21–23.[74] A penitent confesses his sins to the priest, who may then offer advice. After the priest has imposed a particular penance to be performed, the penitent then prays an act of contrition and the priest administers absolution, formally forgiving the person of his sins.[75] A priest is forbidden under penalty of excommunication to reveal any sin or disclosure heard under the seal of confession. Penance helps prepare Catholics before they can licitly receive the sacraments of Confirmation and the Eucharist.[76][77]
Holy Spirit and Confirmation
Jesus told his apostles that after his death and resurrection he would send them the "Advocate", the "Holy Spirit", who " ...will teach you everything and remind you of all that (I) told you".[78][79] In the Gospel of Luke, Jesus told his disciples "If you then, who are evil, know how to give good gifts to your children, how much more will the heavenly Father give the Holy Spirit to those who ask him!"[80]
The Nicene Creed states that the Holy Spirit is one with God the Father and God the Son. Thus the Church teaches that receiving the Holy Spirit is an act of receiving God.[81] Through the sacrament of Confirmation, Catholics ask for and are taught by the Church to receive the Holy Spirit. Confirmation is sometimes called the "sacrament of Christian maturity" and is believed to increase and deepen the grace received at Baptism.[80] Spiritual graces or gifts of the Holy Spirit may include the wisdom to see and follow God's plan, as well as judgment, love, courage, knowledge, reverence and rejoicing in the presence of God.[82] The corresponding fruits of the Holy Spirit are love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness and self control.[82]
To be licitly confirmed, Catholics must be in a state of grace, in that they cannot be conscious of having committed a mortal sin. They must also have prepared spiritually for the sacrament, chosen a sponsor or godparent for spiritual support, and selected a saint to be their special patron and intercessor.[80] Baptism in the Eastern rites, including infant baptism, is immediately followed by the reception of Confirmation and the Eucharist.[83]
Church, works of mercy, and Anointing of the Sick
Catholic belief holds that the Church " ...is the continuing presence of Jesus on earth."[84] Jesus told his disciples to "Remain in me, as I remain in you ... I am the vine, you are the branches."[85] In Catholic interpretation, the term "Church" refers to the people of God, who abide in Jesus and who, " ...nourished with the Body of Christ, become the Body of Christ."[86] Catholic teaching maintains that the Church exists simultaneously on earth, in purgatory (Church suffering), and in heaven (Church triumphant). Thus Mary, mother of Jesus, and the other saints are alive and part of the living Church.[87] This unity of the Church in heaven and on earth is the "Communion of Saints".[88][89]
While the Catholic Church believes and teaches that it is the "one, holy, catholic and apostolic Church" founded by Jesus,[90] it also holds that the Holy Spirit can work through other churches to bring people to salvation.[30] In its apostolic constitution Lumen Gentium, the Church acknowledges that the Holy Spirit is active in diverse Christian churches and communities, and that Catholics are called to work for unity among all Christians.[26]
The Church operates numerous social ministries throughout the world but teaches that individual Catholics are required to practice spiritual and corporal works of mercy as well. Corporal works of mercy include feeding the hungry, welcoming strangers, immigrants or refugees, clothing the naked, taking care of the sick and visiting those in prison. Spiritual works require the Catholic to share their knowledge with others, to give advice to those who need it, comfort those who suffer, have patience, forgive those who hurt them, give correction to those who need it and pray for the living and the dead.[13] In conjunction with the work of mercy to visit the sick, the Church offers the sacrament of Anointing of the Sick, performed only by a priest who will anoint with oil the head and hands of the ill person and pray a special prayer for them while laying on hands.[91]
Church teaching on works of mercy gave rise to Catholic social teaching which is based on Church interpretation of Jesus' life and work, and it commits Catholics to the welfare of others.[13] The seven main themes in this teaching are to encourage respect for human life and the dignity of each person, to strengthen and encourage the family unit, to encourage respect for the rights and responsibilities of each person, to care for the poor, to promote the rights and dignity of the worker and to encourage the solidarity of all humans as one family.[13] Modern application of Catholic social teaching has resulted in significant Church efforts to fight against what it sees as violations of immigrant, worker or family rights. In addition to these, the Church is known for its staunch opposition to abortion, euthanasia, capital punishment and other issues including those dealing with the environment.[92]
Final judgment and afterlife
Catholic teaching includes belief in an afterlife as described in the final statement of the Nicene Creed, "We look for the resurrection of the dead and the life of the world to come." The Church teaches that each soul will be judged by Jesus immediately after death and receive a particular judgment based on the deeds of their earthly life.[93] Chapter 25:35–46 of the Gospel of Matthew underpins the Catholic belief that a day will also come when Jesus will sit in a universal judgment of all mankind.[13][94] The Church teaches that this final judgment will bring an end to human history and mark the beginning of a new and better heaven and earth ruled by God in righteousness.[95]
There are three states of afterlife in Catholic belief. Purgatory is a temporary place for the purification of souls who, although saved, are not free enough from sin to enter directly into heaven. It is a state requiring penance and purgation of sin through God's mercy aided by the prayers of others.[93] Heaven is a time of glorious union with God and a life of unspeakable joy that lasts forever.[93] Finally, those who chose to live a sinful and selfish life, did not repent, and fully intended to persist in their ways are sent to hell, an everlasting separation from God.[96] The Church teaches that no one is condemned to hell without having freely decided to reject God and his love.[93] He predestines no one to hell and no one can determine whether anyone else has been condemned.[93] Catholicism teaches that through God's mercy a person can repent at any point before death and be saved "like the good thief who was crucified next to Jesus".[93][97]
Prayer and worship
In the Catholic Church, a distinction is made between the formal, public liturgy and other prayers or devotions. The liturgy is regulated by Church authority[98] and consists of the Eucharist and Mass, the other sacraments, and the Liturgy of the Hours. All Catholics are expected to participate in the liturgical life of the Church but individual or communal prayer and devotions, while encouraged, are a matter of personal preference.[99] The Church provides a set of precepts that every Catholic is expected to follow.[100] These set a minimum standard for personal prayer and require the Catholic to attend Mass on Sundays, confess sins at least once a year, receive the Eucharist at least during Easter season, observe days of fasting and of abstinence as established by the Church, and help provide for the Church's needs.[100]
Eucharist
The Eucharist, also known as Holy Communion, or the Lord's Supper,[101] is celebrated at each Mass. This sacrament is considered to be the center of Catholic worship.[102] The Church believes that at the Last Supper, Jesus ratified a New Covenant with humanity by instituting the Eucharist and that the bread and wine brought to the altar at each mass are changed through the power of the Holy Spirit into the true body and the true blood of Christ through transubstantiation.[103][104] Per Catholic belief, just as God made the first covenant or solemn agreement with the Hebrew people through Moses that was sealed with the blood of sacrificial animals, this new covenant was sealed with the blood of Jesus.[103] The words of institution for this sacrament are found in the three synoptic Gospels of Matthew,[105] Mark,[106] and Luke,[107] as well as in I Corinthians;[108] "Then he took the bread, said the blessing, broke it, and gave it to them, saying, 'This is my body, which will be given for you; do this in memory of me.' "[109] "Then he took a cup, gave thanks, and gave it to them, saying, 'Drink from it, all of you, for this is my blood of the covenant, which will be shed on behalf of many for the forgiveness of sins.' "[110] The New Covenant is, according to Catholic teaching, celebrated and renewed in the Eucharist.[103]
The celebration of the Eucharist in the Eastern Catholic Churches is termed Divine Liturgy. Variations in this liturgy between the different Eastern Churches reflect different cultural traditions. The ordinary form of the Eucharist in the Latin rite, the Mass of Paul VI, is most often celebrated in the vernacular. It is separated into two parts. The first, called Liturgy of the Word, consists of readings from the Old and New Testaments, a Gospel passage and the priest's homily or explanation of one of those passages.[111] The second part, called Liturgy of the Eucharist is the celebration of the Eucharist.[111] According to professor Alan Schreck, in its main elements and prayers, the Catholic Mass celebrated today "bears striking resemblance" to the form of the Mass described in the Didache and First Apology of Justin Martyr in the late 1st and early 2nd centuries.[112][113]
An alternate or extraordinary form of Mass, celebrated primarily in Latin, is that used prior to the Second Vatican Council. Called the Tridentine Mass, it derives from the missal promulgated by Pope Pius V after the Council of Trent. It was intended to reaffirm, in opposition to Protestant belief, that the Mass is the same sacrifice of Jesus' death as the one he suffered on Calvary.[114] Although this form was superseded by the vernacular as the primary form after the Second Vatican Council, it was not forbidden; it was offered by an indult since Pope John Paul II's 1988 motu proprio, Ecclesia Dei[115] and can now be said by any Roman rite priest according to Pope Benedict XVI's 2007 motu proprio, Summorum Pontificum.[116]
Because the Church teaches that Christ is present in the Eucharist,[117] there are strict rules about its celebration and reception. The ingredients of the bread and wine used in the Mass are specified and Catholics must abstain from eating for one hour before receiving Communion.[118] Those who are conscious of having committed a mortal sin are forbidden from this sacrament unless they have received absolution through the sacrament of Penance.[118] According to Church belief, receiving the Eucharist forgives venial sins.[118] Because the Church respects their celebration of the Mass as a true sacrament, intercommunion with the Eastern Orthodox in "suitable circumstances and with Church authority" is both possible and encouraged.[119] Although the same is not true for Protestant churches, in circumstances of grave necessity, Catholic ministers may give the sacraments of Eucharist, Penance and Anointing of the Sick to Protestants if they freely ask for them, truly believe what the Catholic Church teaches regarding the sacraments, and have the proper disposition to receive them.[119] Catholics may not receive communion in Protestant churches because of their different beliefs and practices regarding Holy Orders and the Eucharist.[120]
Liturgy of the Hours and the liturgical year
In the Gospel of Luke, Jesus instructs his disciples to "pray always".[121] The Liturgy of the Hours, or Divine Office, is the Church's effort to respond to this request. It is considered to be an extension of the celebration of the Mass and is the official daily liturgical prayer of the Church.[122] It makes particular use of the Psalms as well as readings from the New and Old Testament, and various prayers.[122] It is an adaptation of the ancient Jewish practice of praying the Psalms at certain hours of the day or night. Catholics who pray the Liturgy of the Hours use a set of books issued by the Church that has been called a breviary. By canon law, priests and deacons are required to pray the Liturgy of the Hours each day.[123] Religious orders often make praying the Liturgy of the Hours a part of their rule of life; the Second Vatican Council encouraged the Christian laity to take up the practice.[122][124]
The liturgical year is the annual calendar of the Catholic Church.[125] The Church sets aside certain days and seasons of each year to recall and celebrate various events in the life of Christ.[125] The Byzantine liturgical year, like the former imperial calendar, starts on 1 September, while in the Western Church the liturgical year begins with Advent, the time of preparation for both the celebration of Jesus' birth, and his expected second coming at the end of time.[125] Christmastide follows, beginning on the night of 24 December (Christmas Eve), and ending with the feast of the baptism of Jesus.[125] Lent is the period of purification and penance that in the Latin church begins on Ash Wednesday and ends on Holy Thursday.[125] (In the Byzantine Catholic churches, "Great Lent" begins on Clean Monday and, counting the Sundays as part of the forty days of Lent, ends on Lazarus Saturday, being followed immediately by Great and Holy Week.) The Holy Thursday evening Mass of the Lord's Supper marks the beginning of the Easter Triduum which includes Good Friday, Holy Saturday and Easter Sunday.[125] These days recall Jesus' last supper with his disciples, death on the cross, burial and resurrection.[125] The seven-week liturgical season of Easter immediately follows the Triduum climaxing at Pentecost. This recalls the descent of the Holy Spirit upon Jesus' disciples after the Ascension of Jesus.[125] The rest of the liturgical year is known as Ordinary Time.[125]
Devotional life and personal prayer
In addition to the Mass, the Catholic Church considers prayer to be one of the most important elements of Christian life. The Church considers personal prayer a Christian duty, one of the spiritual works of mercy and one of the principal ways its members nourish a relationship with God.[126] The Catechism identifies three types of prayer: vocal prayer (sung or spoken), meditation and contemplative prayer. Quoting from the early church father John Chrysostom regarding vocal prayer, the Catechism states, "Whether or not our prayer is heard depends not on the number of words, but on the fervor of our souls."[127] Meditation is prayer in which the "mind seeks to understand the why and how of Christian life, in order to adhere and respond to what the Lord is asking."[127] Contemplative prayer is being with God, taking time to be close to and alone with him.[127] Three of the most common devotional prayers of the Catholic Church are The Lord's Prayer, the Rosary and Stations of the Cross.[128] These prayers are most often vocal, yet always meditative and contemplative. Adoration of the Blessed Sacrament is a common form of contemplative prayer, whereas Benediction is a common vocal method of prayer. Lectio divina, which means "sacred reading", is a form of meditative prayer. The Church encourages patterns of prayer intended to develop into habitual prayer. This includes such daily prayers as grace at meals, the Rosary, or the Liturgy of the Hours, as well as the weekly rhythm of Sunday Eucharist and the observation of the year-long liturgical cycle.[127]
