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Kosovo Albanians

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The Albanians of Kosovo (Albanian: Shqiptarët e Kosovës, pronounced [ʃcipˈtaɾət ɛ kɔˈsɔvəs]), also commonly called Kosovo Albanians, Kosovan Albanians or Kosovars (Albanian: Kosovarët), constitute the largest ethnic group in Kosovo.

Kosovo Albanians
Shqiptarët e Kosovës
Albanians in Kosovo (2011 census)
Regions with significant populations
 Kosovo 1,797,856 (2021)[1]
Other regions
Europe
 Turkey600,000+[2]
 Germany300,000[3]
  Switzerland200,000[3][4][5]
 Italy43,763[6]
 France40,000[7]
 Netherlands8,500[8]
 North Macedonia?
Americas
 Canada2,870[9]
Languages
Albanian
(Gheg Albanian)
Religion
Predominantly Sunni Islam
Christian minority
(Catholic · Protestant)
Related ethnic groups
Albanians

Kosovo Albanians belong to the ethnic Albanian sub-group of Ghegs,[10] who inhabit the north of Albania, north of the Shkumbin river, Kosovo, southern Serbia, and western parts of North Macedonia. They speak Gheg Albanian, more specifically the Northwestern and Northeastern Gheg variants.

According to the 1991 Yugoslav census, boycotted by Albanians, there were 1,596,072 ethnic Albanians in Kosovo or 81.6% of population. By the estimation in the year 2000, there were between 1,584,000 and 1,733,600 Albanians in Kosovo or 88% of population; as of 2011,[11] their population share is 92.93%.

History

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Further information: History of Kosovo

Pre-7th century

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Toponymical evidence suggests that Albanian was spoken in western and eastern Kosovo and the Niš region before the Migration Period.[12] In this era, Albanian in Kosovo was in linguistic contact with Eastern Romance which was presumably spoken in contemporary eastern Serbia and Macedonia.[13]

Middle Ages

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Between 1246 and 1255, Stefan Uroš I had reported Albanian toponyms in the Drenica valley. A chrysobull of the Serbian Tsar Stefan Dušan that was given to the Monastery of Saint Mihail and Gavril in Prizren between the years of 1348–1353 states the presence of Albanians in the Plains of Dukagjin, the vicinity of Prizren and in the villages of Drenica.[14]

In the 14th century in two chrysobulls or decrees by Serbian rulers, villages of Albanians alongside Vlachs are cited in the first as being between the White Drin and Lim rivers (1330), and in the second (1348) a total of nine Albanian villages are cited within the vicinity of Prizren.[15][16] Toponyms such as Arbanaška and Đjake shows an Albanian presence in the Toplica and Southern Morava regions (located north-east of contemporary Kosovo) since the Late Middle Ages.[17][18]

The Albanian villages Ujmir and Gjonaj are mentioned in Serbian scriptures from the 1300's[19] In Gjonaj stands possibly one of the oldest Catholic churches in Kosovo.[20] Village Gjonaj is also believed to be the birthplace of Pjeter Bogdani. Other Albanian villages mentioned from the 14th and 15th centuries are Planeje, Zym, Gorozhub, Milaj, Kojushe, Batushe, Mazrek, Voksh etc.[21] Ottoman registers from 1452–53 reveal the Has region in Kosovo was inhabited by a Christian Albanian population[22] Villages that have been identified and still existed today such as Mazrek, Kojushe, Gorozhub, Zym, Zhur, Milaj, Planeje etc were recorded in the defter. In the defter of 1485 which covered the Gjakova region of Western Kosovo, half of the villages had Albanian names or a mixture of Slavic-Albanian names.[23]

During Stefan Dusan's reign, Albanian Catholics in Kosovo were forcibly converted into Orthodoxy, many others were expelled, and Catholic churches were converted into Orthodox ones.[24][25][26][27]

The Ottomans defters of 15th and 16th century also recorded new arrivals into Kosovo and abandoned places. Nothing indicates the area was massively depopulated during this period nor massively settled by another population from outside[23][28]

Ottoman records indicate that during the 15th and 16th century, the Hasi region, which was part of the Nahiya of Hasi, was inhabited almost entirely by Albanians.[21] Ottoman records from the 15th century show western Kosovo had a large native Albanian population.[21] And further research indicates the towns in Eastern Kosovo had a large Muslim Albanian population prior to the Austrian-Ottoman wars of 1690 and research shows the towns lost their population considerably due to the wars.[29] During the 18th century and onwards there were also movements of people within these Albanian inhabited territories (Nish, Macedonia, Kosovo, Albania)[30]

Kosovo was part of the Ottoman Empire from 1455 to 1912, at first as part of the eyalet of Rumelia, and from 1864 as a separate province (vilayet). During this time, Islam was introduced to the population. Today, Sunni Islam is the predominant religion of Kosovo Albanians.

