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{{Short description|Conflict between
{{more citations needed|date=November 2019}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Yamasee War
| partof = the [[American Indian Wars]]
| date = April 14,
| place = eastern [[South Carolina]]
| result = Colonial government victory
* Power of the Yamasee was broken
* South Carolina colonists establish uncontested control of the coast
* The Catawba become the dominant tribe in the interior
| territory =
| combatant1 = [[File:Red Ensign of Great Britain (1707–1800, square canton).svg|22px]] Colonial militia of South Carolina <br> [[File:Red Ensign of Great Britain (1707–1800, square canton).svg|22px]] Colonial militia of North Carolina<br> [[File:Red Ensign of Great Britain (1707–1800, square canton).svg|22px]] Colonial militia of Virginia<br>[[Catawba (tribe)|Catawba]] (from 1715)<br>[[Cherokee]] (from 1716)
| combatant2 = [[Yamasee]]<br>Ochese Creeks<br>[[Catawba (tribe)|Catawba]] (until 1715)<br>[[Cherokee]] (until 1716) <br>[[Waxhaw tribe|Waxhaw]]<br>[[Santee tribe|Santee]]
| commander1 = [[Charles Craven]]<br/>[[Robert Daniell]]
| commander2 = <br />
| strength1
| strength2 =
| casualties1
| casualties2 =
}}
{{Campaignbox Indian Wars of the Southern English Colonies in North America}}
The '''Yamasee War''' (also spelled '''Yamassee'''<ref>Michael P. Morris. [https://www.scencyclopedia.org/sce/entries/yamassee-war/ "Yamassee War."] ''South Carolina Encyclopedia.'' University of South Carolina, Institute for Southern Studies. 7 July 2016. Retrieved 15 February 2022.</ref> or '''Yemassee''') was a conflict fought in [[South Carolina]] from
Native Americans killed hundreds of colonists and destroyed many settlements, and they killed traders throughout the southeastern region. Colonists abandoned the frontiers and fled to [[Charleston, South Carolina|Charles Town]], where starvation set in as supplies ran low. The survival of the South Carolina colony was in question during 1715. The tide turned in early 1716 when the Cherokee sided with the colonists against the Creek, their traditional enemy. The last Native American fighters withdrew from the conflict in 1717, bringing a fragile peace to the colony.
The Yamasee War was one of the most disruptive and transformational [[Colonial American military history|conflicts of colonial America]]. For more than a year, the colony faced the possibility of annihilation. About
The origin of the war was complex, and reasons for fighting differed among the many Indian groups that participated. Factors included the trading system, trader abuses, the [[Indian slave trade]], the depletion of deer, increasing Indian debts in contrast to increasing wealth among some colonists, the spread of rice plantation agriculture, French power in [[Louisiana (New France)|Louisiana]] offering an alternative to British trade, long-established Indian links to [[Spanish Florida]], power struggles among Indian groups, and recent experiences in military collaboration among previously distant tribes.
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==Background==
[[File:YamaseeWarMap01.png|thumb|450px|Overview map of the Yamasee War]]
The [[Tuscarora War]] and its lengthy aftermath played a major role in the outbreak of the Yamasee War. The [[Tuscarora people|Tuscarora]] were an [[Iroquoian languages|Iroquoian]]-speaking tribe of the interior, and they began attacking colonial settlements of [[Province of North Carolina|North Carolina]] in 1711. South Carolina settlers mustered their militia and campaigned against the Tuscarora in 1712 and 1713. These forces were made up mainly of allied Indian troops. The Yamasee had been strong allies of South Carolina colonists for many years, and Yamasee warriors made up the core of both Carolina forces. Other Indians were recruited over a large area from diverse tribes, some of whom were traditional enemies. Tribes that sent warriors to South Carolina's militia included the [[Yamasee]], [[Catawba people|Catawba]], [[Yuchi]], [[Apalachee]], [[Cusabo]], [[Wateree people|Wateree]], [[Sugaree]], [[Waxhaw people|Waxhaw]],
This collaboration brought Indians of the entire region into closer contact with one another. They saw the disagreements and weaknesses of the colonies, as South Carolina, North Carolina, and Virginia bickered over various aspects of the Tuscarora War.<ref>Galley, ''The Indian Slave Trade'', 276–277.</ref> Essentially all of the tribes that helped South Carolina during the Tuscarora War joined in attacking settlers in the colony during the Yamasee War, just two or three years later.