Prayers and devotions to the Virgin Mary and the saints are a common part of Catholic life but are distinct from the worship of God.[129] Explaining the intercession of saints, the Catechism states that the saints "... do not cease to intercede with the Father for us ... so by their fraternal concern is our weakness greatly helped."[89][129] The Church holds Mary, the mother of Jesus, in special regard. She is believed to have been conceived without the stain of original sin, a doctrine considered infallible and termed the Immaculate Conception. She is honored with many loving titles such as "Blessed Mother" and "Mother of God". She is considered by the Church to be a spiritual mother to each believer of Christ.[130] Because of her influential role in the life of Jesus, prayers and devotions asking for her intercession, such as the Rosary, the Hail Mary and the Memorare are common Catholic practices.[128] Pilgrimages to Marian shrines such as Lourdes, France and Fátima, Portugal are a common form of devotion, and the Church devotes several liturgical feasts to Mary throughout the Church year.[131]
Church organization and community
Although the Church considers Jesus to be its ultimate spiritual head, as an earthly organization, its spiritual head and leader is the pope.[132] The pope governs from Vatican City in Rome, a sovereign state of which he is also the civil head of state.[133] Each pope is elected for life by the College of Cardinals, a body composed of bishops and priests who have been granted the status of Cardinal by previous popes. The cardinals, who also serve as papal advisors, may select any male member of the Church to reign as pope, but that person must be ordained bishop before taking office.[134] The Roman Curia, or civil service, assists the pope in the administration of the Church. The Church community is governed according to formal regulations set out in the Code of Canon Law. The official language of the Church is Latin, however Italian is the working language of the Vatican administration.[135]
The basic administrative unit of the Catholic Church is the diocese, which is led by a bishop.[136] Each diocese is divided into individual communities called parishes, which are staffed by one or more priests.[136] The community is made up of ordained members and the laity. Members of religious orders such as nuns, friars and monks are considered lay members unless individually ordained as priests.[137]
Ordained members and Holy Orders
Lay men become ordained through the sacrament of Holy Orders, and form a three-part hierarchy of bishops, priests and deacons. As a body the College of Bishops are considered to be the successors of the apostles.[138][139] Along with the pope, the College includes all the cardinals, patriarchs, primates, archbishops and metropolitans of the Church. Only bishops are allowed to perform the sacraments of Holy Orders and Confirmation.[140] While bishops are responsible for teaching, governing and sanctifying the faithful of their diocese, priests and deacons have these same responsibilities at a more local level, the parish, subordinate to the ministry of the bishop. Priests, bishops and deacons preach, teach, baptize, witness marriages and conduct wake and funeral services, but only priests and bishops may celebrate the Eucharist or administer the sacraments of Penance and Anointing of the Sick.[141]
Although deacons may marry, only celibate men are ordained as priests in the Latin Rite.[142][143] Clergy who have converted from other denominations are sometimes excepted from this rule.[144] The Eastern Catholic Churches ordain both celibate and married men.[145][146] All rites of the Catholic Church maintain the ancient tradition that, after ordination, marriage is not allowed. Men with transitory homosexual leanings may be ordained deacons following three years of prayer and chastity, but men with deeply rooted homosexual tendencies or those who are sexually active are not ordained.[147]
All programs for the formation of men to the Catholic priesthood are governed by Canon Law.[148] They are designed by national bishops' conferences such as the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops and vary slightly from country to country. The conferences consult Vatican documents such as Pastores Dabo Vobis, Novo Millennio Ineunte, Optatam Totius and others to create these programs.[149] In some countries, priests are required to have a college degree plus another four years of full time theological study in a seminary or other approved institution. In other countries a degree is not strictly required, but seminary education is longer. Candidates for the priesthood are also evaluated in terms of human, spiritual and pastoral formation.[150] The sacrament of Holy Orders is always conferred by a bishop through the laying-on of hands, following which the newly ordained priest is formally clothed in his priestly vestments.[140]
Because the Twelve Apostles chosen by Jesus were all male, only men may be ordained in the Catholic Church.[151] The Church teaches that women have different yet equally important roles in Church ministry.[152] In Pope John Paul II's apostolic letter Christifideles Laici, he states that women were equally called to be disciples of Jesus and were given "tasks connected to spreading the Gospel".[153] While its position on an all–male priesthood has been criticized as evidence of a discriminatory attitude toward women,[154] the Church believes women are called to fulfill a different and complimentary role best reflected in Pope Paul VI's statement "If the witness of the Apostles founds the Church, the witness of women contributes greatly towards nourishing the faith of Christian communities".[153]
Lay members, Marriage
The laity consists of those Catholics who are not ordained clergy. Saint Paul compared the diversity of roles in the Church to the different parts of a body—all being important to enable the body to function.[9] The Church therefore considers that lay members are equally called to live according to Christian principles, to work to spread the message of Jesus, and to effect change in the world for the good of others. The Church calls these actions participation in Christ's priestly, prophetic and royal offices.[155] Marriage, the single life and the consecrated life are lay vocations. The sacrament of Holy Matrimony in the Latin rite is the one sacrament not conferred by a priest or bishop. The couple desiring marriage act as the ministers of the sacrament while the priest or deacon serves as witness.[140] In Eastern rites, the priest or bishop administers the sacrament after the spouses grant mutual consent.[156] Church law makes no provision for divorce, however annulment may be granted in strictly defined circumstances.
Since the Church condemns all forms of artificial birth control, married persons are expected to be open to new life in their sexual relations.[157] Natural family planning is approved.[158]
Tertiaries are laypersons who live according to the third rule of orders such as the Franciscans or Carmelites, either within a religious community or outside.[159] Although all tertiaries make a public profession, participate in the good works of their order and can wear the habit, they are not bound by public vows unless they live in community. Lay ecclesial movements consist of lay Catholics organized for purposes of teaching the faith, cultural work, mutual support or missionary work.[159] Such groups include: Communion and Liberation, Neocatechumenal Way, Regnum Christi, Opus Dei, Life Teen and many others.[159]
Some non-ordained Catholics practice formal, public ministries within the Church.[160] These are called lay ecclesial ministers, a broad category which may include pastoral life coordinators, pastoral assistants, youth ministers and campus ministers.[161]
Members of religious orders
Both the ordained and the laity may enter the religious or consecrated life—either as monks or nuns if cloistered, or friars and sisters if not. A candidate takes vows confirming their desire to follow the three evangelical counsels of chastity, poverty and obedience.[162]
The majority of those wishing to enter the consecrated life join one of the religious institutes which are also referred to as monastic or religious orders. They follow a common rule such as the Rule of St Benedict and agree to live under the leadership of a superior.[163][164] They usually live in community, although occasionally an individual is given permission to live as a hermit, or to reside elsewhere, for example as a serving priest or chaplain.[165] Examples of religious institutes include the Sisters of Charity, Dominicans, Franciscans, Carmelites, Cistercians, Marist Brothers, Paulist Fathers and the Society of Jesus, but there are many others.[162] The Church recognizes several other forms of consecrated life, including secular institutes, societies of apostolic life and consecrated widows and widowers.[162] It also makes provision for the approval of new forms.[166]
Demographics
The Catholic Church is the largest Christian church, it encompasses over half of all Christians, and is the largest organized body of any world religion.[5][167] Church membership in 2007 exceeded 1.131 billion people;[168] a substantial increase over the 1970 figure of 654 million.[169] Although the number of practicing Catholics worldwide is not reliably known,[170] membership is growing, particularly in Africa and Asia.[4] Some parts of Europe and the United States have experienced a priest shortage in recent years as the number of priests has not increased in proportion to the number of Catholics.[171] As of 2005, Brazil had the highest number of Catholics.[170] The worldwide Catholic Church comprises a Western or Latin and 22 Eastern Catholic autonomous particular churches. The Latin Church divides into jurisdictional areas known as dioceses, or eparchies in the Eastern Church. Each is headed by a bishop, patriarch or eparch, appointed by the pope. By 2007, including both dioceses and eparchies, there were 2,782 sees.[6]
Membership
According to canon law, membership of the Catholic Church is attained through Baptism.[172] Christians baptized outside of the Church or those never baptized may be received by participating in a formation program such as the Rite of Christian Initiation of Adults.[173] Formation programs may include the reception of the sacrament of Penance and are regulated by the diocesan bishop.[174] In all rites, after going through formation and making a profession of faith, candidates receive the sacraments of initiation at the Easter vigil on Holy Saturday.[173]
A person can excommunicate themselves or be excommunicated by committing particularly grave sins.[175][176] Examples include violating the seal of confession (committed when a priest discloses the sins heard in the sacrament of Penance), persisting in heresy, creating schism, becoming an apostate or having an abortion.[177] Throwing away or retaining for a sacrilegious purpose sacramental bread or wine received during the Eucharist is considered an excommunicable offense.[178] Excommunication is the most severe ecclesiastical penalty because it prevents a person from validly receiving any Church sacrament. It can only be forgiven by the pope, the bishop of the diocese where the person resides, or priests authorized by him.[179] Among those who have incurred excommunication are Arius, Henry VIII, Elizabeth I and members of the group Womenpriests.[180]
History
Roman Empire
The Catholic Church believes its inception occurred on the day of Pentecost when, according to scriptural accounts, the apostles emerged from hiding following the death of Jesus to preach and spread his message.[181][182] According to church tradition and many historians, the apostles traveled to northern Africa, Asia Minor, Arabia, Greece, and Rome to found the first Christian communities,[181][183][184] and over 40 were established by the year 100.[183][184] From the first century, the Church of Rome was recognized as a doctrinal authority because it was believed that the Apostles Peter and Paul had led the Church there.[15][185][186]
The apostles had already convened the first Church council, the Council of Jerusalem, in or around the year 50 to reconcile doctrinal differences concerning the Gentile mission.[17] Although competing forms of Christianity emerged early and persisted into the fifth century, the Roman Church retained the practice of meeting in ecumenical councils to ensure that any internal doctrinal differences were quickly resolved.[18]
In the first few centuries of its existence, the Church defined and formed its teachings and traditions into a systematic whole under the influence of theological apologists such as Pope Clement I, Ignatius of Antioch, Justin Martyr and Augustine of Hippo.[187] Because early Christians refused to offer sacrifices to the Roman gods or to defer to Roman rulers as gods, they were frequently subject to persecution.[188] The ferocity or absence of the persecution varied depending upon the policies of the emperor in question. Persecution began under Nero in the first century, and by the mid-third century it was extensive throughout the empire, culminating in the great persecution of Diocletian and Galerius at the beginning of the fourth century, which was seen as a final attempt to wipe out Christianity.[189] In spite of these persecutions evangelization efforts persisted, leading to the Edict of Milan which legalized Christianity in 313.[190]
In 325, the First Council of Nicaea was convened in response to the Arian challenge concerning the trinitarian nature of God. The council formulated the Nicene Creed as a basic statement of Christian belief.[191] During the reign of Pope Sylvester I, Emperor Constantine I commissioned the first Basilica of St. Peter, as well as the Lateran, a papal residence and several other sites of lasting importance to Christianity.[192] Many standard Christian practices had been established by the end of Constantine's life including the observation of Sunday as the official day of worship, the use of the altar as the focal point of each church, the sign of the cross, and the liturgical calendar.[193] By 380, Christianity had become the official religion of the Empire.[194]
During the following decades a series of ecumenical christological councils codified critical elements of the Church's theology. The Council of Rome in 382 set the Biblical canon, listing the accepted books of the Old and New Testament, and in 391 the Vulgate Latin translation of the Bible was made.[195] The Council of Ephesus in 431 clarified the nature of Jesus' incarnation, declaring that he was both fully man and fully God.[196] However Monophysite disagreements over the precise nature of the incarnation of Jesus led to the first of the various Oriental Orthodox Churches breaking away from the Catholic Church in 451.[18]
Early Middle Ages
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476, the Catholic faith competed with Arianism for the conversion of the barbarian tribes.[197] The 496 conversion of Clovis I, pagan king of the Franks, saw the beginning of a steady rise of the faith in the West.[198]
In 530, Saint Benedict wrote his Rule of St Benedict as a practical guide for monastic community life. Its message spread to monasteries throughout Europe.[199] Monasteries became major conduits of civilization, preserving craft and artistic skills while maintaining intellectual culture within their schools, scriptoria and libraries. They functioned as agricultural, economic and production centers as well as a focus for spiritual life.[200] During this period the Visigoths and Lombards moved away from Arianism for Catholicism.[198] Pope Gregory the Great played a notable role in these conversions and dramatically reformed the ecclesiastical structures and administration which then launched renewed missionary efforts.[201] Missionaries such as Augustine of Canterbury, Saint Boniface, Willibrord and Ansgar took Christianity into northern Europe and spread Catholicism among the Germanic, Irish and Slavic peoples, and reached the Vikings and other Scandinavians in later centuries.[202]