The Ottoman term Arnavudluk (آرناوودلق) meaning Albania was used in Ottoman state records for areas such as southern Serbia and Kosovo.[31][32][33] Evliya Çelebi (1611–1682) in his travels within the region during 1660 referred to the western and central part of what is today Kosovo as Arnavudluk and described the town of Vushtrri's inhabitants as having knowledge of Albanian or Turkish with few speakers of Slavic languages.[31]

Modern period

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19th century

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Further information: Demographic history of Kosovo and The Expulsion of Albanians 1877–1878

A large number of Albanians alongside smaller numbers of urban Turks (with some being of Albanian origin) were expelled and/or fled from what is now contemporary southern Serbia (Toplica and Morava regions) during the Serbian–Ottoman War (1876–78).[34] Many settled in Kosovo, where they and their descendants are known as muhaxhir, also muhaxher ("exiles", from Arabic 'muhajir'),[34] and some bear the surname Muhaxhiri/Muhaxheri or most others the village name of origin.[35] During the late Ottoman period, ethno-national Albanian identity as expressed in contemporary times did not exist amongst the wider Kosovo Albanian-speaking population.[36] Instead collective identities were based upon either socio-professional, socio-economic, regional, or religious identities and sometimes relations between Muslim and Christian Albanians were tense.[36]

 
League of Prizren (1878)

As a reaction against the Congress of Berlin, which had given some Albanian-populated territories to Serbia and Montenegro, Albanians, mostly from Kosovo, formed the League of Prizren in Prizren in June 1878. Hundreds of Albanian leaders gathered in Prizren and opposed the Serbian and Montenegrin jurisdiction. Serbia complained to the Western Powers that the promised territories were not being held because the Ottomans were hesitating to do that. Western Powers put pressure to the Ottomans and in 1881, the Ottoman Army started the fighting against Albanians. The Prizren League created a Provisional Government with a President, Prime Minister (Ymer Prizreni) and Ministries of War (Sylejman Vokshi) and Foreign Ministry (Abdyl Frashëri). After three years of war, the Albanians were defeated. Many of the leaders were executed and imprisoned. In 1910, an Albanian uprising spread from Pristina and lasted until the Ottoman Sultan's visit to Kosovo in June 1911. The aim of the League of Prizren was to unite the four Albanian-inhabited Vilayets by merging the majority of Albanian inhabitants within the Ottoman Empire into one Albanian vilayet. However at that time Serbs consisted about 25%[37] of the whole Vilayet of Kosovo's overall population and were opposing the Albanian aims along with Turks and other Slavs in Kosovo, which prevented the Albanian movements from establishing their rule over Kosovo.

20th century

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In 1912 during the Balkan Wars, most of eastern Kosovo was taken by the Kingdom of Serbia, while the Kingdom of Montenegro took western Kosovo, which a majority of its inhabitants call "the plateau of Dukagjin" (Rrafshi i Dukagjinit) and the Serbs call Metohija (Метохија), a Greek word meant for the landed dependencies of a monastery. Aside from many war crimes and atrocities committed by the Serbian Army on the Albanian population, colonist Serb families moved into Kosovo, while the Albanian population was decreased. As a result, the proportion of Albanians in Kosovo declined from 75 percent[37][38] at the time of the invasion to slightly more than 65%[38] percent by 1941.

The 1918–1929 period under the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was a time of persecution of the Kosovar Albanians. Kosovo was split into four counties—three being a part of official Serbia: Zvečan, Kosovo and southern Metohija; and one in Montenegro: northern Metohija. However, the new administration system since 26 April 1922 split Kosovo among three Regions in the Kingdom: Kosovo, Rascia and Zeta. In 1929 the Kingdom was transformed into the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. The territories of Kosovo were split among the Banate of Zeta, the Banate of Morava and the Banate of Vardar. The Kingdom lasted until the World War II Axis invasion of April 1941.

 
Ramiz Sadiku and Boro Vukmirović, People's Heroes of Yugoslavia and symbol of Serbian-Albanian friendship[39]

After the Axis invasion, the greater part of Kosovo became a part of Italian-controlled Fascist Albania, and a smaller, Eastern part by the Axis allied Tsardom of Bulgaria and Nazi German-occupied Serbia. Since the Albanian Fascist political leadership had decided in the Conference of Bujan that Kosovo would remain a part of Albania they started expelling the Serbian and Montenegrin settlers "who had arrived in the 1920s and 1930s".[40] Prior to the surrender of Fascist Italy in 1943, the German forces took over direct control of the region. After numerous Serbian and Yugoslav Partisans uprisings, Kosovo was liberated after 1944 with the help of the Albanian partisans of the Comintern, and became a province of Serbia within the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia.

The Autonomous Region of Kosovo and Metohija was formed in 1946 to placate its regional Albanian population within the People's Republic of Serbia as a member of the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia under the leadership of the former Partisan leader, Josip Broz Tito, but with no factual autonomy. This was the first time Kosovo came to exist with its present boundaries. After Yugoslavia's name changed to the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and Serbia's to the Socialist Republic of Serbia in 1963, the Autonomous Region of Kosovo was raised to the level of Autonomous Province (which Vojvodina had had since 1946) and gained inner autonomy in the 1960s.