The Yamasee were an amalgamation of the remnants of earlier tribes and chiefdoms. The Upper Yamasee were primarily [[Guale]] originally from the Georgia coast. The Lower Yamasee included the Altamaha, [[Ocute]] (Okatee), [[Ichisi]], (Chechessee), and Euhaw, who had come to the coast from the interior of Georgia.<ref>Worth 1993:40–45</ref> They emerged during the 17th century in the contested frontier between South Carolina and Spanish Florida. They moved north in the late 17th century and became South Carolina's most important Indian ally. They lived near the mouth of the [[Savannah River]] and around [[Port Royal Sound]].<ref>{{NRHP url|id=64500575|title="The Foundation, Occupation, and Abandonment of Yamasee Indian Towns in the South Carolina Lowcountry,
For years, the Yamasee profited from their relation with the settlers. By 1715, deer had become rare in Yamasee territory, and the Yamasee became increasingly indebted to the American traders who supplied them with trade goods on credit. Rice plantations had begun to thrive in South Carolina and was exported as a commodity crop, but much of the land good for rice had been taken up. The Yamasee had been granted a large land reserve on the southern borders of South Carolina, and settlers began to covet the land which they deemed ideal for rice plantations.<ref name="Gallay2003rice">{{cite book|last=Gallay|first=Alan|title=The Indian Slave Trade: The Rise of the English Empire in the American South,
Each of the Indian tribes that joined in the war had its own reasons, as complicated and deeply rooted in the past as that of the Yamasee. The tribes did not act in carefully planned coordination, but the unrest increased and tribes began to discuss war. By early 1715, rumors of growing Indian support for war was troubling enough that some friendly Indians warned colonists of the danger. They suggested that the Ochese Creek were the instigators.<ref name="Oatis2004warning">{{cite book|last=Oatis|first=Steven J.|title=A Colonial Complex: South Carolina's Frontiers in the Era of the Yamasee War,
==Summary of the war==
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The second war party invaded Saint Bartholomew's Parish, plundering and burning plantations, taking captives, and killing over a hundred settlers and slaves. Within the week, a large Yamasee army was preparing to engage a rapidly assembled South Carolinian militia. Other Yamasee went south to find refuge in makeshift forts.
The Yamasee War was the first major test of South Carolina's [[militia]]. Governor Craven led a force of about 240 militia against the Yamasee. The Yamasee war parties had little choice but to
Several hundred Yamasee warriors attacked the 240 or so members of the militia. The Yamasee tried to outflank the South Carolinians but found it difficult. After several head [[warrior]]s were killed, the Yamasee abandoned the battle and dispersed into nearby swamps. Although the casualties were about equal, 24 or so on each side, the practical result was a decisive victory for South Carolina. Other smaller militia forces pressed the Yamasee and won a series of further victories.