In the early 700s, iconoclasm became the source of conflict between the Eastern and Western churches. Under the direction of the Byzantine emperors, iconoclasts forbade the creation and veneration of images, which they held as violations of one of the Ten Commandments. Iconodules supported by the pope and the Western Church disagreed with this interpretation.[203][204] The dispute was resolved in 787 when the Second Council of Nicaea ruled in favor of icons.[205] In 800, the pope crowned Charlemagne Holy Roman Emperor; partially in response to the dispute over iconoclasm. During his reign, Charlemagne attempted to create an international unity through the common bond of Christianity. Although this resulted in many reforms, including the creation of an improved system of education and unified laws, it created a problem for the Church when succeeding emperors sought to appoint future popes.[206][207] Disagreements between the Eastern and Western churches arose again in 858, when Patriarch Ignatius of Constantinople, favored by the pope, was deposed for the more extreme Photios.[208] The pope refused to recognize Photios, declared his election invalid and excommunicated him. Although Rome eventually approved his appointment, the dispute added to the growing alienation between the churches.[203][209]
High Middle Ages
The Cluniac reform of monasteries that began in 910 placed abbots under the direct control of the pope rather than the secular control of feudal lords, thus eliminating a major source of corruption. This sparked a great monastic renewal.[210] Monasteries, convents and cathedrals still operated virtually all schools and libraries, and often functioned as credit establishments promoting economic growth.[211][212] After 1100, some older cathedral schools split into lower grammar schools and higher schools for advanced learning. First in Bologna, then at Paris and Oxford, many of these higher schools developed into universities and became the direct ancestors of modern Western institutions of learning.[213] It was here where notable theologians worked to explain the connection between human experience and faith.[214] The most notable of these theologians, Thomas Aquinas, produced Summa Theologica, a key intellectual achievement in its synthesis of Aristotelian thought and the Gospel.[214] Monastic contributions to western society included the teaching of metallurgy, the introduction of new crops, the invention of musical notation and the creation and preservation of literature.[213]
During the 11th century, the East–West schism permanently divided Christianity.[23] It arose over a dispute on whether Constantinople or Rome held jurisdiction over the church in Sicily and led to mutual excommunications in 1054.[23] The Western (Latin) branch of Christianity has since become known as the Catholic Church, while the Eastern (Greek) branch became known as the Orthodox Church.[188][215] The Second Council of Lyon (1274) and the Council of Florence (1439) both failed to heal the schism.[216] Some Eastern churches have since reunited with the Catholic Church, and others claim never to have been out of communion with the pope.[215][217] Officially, the two churches remain in schism, although excommunications were mutually lifted in 1965.[218]
Pope Urban II launched the First Crusade in 1095 when he received an appeal from Byzantine emperor Alexius I to help ward off a Turkish invasion.[219] Urban further believed that a Crusade might help bring about reconciliation with Eastern Christianity.[220][221] Fueled by reports of Muslim atrocities against Christians,[222] the series of military campaigns known as the Crusades began in 1096. They were intended to return the Holy Land to Christian control. The goal was not permanently realized, and episodes of brutality committed by the armies of both sides left a legacy of mutual distrust between Muslims and Western and Eastern Christians.[223] The sack of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade left Eastern Christians embittered, despite the fact that Pope Innocent III had expressly forbidden any such attack.[224] In 2001, Pope John Paul II apologized to the Orthodox Christians for the sins of Catholics including the sacking of Constantinople in 1204.[225]
Two new orders of architecture emerged from the Church of this era. The earlier Romanesque style combined massive walls, rounded arches and ceilings of masonry. To compensate for the absence of large windows, interiors were brightly painted with scenes from the Bible and the lives of the saints. Later, the Basilique Saint-Denis marked a new trend in cathedral building when it utilized Gothic architecture.[226] This style, with its large windows and high, pointed arches, improved lighting and geometric harmony in a manner that was intended to direct the worshiper's mind to God who "orders all things".[226] In other developments, the 12th century saw the founding of eight new monastic orders, many of them functioning as Military Knights of the Crusades.[227] Cistercian monk Bernard of Clairvaux exerted great influence over the new orders and produced reforms to ensure purity of purpose.[227] His influence led Pope Alexander III to begin reforms that would lead to the establishment of canon law.[228] In the following century, new mendicant orders were founded by Francis of Assisi and Dominic de Guzmán which brought consecrated religious life into urban settings.[229]
12th century France witnessed the widespread growth of Catharism, a dualistic belief in extreme asceticism which taught that all matter was evil, accepted suicide and denied the value of Church sacraments. After a papal legate was murdered by the Cathars in 1208, Pope Innocent III declared the Albigensian Crusade.[230] Abuses committed during the crusade caused Innocent III to informally institute the first papal inquisition to prevent future aberrational practices and to root out the remaining Cathars.[231][232] Formalized under Gregory IX, this Medieval inquisition executed an average of three people per year for heresy at its height.[232][233] Over time, other inquisitions were launched by the Church or secular rulers to prosecute heretics, to respond to the threat of Moorish invasion or for political purposes.[234] The accused were encouraged to recant their heresy and those who did not could be punished by penance, fines, imprisonment, torture or execution by burning.[235][234]
King Philip IV of France created an inquisition for his suppression of the Knights Templar during the 14th century.[233] King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella formed an inquisition in 1480, originally to deal with distrusted ex-Jewish and ex-Muslim converts.[236] Over a 350-year period, the Spanish Inquisition executed between 3,000 and 4,000 people,[237] representing around two percent of those accused.[238] The inquisition played a major role in the final expulsion of Islam from the kingdoms of Sicily and Spain.[239] In 1482, Pope Sixtus IV condemned the excesses of the Spanish Inquisition, however Ferdinand ignored his protests.[240] Historians note that for centuries Protestant propaganda and popular literature exaggerated the horrors of the inquisitions.[241][242][243][244] According to Edward Norman, this view "identified the entire Catholic Church ... with [the] occasional excesses" wrought by secular rulers.[242] While one percent of those tried in the inquisitions received death penalties, Norman states that in the 16th century, "the Inquisitions were regarded as far more enlightened than secular courts", which did not grant more lenient sentences for those who repented their crimes.[233][237]
A growing sense of church-state conflicts marked the 14th century. To escape instability in Rome, Clement V in 1309 became the first of seven popes to reside in the fortified city of Avignon in southern France[245] during a period known as the Avignon Papacy. The papacy returned to Rome in 1378 at the urging of Catherine of Siena and others who felt the See of Peter should be in the Roman church.[246][247] With the death of Pope Gregory XI later that year, the papal election was disputed between supporters of Italian and French-backed candidates leading to the Western schism. For 38 years, separate claimants to the papal throne sat in Rome and Avignon. Efforts at resolution further complicated the issue when a third compromise pope was elected in 1409.[248] The matter was finally resolved in 1417 at the Council of Constance where the cardinals called upon all three claimants to the papal throne to resign, and held a new election naming Martin V pope.[248]
Late Medieval and Renaissance
Through the late 15th and early 16th centuries, European missionaries and explorers spread Catholicism to the Americas, Asia, Africa and Oceania. Pope Alexander VI, in the papal bull Inter caetera, awarded colonial rights over most of the newly discovered lands to Spain and Portugal.[249] Under the patronato system, state authorities controlled clerical appointments and no direct contact was allowed with the Vatican.[250] On December 1511, the Dominican friar Antonio de Montesinos openly rebuked the Spanish authorities governing Hispaniola for their mistreatment of the American natives, telling them "... you are in mortal sin ... for the cruelty and tyranny you use in dealing with these innocent people".[251][252][253] King Ferdinand enacted the Laws of Burgos and Valladolid in response. Enforcement was lax, and while some blame the Church for not doing enough to liberate the Indians, others point to the Church as the only voice raised on behalf of indigenous peoples.[254] The issue resulted in a crisis of conscience in 16th-century Spain.[252][253] An outpouring of self-criticism and philosophical reflection among Catholic theologians, most notably Francisco de Vitoria, led to debate on the nature of human rights[253] and the birth of modern international law.[255]
In 1521, through the leadership and preaching of the Spanish explorer Ferdinand Magellan, the first Catholics were baptized in what became the first Christian nation in Southeast Asia, the Philippines.[256] The following year, Franciscan missionaries arrived in what is now Mexico, and sought to convert the Indians and to provide for their well-being by establishing schools and hospitals. They taught the Indians better farming methods, and easier ways of weaving and making pottery. Because some people questioned whether the Indians were truly human and deserved baptism, Pope Paul III in the papal bull Veritas Ipsa or Sublimis Deus (1537) confirmed that the Indians were deserving people.[257][258] Afterward, the conversion effort gained momentum.[259] Over the next 150 years, the missions expanded into southwestern North America.[260] The native people were legally defined as children, and priests took on a paternalistic role, often enforced with corporal punishment.[261] Elsewhere, in India, Portuguese missionaries and the Spanish Jesuit Francis Xavier evangelized among non-Christians and a Christian community which claimed to have been established by Thomas the Apostle.[262]
In Europe, the Renaissance marked a period of renewed interest in art, as well as in ancient and classical learning. The renaissance brought a re-examination of accepted beliefs, and new interest in cathedrals and churches that had long served as picture books and art galleries for millions of the uneducated. The stained glass windows, frescoes, statues, paintings and panels retold the stories of the saints and of biblical characters. The Church sponsored great artists like Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci, who created some of the world's most famous artworks.[263] In 1509, however, the most famous scholar of the age, Erasmus, wrote The Praise of Folly, a work which captured a widely held unease about corruption in the Church.[264] Attempts to eliminate Church corruption by the councils of Constance, Basel and the Lateran Council were thwarted in large measure by the simony and nepotism practiced in the Church of the 15th and early 16th centuries.[265] As a result, rich, powerful, and worldy men like Roderigo Borgia (Pope Alexander VI) were able to win election to the papacy.[265][266] These abuses of power, usury, clerical wealth and hypocrisy all contributed to a general feeling among educated people that reform of some sort was necessary.[264] In 1517, Martin Luther included his Ninety-Five Theses in a letter to several bishops, hoping to spark debate.[267][268] His theses protested key points of Catholic doctrine as well as the sale of indulgences.[267][268] Huldrych Zwingli, John Calvin, and others further criticized Catholic teachings. These challenges developed into the Protestant Reformation.[269][270] In Germany, the reformation led to war between the Protestant Schmalkaldic League and the Catholic Emperor Charles V. The first nine-year war ended in 1555 but continued tensions produced a far graver conflict, the Thirty Years' War, which broke out in 1618.[271] In France, a series of conflicts termed the French Wars of Religion were fought from 1562 to 1598 between the Huguenots and the forces of the French Catholic League. A series of popes sided with and became financial supporters of the Catholic League.[272] This ended under Pope Clement VIII, who hesitantly accepted King Henry IV's 1598 Edict of Nantes, which granted civil and religious toleration to Protestants.[271][272]
The English Reformation was ostensibly based on Henry VIII's desire for annulment of his marriage with Catherine of Aragon, and was initially more of a political than a theological dispute. However, growing theological disagreements eventually came to the fore.[273] The Acts of Supremacy made the English monarch head of the English church thereby establishing the Church of England. Then, beginning in 1536, some 825 monasteries throughout England, Wales and Ireland were dissolved and Catholic churches were confiscated.[274][275] Henry VIII executed those like Thomas More who disagreed with his Act of Supremacy. He later reaffirmed Catholic doctrines such as transubstantiation and the celibacy of the clergy in the Six Articles of 1539, in opposition to the Calvinist and Lutheran views that were dominant among the Protestants of continental Europe.[275][276][277] However this affirmation did not extend to papal authority or the dissolution of monasteries, and when he died in 1547 all monasteries, friaries, convents of nuns and shrines were gone.[275][278] Mary I of England reunited the Church of England with Rome and, against the advice of the Spanish ambassador, persecuted Protestants during the Marian Persecutions.[279][280] After some provocation, the following monarch, Elizabeth I enforced the Act of Supremacy. This prevented Catholics from becoming members of professions, holding public office, voting or educating their children.[279][281] Executions of Catholics under Elizabeth I, who reigned much longer, then surpassed the Marian persecutions[279] and persisted under subsequent English monarchs.[282] Penal laws were also enacted in Ireland[283] but were less effective than in England.[279][284] In part because the Irish people associated Catholicism with nationhood and national identity, they resisted persistent English efforts to eliminate the Catholic Church.[279][284] The Catholic Emancipation Act of 1829 and subsequent actions of the English parliament eventually helped to eliminate some of the oppressive anti-Catholic laws throughout the British empire.[284]
The Catholic Church responded to doctrinal challenges and abuses highlighted by the Protestant Reformation at the Council of Trent (1545–1563). The council became the driving-force of the Counter-Reformation, and reaffirmed central Catholic doctrines such as transubstantiation, and the requirement for love and hope as well as faith to attain salvation.[285] It also reformed many other areas of importance to the Church, most importantly by improving the education of the clergy and consolidating the central jurisdiction of the Roman Curia.[24][285][286] The criticisms of the Reformation were among factors that sparked new religious orders including the Theatines, Barnabites and Jesuits, some of which became the great missionary orders of later years.[287] Spiritual renewal and reform were inspired by many new saints like Teresa of Avila, Francis de Sales and Philip Neri whose writings spawned distinct schools of spirituality within the Church (Oratorians, Carmelites, Salesian), etc.[288] Improvement to the education of the laity was another positive effect of the era, with a proliferation of secondary schools reinvigorating higher studies such as history, philosophy and theology.[289] To popularize Counter-Reformation teachings, the Church encouraged the Baroque style in art, music and architecture. Baroque religious expression was stirring and emotional, created to stimulate religious fervor.[290]