In the 1974 constitution, the Socialist Autonomous Province of Kosovo's government received higher powers, including the highest governmental titles—President and Premier and a seat in the Federal Presidency, which made it a de facto Socialist Republic within the Federation, but remaining as a Socialist Autonomous Region within the Socialist Republic of Serbia. Serbo-Croat and Albanian were defined official on the provincial level marking the two largest linguistic Kosovan groups: Serbs and Albanians. The word Metohija was also removed from the title in 1974 leaving the simple short form, Kosovo.

In the 1970s, an Albanian nationalist movement pursued full recognition of the Province of Kosovo as another Republic within the Federation, while the most extreme elements aimed for full-scale independence. Tito's government dealt with the situation swiftly, but only giving it a temporary solution.

 
Flag of Albanian minority in SFR Yugoslavia

In 1981 the Kosovar Albanian students organised protests seeking that Kosovo become a republic within Yugoslavia. Those protests were harshly contained by the centralist Yugoslav government. In 1986, the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts (SANU) was working on a document, which later would be known as the SANU Memorandum. An unfinished edition was filtered to the press. In the essay, SANU portrayed the Serbian people as a victim and called for the revival of Serb nationalism, using both true and exaggerated facts for propaganda. During this time, Slobodan Milošević rose to power in the League of the Socialists of Serbia.

Soon afterwards, as approved by the Assembly in 1990, the autonomy of Kosovo was revoked, and the pre-1974 status reinstated. Milošević, however, did not remove Kosovo's seat from the Federal Presidency, but he installed his own supporters in that seat, so he could gain power in the Federal government. After Slovenia's secession from Yugoslavia in 1991, Milošević used the seat to obtain dominance over the Federal government, outvoting his opponents. Many Albanians organized a peaceful active resistance movement, following the job losses suffered by some of them, while other, more radical and nationalistic oriented Albanians, started violent purges of the non-Albanian residents of Kosovo.

On 2 July 1990, an unconstitutional[41] ethnic Albanian parliament declared Kosovo an independent country, although this was not recognized by the Government since the ethnic Albanians refused to register themselves as legal citizens of Yugoslavia. In September of that year, the ethnic Albanian parliament, meeting in secrecy in the town of Kačanik, adopted the Constitution of the Republic of Kosova. A year later, the Parliament organized the 1991 Kosovan independence referendum, which was observed by international organisations, but the only country to recognize it was Albania.[42] With an 87% turnout, 99.88% voted for Kosovo to be independent.[43] The non-Albanian population, at the time comprising 10% of Kosovo's population, refused to vote since they considered the referendum to be illegal.[44]

 
Kosovo Liberation Army handing over arms to U.S. forces, 30 June 1999

In 1992–1993, ethnic Albanians created the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA).[45] In 1995, the Dayton Agreement was signed in Dayton, Ohio. Finalized on 21 November 1995 and signed on 10 December 1995, the agreement ended the three-year-long Bosnian War.[46][47] After the Bosnian War, the KLA began staging ambushes of Serb patrols as well as killing policemen, as they sought to capitalize on popular resentment among Kosovan Albanians against the Serbian regime.[48]

From 1996 onwards, the KLA took responsibility for the attacks it committed.[49] The KLA grew to a few hundred Albanians who attacked police stations and wounded many police officers from 1996–1997.[50] Following the 1997 Albanian civil unrest, the KLA was enabled to acquire large amounts of weapons looted from Albanian armories.[51] The KLA also received large funds from Albanian diaspora organizations.

The KLA-led campaign continued into January 1999 and was brought to the attention of the world media by the Račak massacre, the mass killing of about 45 Albanians (including 9 KLA insurgents)[52] by Serbian security forces.[53] An international conference was held in Rambouillet, France later that spring and resulted in a proposed peace agreement, called the Rambouillet Agreement, which was accepted by the ethnic Albanian side but rejected by the Yugoslav government.[54] The failure of the talks at Rambouillet resulted in a NATO air campaign against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia lasting from 24 March to 10 June[55] when the Yugoslav authorities signed a military technical agreement.

21st century

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Main article: Kosovo status process

International negotiations began in 2006 to determine the final status of Kosovo, as envisaged under UN Security Council Resolution 1244, which ended the Kosovo conflict of 1999. While Serbia's continued sovereignty over Kosovo was recognised by much of the international community at the time, a clear majority of Kosovo's population preferred independence. The UN-backed talks, led by UN Special Envoy Martti Ahtisaari, began in February 2006. While progress was made on technical matters, both parties remained diametrically opposed on the question of status itself.[56] In February 2007, Ahtisaari delivered a draft status settlement proposal to leaders in Belgrade and Pristina, the basis for a draft UN Security Council Resolution that proposes 'supervised independence' for the province.

 
The Isa Boletini statue in the centre of Mitrovica, Kosovo inaugurated during the 100th anniversary of the independence of Albania

As of early July 2007 the draft resolution, which is backed by the United States, United Kingdom and other European members of the United Nations Security Council, had been rewritten four times to try to accommodate Russian concerns that such a resolution would undermine the principle of state sovereignty.[57] Russia, which holds a veto in the Security Council as one of five permanent members, has stated that it will not support any resolution that is not acceptable to both Belgrade and Pristina.[58] As of November 2023, more than 100 UN member states have recognised Kosovo as an independent country.