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===Northern Front===
By May 1715 the Catawba sent war parties against South Carolina settlers. About 400 warriors from the Catawba, Wateree, and Sarraw tribes, joined by about 70 Cherokee, terrorized the northern parts of the colony. The Anglican missionary [[Francis Le Jau]] stated that on May 15 South Carolinian force of 90 cavalry under Captain Thomas Barker, many of them Le Jau's parishioners, went north in response. They were guided by a former Native American slave who had been freed by Captain Barker's father-in-law Col. Jame Moore. Le Jau was of the opinion that the freed slave named Wateree Jack<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Goose Creek Bridge: Gateway to Sacred Places|last=Heitzler|first=Michael|publisher=Authorhouse|year=2012|isbn=978-1477255384|location=Bloomington, IN|pages=64–66}}</ref> purposefully led Barker and his men into an ambush on May 17, laid by a force that he said contained a "Body of Northern Indians being a mixture of Catabaws, Sarraws Waterees &c. to Number of 3. or 400".<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Carolina Chronicle of Dr. Francis Le Jau|last=Le Jau|first=Francis|publisher=University of California|year=1956|location=Berkeley, CA|pages=160–163}}</ref> In the ambush the Northern Indian war party managed to kill 26 of them including Barker, ten of which were Le Jau's parishioners. The defeat of Barker prompted the evacuation of the Goose Creek settlement leaving it entirely abandoned but for two fortified plantations.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Carolina Chronicle of Dr. Francis Le Jau|last=Le Jau|first=Francis|publisher=University of California|year=1956|location=Berkeley|pages=158–159}}</ref> Le Jau noted that, rather than press their advantage, the Northern Indian war band stopped to besiege a makeshift fort on Benjamin Schenkingh's plantation. The fort was garrisoned by 30 defenders, both white and black. Ultimately the attackers feigned a desire to have peace talks. When they were allowed in they set about killing 19 of the defenders. After this, South Carolina had no defenses for the wealthy Goose Creek district, just north of Charles Town.
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The Ochese Indians had probably been instigators of the war at least as much as the Yamasee. When the war broke out, they promptly killed all the South Carolinian traders in their territory, as did the other Creek, the Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Cherokee.
The Ochese Creek were buffered from South Carolina by several smaller Indian groups, such as the Yuchi, Savannah River Shawnee, Apalachee, and [[Apalachicola (tribal town)|Apalachicola]]. In the summer of 1715, these Indians made several successful attacks on South Carolina settlements. Generally the Ochese Creek were cautious after South Carolina's counterattacks proved effective. The smaller Indian groups fled the Savannah River area.
Many found refuge among the Ochese Creeks, where plans were being made for the next stage of the war. The Upper Creek were not as determined to wage war had strong respect for the Ochese Creek. They might have joined in an invasion if conditions were favorable. An issue at stake was trade goods. The Creek people had come to depend on English trade goods from South Carolina. Facing possible war with the British, the Creek looked to the French and Spanish as possible market sources. The French and Spanish were more than willing to supply the Creek, but they were unable to provide the same quantity or quality of goods which the British had been providing. Muskets, gunpowder, and bullets were especially needed if the Creek were to invade South Carolina. The Upper Creek remained reluctant to go to war. Nevertheless, the Creek formed closer ties to the French and Spanish during the Yamasee War.
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The Yamasee War also led to the establishment of the colony of Georgia. While there were other factors involved in Georgia's founding, it would not have been possible without the withdrawal of the Yamasee. The few Yamasee that remained became known as the [[Yamacraw]], under the leadership of [[Tomochichi]]. [[James Oglethorpe]] negotiated with the Yamacraw in order to obtain the site where he founded his capital city of [[Savannah, Georgia|Savannah]].<ref>Oatis, ''A Colonial Complex'', 288–291.</ref>
====Impact on slavery====
From its founding in 1670, Carolina had played a leading role in the southeastern indigenous slave trade, with up to 50,000 Native Americans being taken into slavery by English settlers and their Native allies prior to 1715 in raids like the [[Apalachee massacre|Apalachee Massacre]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kelton |first=Paul |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1djmdgj |title=Epidemics and Enslavement |date=2007 |publisher=UNP – Nebraska |isbn=978-0-8032-1557-3}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Marie. |first=Shuck-Hall, Sheri |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/940642918 |title=Mapping the Mississippian Shatter Zone: The Colonial Indian Slave Trade and Regional Instability in the American South |date=2009 |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |oclc=940642918}}</ref> Though the trade had been growing increasingly unsustainable due to declining Native populations, the impact of the Yamasee War served as a final blow, with the proportion of South Carolina households holding Native slaves declining from 26% in 1714 to 2% in 1730.<ref>{{Cite web |title= SC Institute for Archeology and Anthropology {{!}} University of South Carolina |url=https://sc.edu/study/colleges_schools/artsandsciences/sc_institute_archeology_and_anthropology/index.php/ |access-date=2022-10-28 |website=sc.edu}}</ref> This decline was also driven in part by legal changes which held slaves of both African and Native descent to be fully African, erasing many slaves of Native heritage from the historical record. The end of the war marked a definitive shift towards an exclusive reliance of African slavery in South Carolina and a stricter delineation of racial boundaries in the colony.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ramsey |first=William L. |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1dgn402 |title=The Yamasee War |date=2008|publisher=UNP – Nebraska |isbn=978-0-8032-3744-5}}</ref>
===Indian aftermath===
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The various proto-Creek Muskogean tribes grew closer after the Yamasee War. The reoccupation of the Chattahoochee River by the Ochese Creek, along with remnants of the Apalachicola, Apalachee, Yamasee, and others, seemed to Europeans to represent a new Indian identity, and needed a new name. To the Spanish it seemed like a reincarnation of the ''Apalachicola Province'' of the 17th century. To the English, the term ''Lower Creek'' became common.