Elsewhere, Jesuit missionary Francis Xavier introduced Christianity to Japan, and by the end of the 16th century tens of thousands of Japanese followed Roman Catholicism. Church growth came to a halt in 1597 under the Shogun Tokugawa Iemitsu who, in an effort to isolate the country from foreign influences, launched a severe persecution of Christians.[291] Japanese were forbidden to leave the country and Europeans were forbidden to enter. Despite this, a minority Christian population survived into the 19th century.[291][292]
Enlightenment
Toward the latter part of the 17th century, Pope Innocent XI attempted to reform abuses by the Church, including simony, nepotism and the lavish papal expenditures that had caused him to inherit a papal debt of 50,000,000 scudi.[293] By eliminating certain honorary posts and introducing new fiscal policies, Innocent XI was able regain control of the church's finances.[293] He further promoted missionary activity across the world while condemning religious persecution of all kinds.[293] In 1685 King Louis XIV of France issued the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, ending a century-long experiment in religious toleration. However, the religious conflicts of the Reformation era had provoked a backlash against Christianity. Secular powers gained control of virtually all major Church appointments as well as many of the Church's properties.[293][294] In France, Church battles with Jansenism and Gallicanism weakened its ability to respond to thinkers such as Denis Diderot, who challenged fundamental doctrines of the Church.[295] Matters grew still worse with the violent anti-clericalism of the French Revolution.[296] Direct attacks on the wealth of the Church and associated grievances led to the wholesale nationalisation of church property and attempts to establish a state-run church.[297] Large numbers of priests refused to take an oath of compliance to the National Assembly, leading to the Church being outlawed and replaced by a new religion of the worship of "Reason".[297] In this period, all monasteries were destroyed, 30,000 priests were exiled and hundreds more were killed.[297] When Pope Pius VI sided against the revolution in the First Coalition, Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Italy. The pope was imprisoned by French troops, and died in 1799 after six weeks of captivity. To win popular support for his rule, Napoleon re-established the Catholic Church in France through the Concordat of 1801.[298] All over Europe, the end of the Napoleonic wars signaled by the Congress of Vienna, brought Catholic revival, renewed enthusiasm, and new respect for the papacy following the depredations of the previous era.[299]
In the Americas, the Church expanded its missions in cooperation with the Spanish government and military. Junípero Serra, the Franciscan priest in charge of this effort, founded a series of missions which became important economic, political, and religious institutions.[300] These missions brought grain, cattle and a new way of living to the Indian tribes of California. Overland routes were established from New Mexico that resulted in the colonization of San Francisco in 1776 and Los Angeles in 1781. However, by bringing Western civilization to the area, these missions and the Spanish government have been held responsible for wiping out nearly a third of the native population, primarily through disease.[301]
During this period the Church faced colonial abuses from the Portuguese and Spanish governments. In South America, the Jesuits protected native peoples from enslavement by establishing semi-independent settlements called reductions. Pope Gregory XVI, challenging Spanish and Portuguese sovereignty, appointed his own candidates as bishops in the colonies, condemned slavery and the slave trade in 1839 (papal bull In Supremo Apostolatus), and approved the ordination of native clergy in spite of government racism.[302]
While missionary expansion was occurring in the Americas, the Church in China experienced missionary setbacks in 1721 when the Chinese Rites controversy led the Kangxi Emperor to outlaw Christian missions.[303] This controversy added fuel to growing criticism of the Jesuits who were held in disdain throughout Europe because they were seen to symbolize the strength and independence of the Church. They also defended the rights of native peoples in South America, hindering the efforts of European powers to maintain absolute rule over their domains.[304] In 1773, European rulers united to force Pope Clement XIV to dissolve the order.[304] Several decades later Pius VII restored the Jesuits in the 1814 papal bull Sollicitudo omnium ecclesiarum.[305]
Modern era
In 1870, the First Vatican Council affirmed the doctrine of papal infallibility when exercised in specifically defined pronouncements.[306][307] Controversy over this and other issues resulted in a small breakaway movement called the Old Catholic Church.[308]
In Latin America, anti-clerical regimes came to power from the 1830s onward.[309] The confiscation of Church properties and restrictions on people's religious freedoms generally accompanied secularist, and later, Marxist-leaning, governmental reforms.[310] One such regime emerged in Mexico in 1860. Church properties were confiscated and basic civil and political rights were denied to religious orders and the clergy. Harsh enforcement of these measures eventually led to an uprising known as the Cristero War. Between 1926 and 1934, over 3,000 priests were exiled or assassinated.[311][312] Despite persecution, the Church in Mexico has continued to grow, and a 2000 census reported that 88 percent of Mexicans identify as Catholic.[313] In 1954, under the regime of General Juan Perón, Argentina saw extensive destruction of churches, denunciations of clergy and confiscation of Catholic schools as Perón attempted to extend state control over national institutions.[314]
The Industrial Revolution brought many concerns about the deteriorating working and living conditions of urban workers. Influenced by the German Catholic industrialist Lucien Harmel, in 1891 Pope Leo XIII published the encyclical Rerum Novarum, which set in contex Catholic social teaching in terms that rejected socialism but advocated the regulation of working conditions. Rerum Novarum argued for the establishment of a living wage and the right of workers to form trade unions.[315]
By the close of the 19th century, new technologies and superior weaponry had allowed European powers to gain control of most of the African interior.[316] The new rulers introduced a cash economy which required African people to become literate, and so created a great demand for schools. At the time, the only possibility open to Africans for a western education was through Christian missionaries.[316] Catholic missionaries followed colonial governments into Africa, and built schools, monasteries and churches.[316]
In the 1937 encyclical Mit brennender Sorge, drafted by the future Pope Pius XII,[317] Pope Pius XI warned Catholics that antisemitism is incompatible with Christianity.[318] However, World War II presented challenges for the Catholic Church after historians such as David Kertzer accused it of encouraging centuries of anti–semitism, and Pope Pius XII of not doing enough to stop Nazi atrocities.[319] Although the historical record reveals his words and efforts were against the Nazis, his actions continue to be a source of debate.[320][321] Prominent members of the Jewish community, including Golda Meir, Albert Einstein, Moshe Sharett and Rabbi Isaac Herzog contradicted the criticisms and spoke highly of Pius' efforts to protect Jews,[322] while others such as rabbi David G. Dalin noted that "hundreds of thousands" of Jews were saved by the Church.[323] Even so, Pope John Paul II acknowledged past sins of the Church against Jews, and in 2000 formally apologized to the Jewish people by inserting a prayer at the Western Wall that read "We're deeply saddened by the behavior of those in the course of history who have caused the children of God to suffer, and asking your forgiveness, we wish to commit ourselves to genuine brotherhood with the people of the Covenant."[324]
Vatican II and beyond
In the aftermath of World War II, religious freedoms came under fire from the communist governments of Eastern Europe.[325] Although some priests have since been exposed as collaborators,[326][327] both the Church's official resistance and the leadership of Pope John Paul II are credited with helping to bring about the downfall of communist governments across Europe in 1991.[325][328]
The Catholic Church engaged in a comprehensive reform after the Second Vatican Council (1962–65).[329] Intended as a continuation of Vatican I, under Pope John XXIII the council developed into a process of modernisation.[329] It was tasked with making the historical teachings of the Church clear to a modern world, and made pronouncements on topics including the nature of the church, the mission of the laity and religious freedom.[329] The council approved a revision of the liturgy and permitted the Latin liturgical rites to use vernacular languages as well as Latin during mass and other sacraments.[330] Efforts by the Church to improve Christian unity became a priority.[331] In addition to finding common ground on certain issues with Protestant churches, the Catholic Church has discussed the possibility of unity with the Eastern Orthodox Church.[332]
Changes to old rites and ceremonies following Vatican II stunned many Catholics and produced a variety of responses. Some stopped going to church, while others tried to preserve the old liturgy with the help of sympathetic priests.[333] The latter formed the basis of today's Traditionalist Catholic groups, which believe that the reforms of Vatican II have gone too far in departing from traditional church norms, particularly with regard to changes made to the Mass. Liberal Catholics form another dissenting group. They typically take a less literal view of the Bible and of divine revelation, and sometimes disagree with official Church views on social and political issues. The most famous liberal theologian of recent times has been Hans Küng, whose unorthodox views of the incarnation, and his denials of infallibility led to Church withdrawal of his authorization to teach as a Catholic in 1979.[334] In his book A Concise History of the Catholic Church, professor Thomas Bokenkotter commented on the situation by stating "Most Catholics, however, accepted the changes more or less gracefully but with little enthusiasm and have learned to take in stride the continuing series of changes that have modified not only the Mass but the other sacraments as well."[333]
In the 1960s, growing social awareness and politicization in the Latin American Church gave birth to liberation theology. It re–interpreted the Gospel in radical ways that redefined the Church's mission. Peruvian priest, Gustavo Gutiérrez, became one of the movement's better-known scholars.[335] A meeting of Latin American bishops in 1968, charged with the implementation of Vatican II, led to the new movement growing increasingly influential. In 1979, the subsequent bishops' conference in Mexico officially declared the Latin American Church's "preferential option for the poor".[336] Salvadoran Archbishop Óscar Romero became the region's most famous contemporary martyr in 1980, when he was murdered while saying mass by forces allied with the government.[337] Pope John Paul II and Pope Benedict XVI have denounced the movement as dangerous and "a fundamental threat to the faith of the church"[338] because, as Edward Norman explains, the Church considers it an attempt to establish a Christian society "through the coercive machinery of political management".[339] The Brazilian theologian Leonardo Boff was twice ordered to cease publishing and teaching.[340] While Pope John Paul II was criticized for his severity in dealing with proponents of the movement, he maintained that the Church, in its efforts to champion the poor, should not do so by resorting to violence or partisan politics.[335] The movement is still alive in Latin America today, though the Church now faces the challenge of Pentecostal revival in much of the region.[341]
The sexual revolution of the 1960s brought challenging issues for the Church. Pope Paul VI's 1968 encyclical Humanae Vitae affirmed the sanctity of life from conception to natural death and rejected the use of contraception; both abortion and euthanasia were considered to be murder.[342][343] The Church's rejection of the use of condoms has provoked criticism, especially with respect to countries where AIDS and HIV have attained epidemic proportions. The Church maintains that countries like Kenya, where behavioral changes are endorsed instead of condom use, have experienced greater progress towards controlling the disease than countries solely promoting condoms.[344] Efforts to lead the Church to consider the ordination of women led Pope John Paul II to issue two documents to explain Church teaching. Mulieris Dignitatem was issued in 1988 to clarify women's equally important and complimentary role in the work of the Church.[345][346] Then in 1994, Ordinatio Sacerdotalis explained that the Church only extends ordination to men in order to follow the example of Jesus, who chose only men for this specific duty.[152][347][348] John Paul II then set the Church in opposition to capital punishment when he issued Evangelium Vitae in 1995. Explaining that execution was appropriate when it was the only way to defend society, the pope noted that the modern penal system made this option rare or nonexistent.[349]
Several major lawsuits emerged in 2001 claiming that priests had sexually abused minors.[350] Some priests resigned, others were defrocked and jailed[351] and financial settlements were agreed with many victims.[350] In the US, where the vast majority of sex abuse cases occurred, the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops commissioned a comprehensive study that found four percent of all priests who served in the US from 1950 to 2002 faced some sort of sexual accusations.[352][353] This percentage was far surpassed in a 2004 US government investigation of student sexual abuse by US public school teachers.[354][355] Although public school administrators engaged in a similar manner when dealing with accused teachers,[356] the Church was widely criticized when it was discovered that some bishops knew about allegations and reassigned the accused instead of removing them.[350][357] Some bishops and psychiatrists noted that the prevailing psychology of the times suggested that people could be cured of such behavior through counseling.[357][358] Many of the abusive priests had received counseling before being reassigned.[353][359] Pope John Paul II responded by stating "there is no place in the priesthood and religious life for those who would harm the young".[360] The Church instituted reforms to prevent future abuse by requiring background checks for Church employees[361] and, because a significant majority of victims were teenage boys, disallowing ordination of men with "deep–seated homosexual tendencies".[147][358] They now require dioceses faced with an allegation to alert the authorities, conduct an investigation and remove the accused from duty.[361][362] In 2008, the Church asserted that the scandal was a very serious problem and estimated that it was "probably caused by 'no more than 1 per cent' of the over 400,000 worldwide Catholic priests.[352]
References
Footnotes
- ^ Whitehead, Kenneth (1996). "How Did the Catholic Church Get Her Name?". Eternal Word Television Network. Retrieved 2008-05-09.