On 26 November 2019, an earthquake struck Albania. The Kosovo Albanian population reacted with sentiments of solidarity through fundraising initiatives and money, food, clothing and shelter donations.[59] Volunteers and humanitarian aid in trucks, buses and hundreds of cars from Kosovo traveled to Albania to assist in the situation and people were involved in tasks such as the operation of mobile kitchens and gathering financial aid.[59][60][61] Many Albanians in Kosovo have opened their homes to people displaced by the earthquake.[62][60][61]

Demographics

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Main article: Demographic history of Kosovo
Ethnic groups in Kosovo
Year Albanians
 Serbs
 Others
 Source and notes
1921 61% 33% 6%
1931 58% 29% 13%
1948 65% 26% 9% ICTY[63]
1953 65% 24% 10%
1961 67% 23% 9%
1971 73% 19% 7%
1981 76% 16% 8%
1991 80% 13% 7% 1991 Census[64]
2000 87% 9% 4% World Bank, OSCE[65]
2007 92% 5% 3% OSCE[65]
2011 92.9% 1.5% 5.4% 2011 Census[66]
  •  
    1880 ethnographic map of the Balkans
  •  
    1898 ethnic composition of the Balkans according to a French source
  •  
    1922 ethnographic map of Europe
  •  
    1923 ethnographic map of the Balkans and Turkey.

Diaspora

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Main article: Kosovan diaspora

There is a large Kosovo Albanian diaspora in central Europe.

Culture

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Kosovo Albanians speak the largest subgroup of the Albanian language, called Gheg

Culturally, Albanians in Kosovo are very closely related to Albanians in Albania. Traditions and customs differ even from town to town in Kosovo itself. The spoken dialect is Gheg, typical of northern Albanians. The language of state institutions, education, books, media and newspapers is the standard dialect of Albanian, which is closer to the Tosk dialect.

Religion

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Main article: Religion in Kosovo

The vast majority of Kosovo Albanians are Sunni Muslims. There are also Catholic Albanian communities estimated between 60,000 to 65,000 in Kosovo,[67][68] concentrated in Gjakova, Prizren, Klina and a few villages near Peja and Viti. Converting to Christianity is growing among Kosovo Albanian Muslims in Kosovo.[69][70]

Art

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Kosovafilm was the film industry, which releases movies in Albanian, created by Kosovar Albanian movie-makers. The National Theatre of Kosovo is the main theatre where plays are shown regularly by Albanian and international artists.

 
Kosovo Albanian ethnic costume and dance.

Music

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Music has always been part of Albanian culture. Although in Kosovo music is diverse (as it was mixed with the cultures of different regimes dominating Kosovo), authentic Albanian music does still exist. It is characterized by use of çiftelia (an authentic Albanian instrument), mandolina, mandola and percussion. Folk music is very popular in Kosovo. There are many folk singers and ensembles. Modern music in Kosovo has its origin from western countries. The main modern genres include pop, hip hop/rap, rock, and jazz. Kosovo Radio televisions such as RTK, RTV21 and KTV have their musical charts.

Education

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Education is provided for all levels, primary, secondary, and university degrees. University of Pristina is the public university of Kosovo, with several faculties and majors. The National Library (BK) is the main and the largest library in Kosovo, located in the centre of Pristina. There are many other private universities, among them American University in Kosovo (AUK), and many secondary schools and colleges such as Mehmet Akif College.

Notable people

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Main article: List of Kosovo Albanians