The Catawba confederacy emerged from the Yamasee War as the most powerful Indian force of the [[Piedmont (United States)|Piedmont region]], especially as the Tuscarora migrated away to join the Iroquois in the north. In 1716, a year after the Catawba had made peace with South Carolina, some Santee and Waxhaw Indians killed several colonists. In response the South Carolina government asked the Catawba to "fall upon them and cut them off", which the Catawba did. According to contemporaries, surviving Waxhaw then either joined the Cheraw or traveled south to Florida with the Yamasee.<ref>Moore, P.N. (2007) ''World of Toil and Strife'', p. 16</ref> There is another theory, originating with Robert Ney McNeely's history of Union County, published in 1912, that the Waxhaw continued on as an independent tribe until the 1740s but this seems to lack the backing of primary sources. Surviving Santee are reported to have married into the [[Ittiwan people|Ittiwan]] tribe<ref>{{Cite book|title=South Carolina Indians, Indian traders, and other ethnic connections beginning in 1670.|last=Hicks|first=T. M|publisher=Reprint Company Publishers|year=1998|location=Spartanburg, South Carolina}}</ref> suggesting a possible merger. The Cheraw remained generally hostile for years to come.
==== In popular culture ====
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===Bibliography===
* {{cite book |last= Ramsey |first= William L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E-IiOoGJHoYC|title= The Yamasee War: A Study of Culture, Economy, and Conflict in the Colonial South |year= 2008 |publisher= [[University of Nebraska Press]] |isbn=978-0-8032-3744-5}}
* {{cite book |last= Gallay |first= Alan |title= The Indian Slave Trade: The Rise of the English Empire in the American South
* {{cite book |last= Oatis |first= Steven J. |title= A Colonial Complex: South Carolina's Frontiers in the Era of the Yamasee War,
*<cite id=refWorth1993>{{Cite news
| last = Worth
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| volume = 21
| pages = 24–58
}}
==Further reading==
{{Library resources box|onlinebooks=yes}}
* Crane, Verner (1928). ''The Southern Frontier,
* [http://muse.jhu.edu/ Stern, Jessica Ross (2009). "The Yamasee War: A Study of Culture, Economy, and Conflict in the Colonial South (review)."] ''Journal of Interdisciplinary History'', 39.4 :
==External links==
* [http://www.historycooperative.org/cgi-bin/justtop.cgi?act=justtop&url=http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jah/90.1/ramsey.html History Cooperative], William L. Ramsey, ''"Something
* [http://ourgeorgiahistory.com/wars/Georgia_Wars/yamasee_war.html Yamasee War of 1715], Our Georgia History.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061025181348/http://www.geocities.com/naforts/sc.html South Carolina Forts]; Yamasee War era forts include Willtown Fort, Passage Fort, Saltcatchers Fort, Fort Moore, and Benjamin Schenckingh's Fort.
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[[Category:1717 in South Carolina]]
[[Category:Pre-statehood history of South Carolina]]
[[Category:Slavery and Native Americans]]
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