- ^ Apostolic Constitution Fidei Depositum on the Publication of the Catechism of the Catholic Church (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved 2008-05-07.
- ^ McClintock, Cyclopaedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature (1889), p. 71, quote: "The name may be found in a number of Roman Catholic writers, and is generally used in the constitution of those states in which the Roman Catholic Church is recognized as one of the recognized or tolerated State churches. It is, however, not the official name used by the authorities of the Church–who rather dislike it, and substitute for it the name 'Catholic' or 'Holy Catholic' Church. The name 'Roman Church' is applied, in the language of the Church, to the Church or diocese of the Bishop of Rome."
- ^ a b "Number of Catholics and Priests Rises". Zenit News Agency. 2007-02-12. Retrieved 2008-02-21.
- ^ a b "CIA World Factbook". United States Government Central Intelligence Agency. 2007. Retrieved 2008-02-28.
- ^ a b Vatican, Annuario Pontificio (Pontifical Yearbook) (2007), p. 1172
- ^ a b c d Paul VI, Pope (1964). "Lumen Gentium". Vatican. Retrieved 2008-03-09.
- ^ a b Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 1
- ^ a b c Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), p. 153
- ^ a b Benedict XVI, Pope (2005). "Deus Caritas Est". Vatican. Retrieved 2008-05-06.
- ^ Barry, One Faith, One Lord (2001), pp. 50–1
- ^ "Statistics on the Church's Mission Work". National Institute for the Renewal of the Priesthood. 2003-02-27. Retrieved 2008-02-09.
- ^ a b c d e f Barry, One Faith, One Lord (2001), pp. 98–9 Cite error: The named reference "OneFaith98" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ Hitchcock, Geography of Religion (2004), p. 281, quote: "Some (Christian communities) had been founded by Peter, the disciple Jesus designated as the founder of his church. ... Once the position was institutionalized, historians looked back and recognized Peter as the first pope of the Christian church in Rome"
- ^ a b c d Norman, The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History (2007), pp. 11, 14, quote: "The Church was founded by Jesus himself in his earthly lifetime.", "The apostolate was established in Rome, the world's capital when the church was inaugurated; it was there that the universality of the Christian teaching most obviously took its central directive–it was the bishops of Rome who very early on began to receive requests for adjudication on disputed points from other bishops." Cite error: The named reference "Norman11" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ a b Barry, One Faith, One Lord (2001), pp. 37, 43–4
- ^ a b c McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity (2002), p. 37, Chapter 1 The Early Christian Community subsection entitled "Rome", quote: "In Acts 15 scripture recorded the apostles meeting in synod to reach a common policy about the Gentile mission."
- ^ a b c d McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity (2002), pp. 37–8, Chapter 1 The Early Christian Community subsection entitled "Rome", quote: "The 'synod' or, in Latin, 'council' (the modern distinction making a synod something less than a council was unknown in antiquity) became an indispensable way of keeping a common mind, and helped to keep maverick individuals from centrifugal tendencies. During the third century synodal government became so developed that synods used to meet not merely at times of crisis but on a regular basis every year, normally between Easter and Pentecost." Cite error: The named reference "McManners371" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ a b Marthaler, Introducing the Catechism of the Catholic Church, Traditional Themes and Contemporary Issues (1994), preface
- ^ Barry, One Faith, One Lord (2001), p. 71
- ^ Orlandis, A Short History of the Catholic Church (1993), preface
- ^ Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), pp. 97, 100
- ^ a b c Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 91
- ^ a b Norman, The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History (2007), p. 81
- ^ Paragraph number 865 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved 2008-02-08.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ a b "Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, Chapter 2 paragraph 15". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. 1964. Retrieved 2008-03-09.
- ^ Kreeft, Catholic Christianity (2001), p. 110
- ^ Shorto, Russel (2007). "Keeping the Faith". The New York Times Magazine. The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-03-29.
{{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in:|publisher=(help) - ^ Paragraph number 881 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved 2008-02-08.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ a b c Barry, One Faith, One Lord (2001), p. 46
- ^ a b Matthew 16:18–19
- ^ McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity (1990), p. 36, Chapter 1 The Early Christian Community subsection entitled "Rome", quote: "Towards the latter part of the first century, Rome's presiding cleric named Clement wrote on behalf of his church to remonstrate with the Corinthian Christians who had ejected clergy without either financial or charismatic endowment in favour of a fresh lot; Clement apologized not for intervening but for not having acted sooner."
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 7
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), pp. 9–11
- ^ Matthew 28:19–20
- ^ Paragraph number 849 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved 2008-02-08.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Norman, The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History (2007), p. 12
- ^ John Paul II, Pope (1997). "Laetamur Magnopere". Vatican. Retrieved 2008-03-09.
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), pp. 275, 281
- ^ John 16:12–13
- ^ a b Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), pp. 15–9
- ^ Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), p. 21, quote "Catholics recognize as divinely inspired the writings included in the ancient Greek version of the Old Testament that was used in the early church, known as the Septuagint. Protestants accept only the writings found in an early Hebrew version of the Bible, which did not include the books of Tobit, Judith, Wisdom, Sirach, Baruch, and 1 and 2 Maccabees. These books are sometimes referred to by Protestants as "the Apocrypha."
- ^ Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), p. 23, quote "In caring for the flock of Christ, one of the bishop's chief tasks was to ensure that correct doctrine was taught. So it was the bishops who needed to discern which writings and teachings being widely distributed were truly God's word for the whole church-and which were not. Their determination was officially announced in a decree of the Council of Rome in A.D. 382, under Pope Damasus, and confirmed by the Third Council of Carthage in A.D. 397. The present list of New Testament writings was first founded in the Codex Vaticanus from Rome around A.D. 340, and in St. Athanasius' Thirty-Ninth Festal Letter of A.D. 367."
- ^ a b Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), p. 30
- ^ Paragraph number 1131 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved 2008-02-08.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Kreeft, Catholic Christianity (2001), pp. 298–9
- ^ Mongoven, The Prophetic Spirit of Catechesis: How We Share the Fire in Our Hearts (2000), p. 68
- ^ Paragraph number 1200–9 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved 2008-05-12.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ a b Schaff, Creeds of Christendom, With a History and Critical Notes (1910), pp. 24, 56
- ^ Richardson, The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Theology (1983), p. 132
- ^ Langan, The Catholic Tradition (1998), p. 118
- ^ Parry, The Blackwell Dictionary of Eastern Christianity (1999), p. 292
- ^ McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity (1990), pp. 254–60
- ^ Nichols, The Reformation: How a Monk and a Mallet Changed the World (2007), p. 30
- ^ Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), p. 45
- ^ Barry, One Faith, One Lord (2001), p. 7
- ^ Matthew 22:37–40
- ^ Barry, One Faith, One Lord (2001), pp. 91–92
- ^ a b Paragraph numbers 390, 392, 405 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved 2008-02-08.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), p. 57
- ^ Barry, One Faith, One Lord (2001), pp. 18–9
- ^ Romans 5:12
- ^ a b Kreeft, Catholic Christianity (2001), p. 308
- ^ a b Kreeft, Catholic Christianity (2001), pp. 71–2
- ^ McGrath, Christianity: An Introduction (2006), pp. 4–6
- ^ John 10:1–30
- ^ Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), pp. 264–5
- ^ a b Paragraph numbers 1850, 1857 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved 2008-02-08.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Barry, One Faith, One Lord (2001), p. 77
- ^ Paragraph number 608 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved 2008-02-08.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ John 1:29
- ^ Barry, One Faith, One Lord (2001), p. 26
- ^ Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), p. 100
- ^ Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), p. 242
- ^ Kreeft, Catholic Christianity (2001), pp. 343–4
- ^ Paragraph number 1310 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved 2008-02-11.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Paragraph numbers 1385, 1389 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved 2008-02-11.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ John 14:26
- ^ Barry, One Faith, One Lord (2001), p. 37
- ^ a b c Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1997), pp. 230–1
- ^ Kreeft, Catholic Christianity (2001), p. 88
- ^ a b Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), p. 277
- ^ Paragraph number 1233 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved 2008-05-12.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), p. 131
- ^ John 15:4–5
- ^ Paragraph numbers 777–8 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved 2008-02-08.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Kreeft, Catholic Christianity (2001), pp. 113–4
- ^ Kreeft, Catholic Christianity (2001), p. 114
- ^ a b Paragraph number 956 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved 2008-02-08.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Paragraph number 750 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved 2008-02-08.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Kreeft, Catholic Christianity (2001), p. 373
- ^ Massaro, Living Justice: Catholic Social Teaching in Action (2001), pp. 116–7
- ^ a b c d e f Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), pp. 379–86
- ^ Matthew 25:35–36
- ^ Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), p. 397
- ^ Barry, One Faith, One Lord (2001), p. 105
- ^ Luke 23:39–43
- ^ Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), p. 141
- ^ Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), p. 193
- ^ a b Paragraph numbers 2041–3 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved 2008-02-08.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Paragraph numbers 1324–31 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved 2008-06-11.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Kreeft, Catholic Christianity (2001), p. 320
- ^ a b c Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), pp. 232–7
- ^ Kreeft, Catholic Christianity (2001), p. 328
- ^ Matthew 26:26–28
- ^ Mark 14:22–24
- ^ Luke 22:19–20
- ^ 1 Cor 11:23–25
- ^ Luke 22:19
- ^ Matthew 26:27–28
- ^ a b Kreeft, Catholic Christianity (2001), p. 325
- ^ Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), pp. 189–90, quote: "Some of the earliest Christian writings, such as the Didache, or the 'Teaching of the Twelve Apostles,' chapters 9–10 (late first and early second century), and the First Apology of Justin Martyr, chapters 65–67 (about A.D. 155), describe the primitive form of the Mass and its prayers in a way that bears striking resemblance to the basic format of the Mass today. In fact, the main elements of St. Justin's description of the Mass are almost identical to the form Catholics now employ."