See also

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References

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  1. ^ "Kosovo". The World Factbook (2024 ed.). Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 27 September 2020. (Archived 2020 edition.)
  2. ^ Elsie,R.Historical Dictionary of Kosovo (2010). p. 276
  3. ^ a b "Emigration in Kosovo (International Emigation) – Page 32-38". Kosovo Agency of Statistics, KAS. Archived from the original on 15 June 2014.
  4. ^ "Die kosovarische Bevölkerung in der Schweiz" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 December 2017. Retrieved 25 January 2015.
  5. ^ "Donner une autre image de la diaspora kosovare". Le Temps. 21 January 2009. Archived from the original on 11 July 2015. Retrieved 25 January 2015.
  6. ^ "Kosovari in Italia – statistiche e distribuzione per regione". Tuttitalia.it.
  7. ^ "Relations bilatérales France-Kosovo". diplomatie.gouv.fr. Archived from the original on 14 December 2023.
  8. ^ Statistiek, Centraal Bureau voor de (3 March 2008). "8,5 duizend Kosovaren in Nederland". Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek.
  9. ^ "Ethnic Origin (279), Single and Multiple Ethnic Origin Responses (3), Generation Status (4), Age (12) and Sex (3) for the Population in Private Households of Canada, Provinces and Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2016 Census". Statistics Canada. 25 October 2017.
  10. ^ Simon Broughton; Mark Ellingham; Richard Trillo (1999). World music: the rough guide. Africa, Europe and the Middle East. Rough Guides. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-85828-635-8. Retrieved 13 July 2013. Most of the ethnic Albanians that live outside the country are Ghegs, although there is a small Tosk population clustered around the shores of lakes Presp and Ohrid in the south of Macedonia.
  11. ^ "Minority Communities in the 2011 Kosovo Census Results: Analysis and Recommendations" (PDF). European Centre for Minority Issues Kosovo. 18 December 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 January 2014. Retrieved 3 September 2014.
  12. ^ Curtis 2012, p. 42:Toponymic evidence suggests that Albanian likely was spoken in Metohia and Kosovo before the Serbs' settlement there, as Albanian historical phonology helps explain several place names in the area, such as Prizren and Prishtina, as well as Niš < Naissus somewhat further to the northeast (Çabej 1961, Stanišić 1995: 10).
  13. ^ Vermeer, Williem (1992). The Disintegration of Yugoslavia. European Studies. Rodopi. p. 107. ISBN 978-90-5183-353-9.
  14. ^ Iseni, Bashkim (25 January 2008). La question nationale en Europe du Sud-Est : genèse, émergence et développement de l'indentité nationale albanaise au Kosovo et en Macédoine. Bern: P. Lang. p. 77. ISBN 978-3039113200.
  15. ^ Malcolm, Noel (1998). Kosovo: A short history. Macmillan. p. 54. ISBN 9780810874831. "From the details of the monastic estates given in the chrysobulls, further information can be gleaned about these Vlachs and Albanians. The earliest reference is in one of Nemanja's charters giving property to Hilandar, the Serbian monastery on Mount Athos: 170 Vlachs are mentioned, probably located in villages round Prizren. When Dečanski founded his monastery of Decani in 1330, he referred to 'villages and katuns of Vlachs and Albanians' in the area of the white Drin: a katun (alb.:katund) was a shepherding settlement. And Dusan's chrysobull of 1348 for the Monastery of the Holy Archangels in Prizren mentions a total of nine Albanian katuns."
  16. ^ Wilkinson, Henry Robert (1955). "Jugoslav Kosmet: The evolution of a frontier province and its landscape". Transactions and Papers (Institute of British Geographers). 21 (21): 183. doi:10.2307/621279. JSTOR 621279. "The monastery at Dečani stands on a terrace commanding passes into High Albania. When Stefan Uros III founded it in 1330, he gave it many villages in the plain and catuns of Vlachs and Albanians between the Lim and the Beli Drim. Vlachs and Albanians had to carry salt for the monastery and provide it with serf labour."
  17. ^ Uka, Sabit (2004). Jeta dhe veprimtaria e sqiptarëve të Sanxhakut të Nishit deri më 1912 [Life and activity of Albanians in the Sanjak of Nish up to 1912]. Verana. pp. 244–245. "Eshtë, po ashtu, me peshë historike një shënim i M. Gj Miliçeviqit, i cili bën fjalë përkitazi me Ivan Begun. Ivan Begu, sipas tij ishte pjesëmarrës në Luftën e Kosovës 1389. Në mbështetje të vendbanimit të tij, Ivan Kullës, fshati emërtohet Ivan Kulla (Kulla e Ivanit), që gjendet në mes të Kurshumlisë dhe Prokuplës. M. Gj. Miliçeviqi thotë: "Shqiptarët e ruajten fshatin Ivan Kullë (1877–1878) dhe nuk lejuan që të shkatërrohet ajo". Ata, shqiptaret e Ivan Kullës (1877–1878) i thanë M. Gj. Miliçeviqit se janë aty që nga para Luftës se Kosovës (1389). [12] Dhe treguan që trupat e arrave, që ndodhen aty, ata i pat mbjellë Ivan beu. Atypari, në malin Gjakë, nodhet kështjella që i shërbeu Ivanit (Gjonit) dhe shqiptarëve për t'u mbrojtur. Aty ka pasur gjurma jo vetëm nga shekulli XIII dhe XIV, por edhe të shekullit XV ku vërehen gjurmat mjaft të shumta toponimike si fshati Arbanashka, lumi Arbanashka, mali Arbanashka, fshati Gjakë, mali Gjakë e tjerë. [13] Në shekullin XVI përmendet lagja shqiptare Pllanë jo larg Prokuplës. [14] Ne këtë shekull përmenden edhe shqiptarët katolike në qytetin Prokuplë, në Nish, në Prishtinë dhe në Bulgari.