- ^ Paragraph numbers 1345–6 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved 2008-05-12.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Traufler, The Mass (1927), p. 79
- ^ John Paul II, Pope (1988). "Ecclesia Dei". Vatican. Retrieved 2008-03-27.
- ^ Benedict XVI, Pope (2007). "Summorum Pontificum". Eternal Word Television Network. Retrieved 2008-03-27.
- ^ Kreeft, Catholic Christianity (2001), p. 326
- ^ a b c Kreeft, Catholic Christianity (2001), p. 331
- ^ a b Paragraph numbers 1399–401 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved 2008-05-12.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Paragraph numbers 1400 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved 2008-06-05.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Luke 18:1
- ^ a b c Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), p. 198
- ^ "Canon 276". 1983 Code of Canon Law. Vatican. Retrieved 2008-03-09.
- ^ Paragraph numbers 1174–8, 1196 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved 2008-02-08.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ a b c d e f g h i Barry, One Faith, One Lord (2001), p. 116
- ^ Barry, One Faith, One Lord (2001), pp. 86, 98
- ^ a b c d Paragraph numbers 2697–724 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved 2008-02-08.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ a b Barry, One Faith, One Lord (2001), pp. 122–3
- ^ a b Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), pp. 199–200
- ^ Barry, One Faith, One Lord (2001), p. 106
- ^ Baedeker, Rob (2007). "World's most-visited religious destinations". USA Today. Retrieved 2008-03-03.
- ^ Kreeft, Catholic Christianity (2001), p. 109
- ^ "Country profile: Vatican". BBC. 2008-01-29. Retrieved 2008-03-09.
- ^ Thavis, John (2005). "Election of new pope follows detailed procedure". Catholic News Service. Retrieved 2008-02-11.
- ^ "Vatican Introduces Latin to 21st Century With New Dictionary". The New York Times. 2003-05-14. Retrieved 2008-05-13.
- ^ a b Barry, One Faith, One Lord (2001), p. 52
- ^ "Canon 207". 1983 Code of Canon Law. Vatican. Retrieved 2008-03-09.
- ^ "Canon 42". 1983 Code of Canon Law. Vatican. Retrieved 2008-03-09.
- ^ "Canon 375". 1983 Code of Canon Law. Vatican. Retrieved 2008-03-09.
- ^ a b c Barry, One Faith, One Lord (2001), p. 114
- ^ Committee on the Diaconate. "Frequently Asked Questions About Deacons". United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. Retrieved 2008-03-09.
- ^ "Canon 1037". 1983 Code of Canon Law. Vatican. Retrieved 2008-03-09.
- ^ "Canon 1031". 1983 Code of Canon Law. Vatican. Retrieved 2008-03-09.
- ^ Cholij, Roman (1993). "Priestly Celibacy in Patristics and in the History of the Church". Vatican. Retrieved 2008-04-06.
- ^ Niebuhur, Gustav (1997-02-16). "Bishop's Quiet Action Allows Priest Both Flock And Family". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-04-04.
- ^ Codex Canonum Ecclesiarum Orientalium 1990, Code of Canon Law for the Eastern Catholic Churches, Canons 285, 373, 374, 758
- ^ a b Pope Benedict XVI (2005). "Instruction Concerning the Criteria for the Discernment of Vocations with regard to Persons with Homosexual Tendencies in view of their Admission to the Seminary and to Holy Orders". Vatican. Retrieved 2008-03-09.
- ^ "Canons 232–93". 1983 Code of Canon Law. Vatican. Retrieved 2008-05-05.
- ^ USCCB, Program for Priestly Formation (2006), preface
- ^ USCCB, Program for Priestly Formation (2006), paras. 72, 243
- ^ Paragraph number 1577 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved 2008-02-08.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ a b Pope Benedict XVI, Jesus of Nazareth (2008), pp. 180–1, quote: "The difference between the discipleship of the Twelve and the discipleship of the women is obvious; the tasks assigned to each group are quite different. Yet Luke makes clear—and the other Gospels also show this in all sorts of ways—that 'many' women belonged to the more intimate community of believers and that their faith—filled following of Jesus was an essential element of that community, as would be vividly illustrated at the foot of the Cross and the Resurrection."
- ^ a b John Paul II, Pope (1988). "Christifideles Laici". Vatican. Retrieved 2008-03-17.
- ^ Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), p. 496
- ^ Paragraph numbers 871–2, 899, 901, 905, 908–9 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved 2008-02-08.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Paragraph numbers 1623 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved 2008-06-05.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), p. 350
- ^ Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), p. 315
- ^ a b c Pontifical Council for the Laity (2000). "International Associations of the Faithful". Vatican. Retrieved 2008-03-27.
- ^ "Canon 129". 1983 Code of Canon Law. Vatican. Retrieved 2008-03-09.
- ^ USCCB, Co–Workers in the Vineyard of the Lord (2005), p. 9
- ^ a b c "Canons 573–746". 1983 Code of Canon Law. Vatican. Retrieved 2008-03-09.
- ^ "Canons 573–602, 605–709". 1983 Code of Canon Law. Vatican. Retrieved 2008-03-09.
- ^ "Canon 654". 1983 Code of Canon Law. Vatican. Retrieved 2008-03-09.
- ^ "Canon 587". 1983 Code of Canon Law. Vatican. Retrieved 2008-03-09.
- ^ "Canon 605". 1983 Code of Canon Law. Vatican. Retrieved 2008-03-09.
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), preface
- ^ "Number of priests increases, but not as fast as number of Catholics". Catholic News Service. 2008-02-29. Retrieved 2008-03-09.
- ^ Bazar, Emily (2008-04-16). "Immigrants Make Pilgrimage to Pope". USA Today. Retrieved 2008-05-03.
- ^ a b "Factfile: Roman Catholics around the world". BBC News. 2005-04-01. Retrieved 2008-03-24.
- ^ Pogatchnik, Shawn (2005). "Catholic Priest Shortage". CBS News. Retrieved 2008-04-04.
- ^ "Canon 11". 1983 Code of Canon Law. Vatican. Retrieved 2008-03-09.
- ^ a b Barry, One Faith, One Lord (2001), p. 56
- ^ Gledhill, Ruth (2007). "Tony Blair converts to Catholicism". Times Newspapers Ltd. Retrieved 2008-04-04.
- ^ "Pro-abortion politicians excluded from Communion: Pope". Catholic World News. 2007-05-09. Retrieved 2008-02-12.
{{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in:|publisher=(help) - ^ "Excommunication". Catholic World News. 2007-05-09. Retrieved 2008-02-12.
{{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in:|publisher=(help) - ^ Ioannes Paulus PP. II (1995). "Evangelium Vitae". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved 2008-03-03.
- ^ "Code of Canon Law section 1364,1367". Vatican. Retrieved 2008-03-03.
- ^ Paragraph number 1463 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved 2008-02-08.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ "Minnesota woman will excommunicate herself, says bishop". Catholic News Agency. 2008-04-16. Retrieved 2008-05-12.
- ^ a b Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), pp. 19–20
- ^ Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), p. 130
- ^ a b Hitchcock, Geography of Religion (2004), p. 281, quote: "By the year 100, more than 40 Christian communities existed in cities around the Mediterranean, including two in North Africa, at Alexandria and Cyrene, and several in Italy."
- ^ a b Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), p. 18, quote: "The story of how this tiny community of believers spread to many cities of the Roman Empire within less than a century is indeed a remarkable chapter in the history of humanity."
- ^ Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), pp. 40–2, quote: "Several pieces of evidence indicate that the Bishop of Rome even after Peter held some sort of preeminence among other bishops. ... (lists several historical documents) ... None of these examples, taken by themselves, would be sufficient to prove the primacy of the successors of Peter and Paul. Taken together, however, they point to a Roman authority which was recognized in the early church as going beyond that of other churches."
- ^ McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity (2002), p. 36, Chapter 1 The Early Christian Community subsection entitled "Rome", quote: "Towards the latter part of the first century, Rome's presiding cleric named Clement wrote on behalf of his church to remonstrate with the Corinthian Christians ... Clement apologized not for intervening but for not having acted sooner. Moreover, during the second century the Roman community's leadership was evident in its generous alms to poorer churches. About 165 they erected monuments to their martyred apostles ... Roman bishops were already conscious of being custodians of the authentic tradition or true interpretation of the apostolic writings. In the conflict with Gnosticism Rome played a decisive role, and likewise in the deep division in Asia Minor created by the claims of the Montanist prophets to be the organs of the Holy Spirit's direct utterances."
- ^ Norman, The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History (2007), pp. 27–8, quote: "A distinguished succession of theological apologists added intellectual authority to the resources at the disposal of the papacy, at just that point in its early development when the absence of a centralized teaching office could have fractured the universal witness to a single body of ideas. At the end of the first century there was St. Clement of Rome, third successor to St. Peter in the see; in the second century there was St. Ignatius of Antioch, St. Irenaeus of Lyons and St. Justin Martyr; in the fourth century St. Augustine of Hippo, the greatest theologian of the Early Church."
- ^ a b Collins, The Story of Christianity (1999), pp. 44–5 Cite error: The named reference "StoChris44" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ Collins, The Story of Christianity (1999), pp. 53–5
- ^ Collins, The Story of Christianity (1999), pp. 58–9
- ^ Collins, The Story of Christianity (1999), pp. 60–1
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 18
- ^ Hitchcock, Geography of Religion (2004), p. 284
- ^ Collins, The Story of Christianity (1999), p. 59
- ^ Collins, The Story of Christianity (1999), pp. 61–2
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 35
- ^ Le Goff, Medieval Civilization (1964), pp. 5–20
- ^ a b Le Goff, Medieval Civilization (1964), p. 21
- ^ Woods, How the Church Built Western Civilization (2005), p. 27
- ^ Le Goff, Medieval Civilization (1964), p. 120
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), pp. 50–2
- ^ Collins, The Story of Christianity (1999), pp. 84–6
- ^ a b Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), pp. 102–3
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 63, quote: "Leo's edict was the product of profound social panic, several generations of theological reflection by bishops and theologians, and the cumulative impact of controversy about the person and natures of Christ. Whatever the causes however, the Emperor's attack on images, and the resulting wave of image-breaking or 'iconoclasm', fell like a thunderbolt in the West. ... and Pope Gregory II saw in it yet another example of the empire espousing heresy. Indignantly, he rejected Leo's decree, and warned him that as a layman he had no right to interfere in theological matters. The Emperor ordered the new Exarch to depose the Pope, provoking a series of uprisings ... Gregory did what he could to prevent this feeling escalating into revolution, urging loyalty to the imperial ideal, but the Iconoclastic crisis deepened under his successor Gregory III (731–41)."
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), pp. 63, 74
- ^ Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), pp. 107–11
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 78, quote: "By contrast, Paschal's successor Eugenius II (824–7), elected with imperial influence, gave away most of these papal gains. He acknowledged the Emperor's sovereignty in the papal state, and he accepted a constitution imposed by Lothair which established imperial supervision of the administration of Rome, imposed an oath to the Emperor on all citizens, and required the Pope–elect to swear fealty before he could be consecrated. Under Sergius II (844–7) it was even agreed that the Pope could not be consecrated without an imperial mandate, and that the ceremony must be in the presence of his representative, a revival of some of the more galling restrictions of Byzantine rule."
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 82
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), pp. 81–2, quote: "Relations between Rome and Constantinople had been poor for generations, and since the creation of the Carolingian empire and the Iconoclastic controversy what little contact there was between the Latin and Greek Churches was charged with mutual suspicion. The Photius affair crystallised that hostility."
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), pp. 88–9
- ^ Woods, How the Church Built Western Civilization (2005), p. 40
- ^ Le Goff, Medieval Civilization (1964), pp. 80–2
- ^ a b Woods, How the Church Built Western Civilization (2005), pp. 44–8
- ^ a b Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), pp. 158–9
- ^ a b Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), p. 104
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), pp. 119, 131
- ^ "Eastern Catholic". Catholic World News. Trinity Communications. 2008. Retrieved 2008-05-30.
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 278
- ^ Riley-Smith, The First Crusaders (1997), p. 8
- ^ Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), pp. 130–1
- ^ Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), p. 140 quote: "And so when Urban called for a crusade at Clermont in 1095, one of his motives was to bring help to the beleaguered Eastern Christians."
- ^ Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), p. 155 quote: "Stories were also circulating about the harsh treatment of Christian pilgrims to Jerusalem at the hands of the infidel, inflaming Western opinion."
- ^ Le Goff, Medieval Civilization (1964), pp. 65–7
- ^ Tyerman, God's War: A New History of the Crusades (2006), pp. 525–60
- ^ "Pope sorrow over Constantinople". BBC News. 2004-06-29. Retrieved 2008-04-06.
- ^ a b Woods, How the Church Built Western Civilization (2005), pp. 119–22
- ^ a b Norman, The Roman Catholic Church (2007), p. 62
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 101
- ^ Le Goff, Medieval Civilization (1964), p. 87
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 112
- ^ Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), pp. 144–7, quote: "The Albigensian Crusade, as it became known, lasted until 1219. The pope, Innocent III, was a lawyer and saw both how easily the crusade had gotten out of hand and how it could be mitigated. He encouraged local rulers to adopt anti-heretic legislation and bring people to trial. By 1231 a papal inquisition began, and the friars were given charge of investigating tribunals."
- ^ a b Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), p. 132, quote: "A crusade was proclaimed against these Albigenses, as they were sometimes called ... It was in connection with this crusade that the papal system of Inquisition originated-a special tribunal appointed by the Popes and charged with ferreting out heretics. Until then the responsibility devolved on the local bishops. However, Innocent found it necessary in coping with the Albigensian threat to send out delegates who were entrusted with special powers that made them independent of the episcopal authority. In 1233 Gregory IX organized this ad hoc body into a system of permanent inquisitors, who were usually chosen from among the mendicant friars, Dominicans and Franciscans, men who were often marked by a high degree of courage, integrity, prudence, and zeal."
- ^ a b c Norman, The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History (2007), p. 93
- ^ a b Black, Early Modern Italy (2001), pp. 200–2
- ^ Casey, Early Modern Spain: A Social History (2002), pp. 229–30
- ^ Kamen, The Spanish Inquisition (1997), pp. 48–9
- ^ a b Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), pp. 150–2
- ^ Kamen, The Spanish Inquisition (1997), pp. 59, 203
- ^ McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity (1990), p. 187
- ^ Kamen, The Spanish Inquisition (1997), p. 49, quote: "In this bull the pope protested ... the Inquisition has for some time been moved not by zeal for the faith and the salvation of souls, but by lust for wealth, and that many true and faithful Christians, on the testimony of enemies, rivals, slaves and other lower and even less proper persons, have without any legitimate proof been thrust into secular prisons, tortured and condemned as relapsed heretics, deprived of their goods and property and handed over to the secular arm to be executed, to the peril of souls, setting a pernicious example, and causing disgust to many."
- ^ Armstrong, The European Reformation (2002), p103, quote: "Contrary to subsequent Protestant propaganda the procedure followed by the (Papal) Inquisition was careful and respectful with regard to legal rights. Clear proof was required, along with two witnesses, and rarely was torture used to extract confessions. Anonymous denunciations were illegal, while a defence lawyer was guaranteed for the suspect. Punishments were generally lenient and designed to bring the guilty party back into the fold. The public abjuration of protestantism before a congregation might suffice, for example."
- ^ a b Norman, The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History (2007), p. 93, quote: "... subsequent Protestant propaganda for centuries identified the entire Catholic Church in Spain, and elsewhere, with their occasional excesses. By the 19th century political liberals and religious dissenters took the 'crimes' of the Inquisition to be the ultimate proofs of the vile character of 'popery', and an enormous popular literature on the subject poured from the presses of Europe and North America. At its most active, in the 16th century, nevertheless, the Inquisition was regarded as far more enlightened than the secular courts: if you denied the Trinity and repented you were given penance; if you stole a sheep and repented you were hung. It has been calculated that only one per cent of those who appeared before the Inquisition tribunals eventually received death penalties. But the damage wrought by propaganda has been effective, and today the 'Spanish' Inquisition, like the Crusades, persists in supplying supposedly discreditable episodes to damn the memory of the Catholic past."
- ^ McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity (1990), p. 215, quote: "The inquisition has come to occupy such a role in European demonology that we must be careful to keep it in proportion. ... and the surviving records indicate that the proportion of executions was not high."
- ^ Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), p. 146, quote: "The extent of the Inquisition trials for heresy has been highly exaggerated. Once the Inquisition was established ... the pyromania which had characterized lay attempts to suppress heresy came to an end. Ninety percent of the sentences were "canonical" or church-related penances: fasting, pilgrimage, increased attendance at Mass, the wearing of distinctive clothing or badges, etc. The number of those who were put to death was very small indeed. The best estimate is that, of every hundred people sentenced, one person was executed, and ten were given prison terms. Even these latter could have their sentences reduced once the inquisitors left town."
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 122
- ^ McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity (1990), p. 232
- ^ Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), p. 155
- ^ a b McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity (1990), p. 240
- ^ Koschorke, A History of Christianity in Asia, Africa, and Latin America (2007), pp. 13, 283
- ^ Dussel, Enrique, A History of the Church in Latin America, Wm B Eerdmans Publishing, 1981, pp. 39, 59
- ^ Woods, How the Church Built Western Civilization (2005), p. 135
- ^ a b Johansen, Bruce, The Native Peoples of North America, Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, 2006, pp. 109, 110, quote: "In the Americas, the Catholic priest Bartolome de las Casas avidly encouraged enquiries into the Spanish conquest's many cruelties. Las Casas chronicled Spanish brutality against the Native peoples in excruciating detail." Cite error: The named reference "Johansen109" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ a b c Koschorke, A History of Christianity in Asia, Africa, and Latin America (2007), p. 287
- ^ Dussel, Enrique, A History of the Church in Latin America, Wm B Eerdmans Publishing, 1981, pp. 45, 52, 53 quote: "The missionary Church opposed this state of affairs from the beginning, and nearly everything positive that was done for the benefit of the indigenous peoples resulted from the call and clamor of the missionaries. The fact remained, however, that widespread injustice was extremely difficult to uproot ... Even more important than Bartolome de Las Casas was the Bishop of Nicaragua, Antonio de Valdeviso, who ultimately suffered martyrdom for his defense of the Indian."
- ^ Woods, How the Church Built Western Civilization (2005), p. 137
- ^ Koschorke, A History of Christianity in Asia, Africa, and Latin America (2007), p. 21
- ^ Johansen, Bruce, The Native Peoples of North America, Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, 2006, p. 110, quote: "In the Papal bull Sublimis deus (1537), Pope Paul III declared that Indians were to be regarded as fully human, and that their souls were as immortal as those of Europeans. This edict also outlawed slavery of Indians in any form ..."
- ^ Koschorke, A History of Christianity in Asia, Africa, and Latin America (2007), p. 290
- ^ Samora et al, A History of the Mexican-American People (1993), p. 20
- ^ Jackson, From Savages to Subjects: Missions in the History of the American Southwest (2000), p. 14
- ^ Jackson, From Savages to Subjects: Missions in the History of the American Southwest (2000), p. 13
- ^ Koschorke, A History of Christianity in Asia, Africa, and Latin America (2007), pp. 3, 17
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 133
- ^ a b Norman, The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History (2007), p. 86
- ^ a b Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), pp. 201–5
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 149
- ^ a b Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), p. 184
- ^ a b Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), p. 215
- ^ Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), pp. 196–200
- ^ Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), pp. 223–4
- ^ a b Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), p. 233
- ^ a b Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), pp. 177–8
- ^ Scruton, A Dictionary of Political Thought (1996), p. 470, quote: "The (English) Reformation must not be confused with the changes introduced into the Church of England during the 'Reformation Parliament' of 1529–36, which were of a political rather than a religious nature, designed to unite the secular and religious sources of authority within a single sovereign power: the Anglican Church did not until later make any substantial change in doctrine."
- ^ Schama, A History of Britain 1: At the Edge of the World? (2003), pp. 309–11
- ^ a b c Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), p. 220, quote: "Henry, seeing how far Cranmer had tried to take him in making the land Lutheran or Calvinist, pulled the plug in September 1538 and passed the Six Articles, which tried to restore the ancient faith, including the practice of celibacy for the clergy. By 1543 most of the Reformation legislation was reversed. One man, John Lambert, was made an example in November 1538. He was burned by being dragged in and out of the fire for holding the very same beliefs about the Eucharist that Cranmer held. Cranmer was made to watch the whole brutal event. He also had to send his wife back to Germany."
- ^ Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), p. 236 quote: "While no longer the powerful spiritual force and centers of learning they were in the early Middle Ages, the monasteries were an important part of traditional church life and their destruction was an important factor in the gradual triumph of reformation ideas in England. The spread of these ideas occurred in spite of Henry, who though defiant of the Pope remained deeply devoted to traditional Catholicism and was determined to maintain its substance. It is true that under the pressure of political necessity Henry allowed the publication of the ambiguous Ten Articles (1536) and he also approved of the Act that set up the English Bible in all the churches. But his Six Articles (1539) reaffirmed Catholic doctrine and imposed savage penalties for denial of transubstantiation, private Masses, private confession, or the need for clerical celibacy."
- ^ Haigh, The English Reformation Revised (1987), p. 10, quote: "The dominance of the evangelicals was broken in the coups of 1539–40, when Henry's distaste for radical religion and for Anne of Cleves allowed conservatives to reverse religious policy and overthrow Cromwell."
- ^ Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity, Volume 2 (1985), p. 75, quote: "In England, he took steps to make the church conform as much as possible to Roman Catholicism, except in the matter of obedience to the pope. He also refused to restore monasteries, which he had suppressed and confiscated under the pretense of reformation, and whose properties he had no intention of returning."
- ^ a b c d e Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), pp. 225–6
- ^ Haigh, The English Reformation Revised (1987), p. 159, quote: "Mary wanted to make England a Catholic country as quickly as possible: to reintroduce the pope's authority, to repeal those parliamentary statutes which had so radically altered the relationship of Church and State and to restore to the Church its Catholic doctrine and services. Nothing was to be allowed to stand in her way. No murmurings among the people, no riots or rebellions or intrigues, not even the advice of the Spanish ambassador to make haste slowly could deflect the Queen from her purpose. ... Death by burning at the hands of the sheriffs became the penalty for those who, convicted of heresy in the church courts, refused to recant."
- ^ Solt, Church and State in Early Modern England, 1509-1640, (1990), p. 149
- ^ Schama, A History of Britain 1: At the Edge of the World? (2003), pp. 272–3.
- ^ Jackson, Ireland Her Own (1991), p. 514
- ^ a b c Norman, The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History (2007), pp. 131–2
- ^ a b Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), pp. 242–4
- ^ Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), p. 237
- ^ Norman, The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History (2007), pp. 91–2
- ^ Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), p. 251
- ^ Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), p. 241
- ^ Murray, Dictionary of the Arts (1994), p. 45
- ^ a b Koschorke, A History of Christianity in Asia, Africa, and Latin America (2007), pp. 31–2
- ^ McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity (1990), p. 318
- ^ a b c d Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), pp. 188–91
- ^ Norman, The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History (2007), p. 137
- ^ Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), pp. 267–9
- ^ Edward, The Cambridge Modern History (1908), p. 25
- ^ a b c Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), pp. 283–5
- ^ Collins, The Story of Christianity (1999), p. 176
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), pp. 214–6
- ^ Norman, The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History (2007), pp. 111–2
- ^ King, Mission to Paradise (1975), p. 169
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 221
- ^ McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity (1990), p. 328
- ^ a b Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 193
- ^ Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), p. 295
- ^ Leith, Creeds of the Churches (1963), p. 143
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 232
- ^ Fahlbusch, The Encyclopedia of Christianity (2001), p. 729
- ^ Stacy, Mexico and the United States (2003), p. 139
- ^ Norman, The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History (2007), pp. 167–72
- ^ Scheina, Latin America's Wars: The Age of the Caudillo (2003), p. 33
- ^ Van Hove, Brian (1994). Blood-Drenched Altars "Blood Drenched Altars". EWTN. Retrieved 2008-03-09.
{{cite web}}: Check|url=value (help) - ^ "International Religious Freedom Report 2001" (PDF). US Department of State. 2001. Retrieved 2008-03-13.