[15].... [12] M. Đj. Miličević. Kralevina Srbije, Novi Krajevi. Beograd, 1884: 354. "Kur flet mbi fshatin Ivankullë cekë se banorët shqiptarë ndodheshin aty prej Betejës së Kosovës 1389. Banorët e Ivankullës në krye me Ivan Begun jetojnë aty prej shek. XIV dhe janë me origjinë shqiptare. Shqiptarët u takojnë të tri konfesioneve, por shumica e tyre i takojnë atij musliman, mandej ortodoks dhe një pakicë i përket konfesionit katolik." [13] Oblast Brankovića, Opširni katastarski popis iz 1455 godine, përgatitur nga M. Handžic, H. Hadžibegić i E. Kovačević, Sarajevo, 1972: 216. [14] Skënder Rizaj, T,K "Perparimi" i vitit XIX, Prishtinë 1973: 57.[15] Jovan M. Tomić, O Arnautima u Srbiji, Beograd, 1913: 13.
  18. ^ Geniş, Şerife; Maynard, Kelly Lynne (2009). "Formation of a Diasporic Community: The History of Migration and Resettlement of Muslim Albanians in the Black Sea Region of Turkey". Middle Eastern Studies. 45 (4): 553–569. doi:10.1080/00263200903009619. S2CID 143742189. pp. 556–557: Using secondary sources, we establish that there have been Albanians living in the area of Nish for at least 500 years, that the Ottoman Empire controlled the area from the fourteenth to nineteenth centuries which led to many Albanians converting to Islam, that the Muslim Albanians of Nish were forced to leave in 1878, and that at that time most of these Nishan Albanians migrated south into Kosovo, although some went to Skopje in Macedonia. ; pp. 557–558: In 1690 much of the population of the city and surrounding area was killed or fled, and there was an emigration of Albanians from the Malësia e Madhe (North Central Albania/Eastern Montenegro) and Dukagjin Plateau (Western Kosovo) into Nish.
  19. ^ Pulaha, Selami (1984). Popullsia shqiptare e Kosovës gjatë shek: studime dhe dokumente. XV-XVI (in Albanian). 8 Nëntori. p. 15.
  20. ^ Plesch, Valerie (6 May 2015). "Muslim Kosovars rediscover their long-forgotten Roman Catholic roots". Religion News Service.
  21. ^ a b c Pulaha, Selami (1984). Popullsia shqiptare e Kosovës gjatë shek: studime dhe dokumente. XV-XVI (in Albanian). 8 Nëntori
  22. ^ Vilajet of Pashtrik 1452–53 – Tatjana Katic
  23. ^ a b Pulaha, Selami (1984). Popullsia shqiptare e Kosovës gjatë shek: studime dhe dokumente. XV-XVI (in Albanian)
  24. ^ Jusuf Bajraktari; Instituti i Historisë (Akademia e Shkencave e RSH) (1996). The Kosova issue--a historic and current problem: symposium held in Tirana on April 15-16, 1993. Institute of history. p. 42.
  25. ^ Ines Angeli Murzaku (2015). Monasticism in Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Republics. Routledge. pp. 249–. ISBN 978-1-317-39105-0.
  26. ^ Hasan JASHARI (2015). Essays on Politics and Society. Lulu.com. ISBN 978-1-326-27184-8.
  27. ^ Arshi Pipa (1990). Albanian Stalinism: Ideo-Political Aspects. Eastern European Monographs. p. 94. ISBN 978-0-88033-184-5.
  28. ^ Kosovo: A Short History – 1998 – Malcolm
  29. ^ Rebels, Believers, Survivors – Noel Malcolm 2020
  30. ^ Selami Pulaha – Popullsia Shqiptare e Kosoves Gjate Shekujve
  31. ^ a b Anscombe, Frederic F, (2006). "The Ottoman Empire in Recent International Politics – II: The Case of Kosovo". The International History Review. 28.(4): 767–774, 785–788. "While the ethnic roots of some settlements can be determined from the Ottoman records, Serbian and Albanian historians have at times read too much into them in their running dispute over the ethnic history of early Ottoman Kosovo. Their attempts to use early Ottoman provincial surveys (tahrir defterleri) to gauge the ethnic make—up of the population in the fifteenth century have proved little. Leaving aside questions arising from the dialects and pronunciation of the census scribes, interpreters, and even priests who baptized those recorded, no natural law binds ethnicity to name. Imitation, in which the customs, tastes, and even names of those in the public eye are copied by the less exalted, is a time—tested tradition and one followed in the Ottoman Empire. Some Christian sipahis in early Ottoman Albania took such Turkic names as Timurtaş, for example, in a kind of cultural conformity completed later by conversion to Islam. Such cultural mimicry makes onomastics an inappropriate tool for anyone wishing to use Ottoman records to prove claims so modern as to have been irrelevant to the pre-modern state. The seventeenth-century Ottoman notable arid author Evliya Çelebi, who wrote a massive account of his travels around the empire and abroad, included in it details of local society that normally would not appear in official correspondence; for this reason, his account of a visit to several towns in Kosovo in 1660 is extremely valuable. Evliya confirms that western and at least parts of central Kosovo were 'Arnavud'. He notes that the town of Vushtrri had few speakers of 'Boşnakca'; its inhabitants spoke Albanian or Turkish. He terms the highlands around Tetovo (in Macedonia), Peć, and Prizren the 'mountains of Arnavudluk'. Elsewhere, he states that 