- ^ Norman, The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History (2007), pp. 167–8
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 240
- ^ a b c Hastings, The Church in Africa (2004), pp. 397–410
- ^ Pham, Heirs of the Fisherman: Behind the Scenes of Papal Death and Succession (2005), p. 45, quote: "When Pius XI was complimented on the publication, in 1937, of his encyclical denouncing Nazism, Mit Brennender Sorge, his response was to point to his Secretary of State and say bluntly, 'The credit is his.' "
- ^ Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), pp. 327–33, quote: "Mark well that in the Catholic Mass, Abraham is our Patriarch and forefather. Anti-Semitism is incompatible with the lofty thought which that fact expresses. It is a movement with which we Christians can have nothing to do. No, no, I say to you it is impossible for a Christian to take part in anti-Semitism. It is inadmissible. Through Christ and in Christ we are the spiritual progeny of Abraham. Spiritually, we are all Semites."
- ^ Eakin, Emily (2001-09-01). "New Accusations Of a Vatican Role In Anti-Semitism; Battle Lines Were Drawn After Beatification of Pope Pius IX". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-03-09.
- ^ Woolner, FDR, The Vatican and the Roman Catholic Church (2003), pp. 141, 268
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 264, quote: "But clearly the accusations of moral failure cut deep, and in the wake of Hochhuth's play the Vatican took the unprecedented step of appointing a team of Jesuit historians to publish everything in the archives that bore on Vatican involvement with the war and especially with the Jewish question. The resulting eleven volumes of documents decisively established the falsehood of Hochhuth's specific allegations, but did not entirely exorcise the sense that the troubling silence and tortuous diplomacy of the Vatican had more to do with Pius XII's oblique and timid sensibility than with rational prudence."
- ^ Kolatch, Alfred J. Great Jewish Quotations. Jonathan David Publishers. ISBN 978-0824603694.
- ^ Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), pp. 480–1, quote:"A recent article by American rabbi, David G. Dalin, challenges this judgement. He calls making Pius XII a target of moral outrage a failure of historical understanding, and he thinks Jews should reject any 'attempt to usurp the Holocaust' for the partisan purposes at work in this debate. Dalin surmises that well–known Jews such as Albert Einstein, Golda Meir, Moshe Sharett, and Rabbi Isaac Herzog would likely have been shocked at these attacks on Pope Pius. Einstein, for instance, in an article in Time, paid tribute to Pius and noted that the Church alone 'stood squarely across the path of Hitler's campaign.' Dalin points out that 'Rabbi Herzog, the chief rabbi of Israel, sent a message in February 1944 declaring "the people of Israel will never forget what His Holiness ... (is) doing for our unfortunate brothers and sisters in the most tragic hour of our history." ' Dalin cites these tributes as recognition of the work of the Holy See in saving hundreds of thousands of Jews."
- ^ Randall, Gene (2000-03-26). "Pope Ends Pilgrimage to the Holy Land". CNN. Retrieved 2008-06-09.
- ^ a b "Pope Stared Down Communism in Homeland – and Won". CBC News. April 2005. Retrieved 2008-01-31.
- ^ Smith, Craig S. (2007-01-06). "Ties to Communist Secret Police Snare Polish Bishop". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-05-24.
- ^ "Slovak Church Plans to Review Its Past 50 Years". The New York Times. Agence France-Presse. 2007-02-14. Retrieved 2008-05-24.
- ^ Smith, Craig (2007-01-10). "In Poland, New Wave of Charges Against Clerics". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-05-23.
- ^ a b c Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 270–6
- ^ Paul VI, Pope (1963-12-04). "Sacrosanctum Concilium". Vatican. Retrieved 2008-02-09.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 274
- ^ "Roman Catholic-Eastern Orthodox Dialogue". Public Broadcasting Service. 2000-07-14. Retrieved 2008-02-16.
- ^ a b Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), p. 410
- ^ Bauckham, Richard, in New Dictionary of Theology, Ed. Ferguson, (1988), p. 373
- ^ a b "Liberation Theology". BBC. 2005. Retrieved 2008-06-02.
- ^ Aguilar, Mario (2007). The History and Politics of Latin American Theology, Volume 1. London: SCM Press. p. 31. ISBN 978-0334040231.
- ^ For more on Romero, by a former colleague, see Sobrino, Jon (1990). Archbishop Romero: Memories and Reflections. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis. ISBN 978-0883446676.
- ^ Rohter, Larry (2007-05-07). "As Pope Heads to Brazil, a Rival Theology Persists". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-02-21.
{{cite news}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in:|publisher=(help) Benedict's main involvement in dealing with liberation theology was while he was still Cardinal Ratzinger. - ^ Norman, The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History (2007), pp. 176–7
- ^ Aguilar, Mario (2007). The History and Politics of Latin American Theology, Volume 1. London: SCM Press. p. 121. ISBN 978-0334040231.
- ^ For liberation theology's persistence, see Rohter, Larry (2007-05-07). "As Pope Heads to Brazil, a Rival Theology Persists". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-06-02.
{{cite news}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in:|publisher=(help) For the threat from Pentecostalism, see Stoll, David (1990). Is Latin America turning Protestant?: The Politics of Evangelical Growth. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520064997. - ^ Paul VI, Pope (1968). "Humanae Vitae". Vatican. Retrieved 2008-02-02.
- ^ Norman, The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History (2007), p. 184
- ^ Dugger, Carol (2006-05-18). "Why is Kenya's AIDS rate plummeting?". International Herald Tribune. Retrieved 2008-02-21.
- ^ John Paul II, Pope (1988). "Mulieris Dignitatem". Vatican. Retrieved 2008-02-21.
- ^ Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), p. 467
- ^ John Paul II, Pope (1994-05-22). "Apostolic Letter to the Bishops of the Catholic Church on Reserving Priestly Ordination to Men Alone". Vatican. Retrieved 2008-02-02.
- ^ Cowell, Alan (1994-05-31). "Pope Rules Out Debate On Making Women Priests". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-02-12.
- ^ "The Death Penalty Pro and Con: The Pope's Statement". PBS. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
- ^ a b c Bruni, A Gospel of Shame (2002), p. 336
- ^ Newman, Andy (2006-08-31). "A Choice for New York Priests in Abuse Cases". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-03-13.
- ^ a b Owen, Richard (2008-01-07). "Pope calls for continuous prayer to rid priesthood of paedophilia". Times Online UK edition. Times Newspapers Ltd. Retrieved 2008-03-31.
- ^ a b Terry, Karen; et al. (2004). "John Jay Report". John Jay College of Criminal Justice. Retrieved 2008-02-09.
{{cite web}}: Explicit use of et al. in:|author=(help) - ^ Dougherty, Jon (2004-04-05). "Sex Abuse by Teachers Said Worse Than Catholic Church". Newsmax. Retrieved 2008-06-11.
- ^ Shakeshaft, Charol (2004). "Educator Sexual Misconduct" (PDF). US Department of Education. Retrieved 2008-04-12.
- ^ Irvine, Martha (2007). "Sexual Misconduct Plagues US Schools". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2008-04-12.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ a b Steinfels, A People Adrift (2003). pp. 40–6
- ^ a b Filteau, Jerry (2004). "Report says clergy sexual abuse brought 'smoke of Satan' into church". Catholic News Service. Retrieved 2008-03-10.
- ^ Frawley-ODea, Perversion of Power: Sexual Abuse in the Catholic Church (2007), p. 4
- ^ Walsh, John Paul II: A Light for the World (2003), p. 62
- ^ a b United States Conference of Catholic Bishops (2005). "Charter for the Protection of Children and Young People". United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. Retrieved 2007-10-08.
- ^ "Scandals in the church: The Bishops' Decisions; The Bishops' Charter for the Protection of Children and Young People". The New York Times. 2002-06-15. Retrieved 2008-02-12.
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- Leith, John (1963). Creeds of the Churches. Aldine Publishing Co. ISBN 0664240577.
- Marthaler, Berard (1994). Introducing the Catechism of the Catholic Church, Traditional Themes and Contemporary Issues. Paulist Press. ISBN 0809134950.
- Massaro, S J (2000). Living Justice: Catholic Social Teaching in Action. Rowan & Littlefield. ISBN 1580510469.
- McBrien, Richard P. (1994). Catholicism: New Study Edition-Completely Revised and Updated. HarperOne. p. 1344. ISBN 0-06-065405-8.
- McClintock, John (1889). Cyclopaedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature. Harper & Brothers, original from Harvard University.
- McGrath, Alister E. (2006). Christianity: An Introduction. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405108991.
- McManners, John (1990). The Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198229283.
- Mongoven, Anne Marie (2000). The Prophetic Spirit of Catechesis: How We Share the Fire in Our Hearts. Paulist Press. ISBN 0809139227.
- Mullet, Michael A (2002). The Catholic Reformation. Routledge. ISBN 9780203264034.
- Murray, Chris (1994). Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing Ltd. ISBN 081603205x.
{{cite book}}: Check|isbn=value: invalid character (help) - Nichols, Stephen (2007). The Reformation: How a Monk and a Mallet Changed the World. Good News Publishers. ISBN 1581348290.
- Norman, Edward (2007). The Roman Catholic Church, An Illustrated History. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-25251-6.
- Orlandis, Jose (1993). A Short History of the Catholic Church. Scepter Publishers. ISBN 1851821252.
- Parry, Kenneth (1999). The Blackwell Dictionary of Eastern Christianity. Blackwell Publishers. ISBN 9780631189664.
- Pham, John Peter (2006). Heirs of the Fisherman: Behind the Scenes of Papal Death and Succession. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195178343.
- Richardson, Alan (1983). The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Theology. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 0664227481.
- Riley-Smith, Jonathan (1997). The First Crusaders. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780511003080.
- Schaff, Philip (1910). Creeds of Christendom, With a History and Critical Notes. Harper.
- Scheina, Robert L. (2007). Latin America's Wars: The Age of the Caudillo. Brassey's. ISBN 1574884522.
- Samora, Julian; Simon, Patricia Vandel; Candelaria, Cordelia; Pulido, Alberto L (1993). A History of the Mexican-American People. University of Notre Dame Press. ISBN 9780268010973.
- Schama, Simon (2003) [2000]. "Burning Convictions". A History of Britain 1: At the Edge of the World?. London: BBC Worldwide. pp. pp. 309–11. ISBN 0 56 348714 3.
{{cite book}}:|pages=has extra text (help) - Schreck, Alan (1999). The Essential Catholic Catechism. Servant Publications. ISBN 0569551286.
{{cite book}}: Check|isbn=value: checksum (help) - Scruton, Roger (1996). A Dictionary of Political Thought. Macmillan. ISBN 0330280996.
- Sobrino, Jon (1990). Archbishop Romero: Memories and Reflections. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis. ISBN 978-0883446676.
- Stacy, Lee (2003). Mexico and the United States. Marshall Cavendish. ISBN 0761474021.
- Stoll, David (1990). Is Latin America turning Protestant?: The Politics of Evangelical Growth. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520064997.
- Solt, Leo Frank (1990). Church and State in Early Modern England, 1509-1640. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195059794.
- Steinfels, Peter (2003). A People Adrift: The Crisis of the Roman Catholic Church in America. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-68-483663-7.
- Traufler, Louis (1927). The Mass: The Sacrifice of Christ. The Liturgical Press.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - Tyerman, Christopher (2006). God's War: A New History of the Crusades. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674023870.
- USCCB (2005). Co–Workers in the Vineyard of the Lord. USCCB Publishing. ISBN 1574557246.
- USCCB (2006). Program for Priestly Formation. USCCB Publishing. ISBN 1-57455-517-0.
- Vatican, Central Statistics Office (2007). Annuario Pontificio (Pontifical Yearbook). Libreria Editrice Vaticana. ISBN 978-88-209-7908-9.
- Vidmar, John (2005). The Catholic Church Through the Ages. Paulist Press. ISBN 0809142341.
- Walsh, Mary Ann (2003). John Paul II: A Light for the World, Essays and Reflections on the Papacy of. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 1580511422.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - Woods Jr, Thomas (2005). How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization. Regnery Publishing, Inc. ISBN 0-89526-038-7.
- Woolner, David (2003). FDR, The Vatican and the Roman Catholic Church in America, 1933–1945. Macmillan. ISBN 978-88-209-7908-9.
External links
- Vatican: the Holy See – The official website of the Vatican.
- Catholic Hierarchy – Information on Catholic bishops and dioceses.
- The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church – Information on the Cardinals of the Catholic Church.
- Template:PDFlink by Albert J. Fritsch, SJ, PhD.
- MassTimes – A comprehensive database of every Catholic Church and Mass in the entire world.
- The Catholic Guide – A comprehensive source on the Roman Catholic Church.
- Catholic Wiki – A wiki site dedicated to the Catholic Church.
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