'the mountains of Peć' lay in Arnavudluk, from which issued one of the rivers converging at Mitrovica, just north-west of which he sites Kosovo's border with Bosna. This river, the Ibar, flows from a source in the mountains of Montenegro north-north-west of Peć, in the region of Rozaje to which the Këlmendi would later be moved. He names the other river running by Mitrovica as the Kılab and says that it, too, had its source in Aravudluk; by this, he apparently meant the Lab, which today is the name of the river descending from mountains north—east of Mitrovica to join the Sitnica north of Priština. As Evliya travelled south, he appears to have named the entire stretch of river he was following the Kılab, not noting the change of name when he took the right fork at the confluence of the Lab and Sitnica. Thus, Evliya states that the tomb of Murad I, killed in the battle of Kosovo Polje, stood beside the Kılab, although it stands near the Sitnica outside Priština. Despite the confusion of names, Evliya included in Arnavudluk not only the western fringe of Kosovo, but also the central mountains from which the Sitnica ('Kılab') and its first tributaries descend. Given that a large Albanian population lived in Kosovo, especially in the west and centre, both before and after the Habsburg invasion of 1689–90, it remains possible, in theory, that at that time in the Ottoman Empire, one people emigrated en masse and another immigrated to take its place.
  32. ^ Anscombe, Frederick F. (2006). "The Ottoman Empire in Recent International Politics-II: The Case of Kosovo" (PDF). The International History Review. 28 (4): 758–793. doi:10.1080/07075332.2006.9641103. JSTOR 40109813. S2CID 154724667. In this case, however, Ottoman records contain useful information about the ethnicities of the leading actors in the story. In comparison with 'Serbs', who were not a meaningful category to the Ottoman state, its records refer to 'Albanians' more frequently than to many other cultural or linguistic groups. The term 'Arnavud' was used to denote persons who spoke one of the dialects of Albanian, came from the mountainous country in the western Balkans (referred to as 'Arnavudluk', and including not only the area now forming the state of Albania but also neighbouring parts of Greece, Macedonia, Kosovo, and Montenegro), organized society on the strength of blood ties (family, clan, tribe), engaged predominantly in a mix of settled agriculture and livestock herding, and were notable fighters – a group, in short, difficult to control. Other peoples, such as Georgians, Ahkhaz, Circassians, Tatars, Kurds, and Bedouin Arabs who were frequently identified by their ethnicity, shared similar cultural traits.
  33. ^ Kolovos, Elias (2007). The Ottoman Empire, the Balkans, the Greek lands: toward a social and economic history: studies in honor of John C. Alexander Archived 20 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Isis Press. p. 41. "Anscombe (ibid., 107 n. 3) notes that Ottoman "Albania" or Arnavudluk... included parts of present-day northern Greece, western Macedonia, southern Montenegro, Kosovo, and southern Serbia"; see also El2. s.v. "Arnawutluk. 6. History" (H. İnalcık) and Arsh, He Alvania. 31.33, 39–40. For the Byzantine period. see Psimouli, Souli. 28."
  34. ^ a b Jagodić, Miloš (1998). "The Emigration of Muslims from the New Serbian Regions 1877/1878". Balkanologie. Revue d'Études Pluridisciplinaires. II (2). Balkanologie. doi:10.4000/balkanologie.265. S2CID 140637086.
  35. ^ Uka, Sabit (2004). E drejta mbi vatrat dhe pasuritë reale dhe autoktone nuk vjetërohet: të dhëna në formë rezimeje [The rights of homes and assets, real and autochthonous that does not disappear with time: Data given in the form of estate portions regarding inheritance]. Shoqata e Muhaxhirëvë të Kosovës. pp. 52–54.
  36. ^ a b Frantz, Eva Anne (2011). "Catholic Albanian warriors for the Sultan in late Ottoman Kosovo: The Fandi as a socio-professional group and their identity patterns Archived January 1, 2014, at the Wayback Machine". In Grandits, Hannes, Nathalie Clayer, & Robert Pichler (eds). Conflicting Loyalties in the Balkans: The Great Powers, the Ottoman Empire and Nation-building. IB Tauris. p. 183. "It also demonstrates that while an ethno-national Albanian identity covering the whole Albanian-speaking population hardly existed in late-Ottoman Kosovo, collective identities were primarily formed from layers of religious, socio-professional/socio-economic and regional elements, as well as extended kinship and patriarchal structures."; p. 195. "The case of the Fandi illustrates the heterogeneous and multilayered nature of the Albanian-speaking population groups in late-Ottoman Kosovo. These divisions also become evident when looking at the previously-mentioned high level of violence within the Albanian-speaking groups. Whereas we tend to think of violence in Kosovo today largely in terms of ethnic conflict or even "ancient ethnic hatreds", the various forms of violence the consuls described in their reports in late-Ottoman Kosovo appear to have occurred primarily along religious and socio-economic fault lines, reflecting pre-national identity patterns. In addition to the usual violence prompted by shortages of pastureland or robbery for private gain, the sources often report on religiously motivated violence between Muslims and Christians, with a high level of violence not only between Albanian Muslims and Serbian Christians, but also between Albanian Muslims and Albanian Catholics."
  37. ^ a b Malcolm, Noel (26 February 2008). "Is Kosovo Serbia? We ask a historian". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 23 April 2010.
  38. ^ a b "Who Deserves Kosovo? An Argument from Social Contract Theory" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 7 July 2008.
  39. ^ "Prishtine – mon amour". bturn.com. 7 September 2012.
  40. ^ Murray, Williamson (21 August 1999). The Emerging Strategic Environment: Challenges of the Twenty-first Century. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 9780275965730 – via Google Books.
  41. ^ Malcolm, Noel (1998). Kosovo: A Short History. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-66612-8.
  42. ^ "Statement of Prime Minister of Albania Mr. Sali Berisha on Recognition of Independence of Kosova". Republic of Albania Council of Ministers. 18 February 2008. Archived from the original on 20 April 2012.
  43. ^ Beat Müller (30 September 1991). "Kosovo (Jugoslawien), 30 September 1991 : Unabhängigkeit". sudd.ch (in German). Retrieved 15 April 2019.
  44. ^ Kosovo (Yugoslavia), 30 September 1991: Independence Direct Democracy (in German)
  45. ^ Eriksson, Mikael; Kostić, Roland (15 February 2013). Mediation and Liberal Peacebuilding: Peace from the Ashes of War?. Routledge. pp. 43–. ISBN 978-1-136-18916-6.
  46. ^ "Dayton Peace Accords on Bosnia". US Department of State. 30 March 1996. Archived from the original on 22 May 2011. Retrieved 19 March 2006.
  47. ^ Says, P. Morra (14 December 2015). "A flawed recipe for how to end a war and build a state: 20 years since the Dayton Agreement". EUROPP. Archived from the original on 24 August 2022. Retrieved 24 August 2022.
  48. ^ Marsden 2000.
  49. ^ Professor Peter Radan; Dr Aleksandar Pavkovic (28 April 2013). The Ashgate Research Companion to Secession. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. pp. 178–. ISBN 978-1-4094-7652-8.
  50. ^ Kushner 2002, p. 206.
  51. ^ A. Pavkovic (8 January 2016). The Fragmentation of Yugoslavia: Nationalism and War in the Balkans. Springer. pp. 190–. ISBN 978-0-230-28584-2.
  52. ^ Judah 2000, p. 193
  53. ^ Strauss, Julius (30 June 2001). "Massacre that started long haul to justice". Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 17 January 2023.
  54. ^ Suy, Eric (2000). "NATO's Intervention in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia". Leiden Journal of International Law. 13 (1): 193–205. doi:10.1017/S0922156500000133. S2CID 145232986. Retrieved 17 January 2023.
  55. ^ "NATO & Kosovo: Index Page". 26 October 2016. Archived from the original on 12 September 2016.
  56. ^ "UN frustrated by Kosovo deadlock Archived March 7, 2016, at the Wayback Machine", BBC News, 9 October 2006.
  57. ^ Russia reportedly rejects fourth draft resolution on Kosovo status (SETimes.com) Archived 2 July 2007 at the Wayback Machine
  58. ^ UN Security Council remains divided on Kosovo (SETimes.com) Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine
  59. ^ a b Krasniqi, Jeta (28 November 2019). "Kosovo's Heart Bleeds for Albania's Suffering". Balkaninsight. Retrieved 29 November 2019.
  60. ^ a b Kostreci, Keida (30 November 2019). "Albania Search, Rescue Operation For Earthquake Survivors Ends". Voice of America (VOA). Retrieved 30 November 2019.
  61. ^ a b Kostreci, Keida (2 December 2019). "Albania Seeks International Support for Earthquake Recovery". Voice of America (VOA). Retrieved 1 December 2019.
  62. ^ "Shqiptarët solidarizohen me tërmetin, ja sa është shuma e grumbulluar deri më tani" (in Albanian). Insajderi. 28 November 2019. Retrieved 30 November 2019.
  63. ^ "Report on the size and ethnic composition of the population of Kosovo" (PDF). ICTY. 14 August 2002.
  64. ^ Bugajski, Janusz (2002). Political Parties of Eastern Europe: A Guide to Politics in the Post-Communist Era. New York: The Center for Strategic and International Studies. p. 479. ISBN 978-1563246760.
  65. ^ a b Statistics Office of Kosovo, World Bank (2000), OSCE (2007)
  66. ^ "ECMI: Minority figures in Kosovo census to be used with reservations". ECMI. Archived from the original on 28 May 2017. Retrieved 15 April 2019.
  67. ^ Johnston, Douglas (2008). Faith- Based Diplomacy Trumping Realpolitik. Oxford University Press. p. 153. ISBN 9780199721955. There are now only 60,000 Albanian Catholics in Kosovo out of a population of two million.
  68. ^ C. Thompson, Wayne (2021). Nordic, Central, and Southeastern Europe 2020–2022. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 508. ISBN 9781475856262. Conversions to Christianity have become common, and there are an estimated 65,000 Catholics.
  69. ^ "Out of hiding, some Kosovars embrace Christianity". Reuters. 29 September 2008.
  70. ^ "Muslim Kosovars rediscover their long-forgotten Roman Catholic roots". Washington post. 6 May 2015.


Sources

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