Wikipedia

Water pollution

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by GrapesRock (talk | contribs) at 19:10, 16 June 2024 (Fix date formating (using MDY)). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

Water pollution (or aquatic pollution) is the contamination of water bodies, with a negative impact on their uses.[1]: 6  It is usually a result of human activities. Water bodies include lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers, reservoirs and groundwater. Water pollution results when contaminants mix with these water bodies. Contaminants can come from one of four main sources. These are sewage discharges, industrial activities, agricultural activities, and urban runoff including stormwater.[2] Water pollution may affect either surface water or groundwater. This form of pollution can lead to many problems. One is the degradation of aquatic ecosystems. Another is spreading water-borne diseases when people use polluted water for drinking or irrigation.[3] Water pollution also reduces the ecosystem services such as drinking water provided by the water resource.

Sources of water pollution are either point sources or non-point sources[4]. Point sources have one identifiable cause, such as a storm drain, a wastewater treatment plant or an oil spill. Non-point sources are more diffuse. An example is agricultural runoff.[5] Pollution is the result of the cumulative effect over time. Pollution may take many forms. One would is toxic substances such as oil, metals, plastics, pesticides, persistent organic pollutants, and industrial waste products. Another is stressful conditions such as changes of pH, hypoxia or anoxia, increased temperatures, excessive turbidity, or changes of salinity). The introduction of pathogenic organisms is another. Contaminants may include organic and inorganic substances. A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as a coolant by power plants and industrial manufacturers.

Control of water pollution requires appropriate infrastructure and management plans as well as legislation. Technology solutions can include improving sanitation, sewage treatment, industrial wastewater treatment, agricultural wastewater treatment, erosion control, sediment control and control of urban runoff (including stormwater management).

Definition

A practical definition of water pollution is: "Water pollution is the addition of substances or energy forms that directly or indirectly alter the nature of the water body in such a manner that negatively affects its legitimate uses."[1]: 6  Water is typically referred to as polluted when it is impaired by anthropogenic contaminants. Due to these contaminants, it either no longer supports a certain human use, such as drinking water, or undergoes a marked shift in its ability to support its biotic communities, such as fish.

Contaminants

Contaminants with an origin in sewage

Further information: Waterborne diseases § Diseases by type of pathogen, and Sewage § Pathogens

The following compounds can all reach water bodies via raw sewage or even treated sewage discharges:

Inadequately treated wastewater can convey nutrients, pathogens, heterogenous suspended solids and organic fecal matter.[1]: 6 

 
Poster to teach people in South Asia about human activities leading to the pollution of water sources
Pollutants and their effects*
Pollutant Main representative parameter Possible effect of the pollutant
Suspended solids Total suspended solids
Biodegradable organic matter Biological oxygen demand (BOD)
  • Oxygen consumption
  • Death of fish
  • Septic conditions
Nutrients
Pathogens
  • Coliforms, such as E. coli, may not be pathogenic in and of themselves, but are used as an indicator of co-occurring pathogens that should take slightly less time to die or degrade[1]: 51 
  • Helminth eggs[1]: 55 [11]
 Waterborne diseases
Non-biodegradable organic matter
Inorganic dissolved solids
* Sources of these pollutants are household and industrial wastewater, urban runoff and stormwater drainage from agricultural areas[1]: 7 

Pathogens

Bacteria, viruses, protozoans and parasitic worms are examples of pathogens that can be found in wastewater.[1]: 47  In practice, indicator organisms are used to investigate pathogenic pollution of water because the detection of pathogenic organisms in water sample is difficult and costly, because of their low concentrations. The indicators (bacterial indicator) of fecal contamination of water samples most commonly used are total coliforms (TC) or fecal coliforms (FC), the latter also referred to as thermotolerant coliforms, such as Escherichia coli.[1]: 52–53 

Pathogens can produce waterborne diseases in either human or animal hosts.[12] Some microorganisms sometimes found in contaminated surface waters that have caused human health problems include Burkholderia pseudomallei, Cryptosporidium parvum, Giardia lamblia, Salmonella, norovirus and other viruses, and parasitic worms including the Schistosoma type.[13]

The source of high levels of pathogens in water bodies can be from human feces (due to open defecation), sewage, blackwater, or manure that has found its way into the water body. The cause for this can be lack of sanitation procedures or poorly functioning on-site sanitation systems (septic tanks, pit latrines), sewage treatment plants without disinfection steps, sanitary sewer overflows and combined sewer overflows (CSOs)[14] during storm events and intensive agriculture (poorly managed livestock operations).

Organic compounds

Organic substances that enter water bodies are often toxic.[15]: 229 

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are persistent organic pollutants.[17][18]

Inorganic contaminants

 
Bauxite residue is an industrial waste that is dangerously alkaline and can lead to water pollution if not managed appropriately (photo from Stade, Germany).
 
Muddy river polluted by sediment

Inorganic water pollutants include for example:

Pharmaceutical pollutants

This section is an excerpt from Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products.[edit]

The environmental effect of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) is being investigated since at least the 1990s. PPCPs include substances used by individuals for personal health or cosmetic reasons and the products used by agribusiness to boost growth or health of livestock. More than twenty million tons of PPCPs are produced every year.[23] The European Union has declared pharmaceutical residues with the potential of contamination of water and soil to be "priority substances".[3]

PPCPs have been detected in water bodies throughout the world. More research is needed to evaluate the risks of toxicity, persistence, and bioaccumulation, but the current state of research shows that personal care products impact the environment and other species, such as coral reefs[24][25][26] and fish.[27][28] PPCPs encompass environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutants (EPPPs) and are one type of persistent organic pollutants. They are not removed in conventional sewage treatment plants but require a fourth treatment stage which not many plants have.[23]

In 2022, the most comprehensive study of pharmaceutical pollution of the world's rivers found that it threatens "environmental and/or human health in more than a quarter of the studied locations". It investigated 1,052 sampling sites along 258 rivers in 104 countries, representing the river pollution of 470 million people. It found that "the most contaminated sites were in low- to middle-income countries and were associated with areas with poor wastewater and waste management infrastructure and pharmaceutical manufacturing" and lists the most frequently detected and concentrated pharmaceuticals.[29][30]

Solid waste and plastics

 
Solid waste and plastics in the Lachine Canal, Canada
Further information: Sewage § Solid waste, Plastic pollution, and Marine plastic pollution

Solid waste can enter water bodies through untreated sewage, combined sewer overflows, urban runoff, people discarding garbage into the environment, wind carrying municipal solid waste from landfills and so forth. This results in macroscopic pollution– large visible items polluting the water– but also microplastics pollution that is not directly visible. The terms marine debris and marine plastic pollution are used in the context of pollution of oceans.

Microplastics persist in the environment at high levels, particularly in aquatic and marine ecosystems, where they cause water pollution.[33] 35% of all ocean microplastics come from textiles/clothing, primarily due to the erosion of polyester, acrylic, or nylon-based clothing, often during the washing process.[34]

Stormwater, untreated sewage and wind are the primary conduits for microplastics from land to sea. Synthetic fabrics, tyres, and city dust are the most common sources of microplastics. These three sources account for more than 80% of all microplastic contamination.[35][36]

Types of surface water pollution

Surface water pollution includes pollution of rivers, lakes and oceans. A subset of surface water pollution is marine pollution which affects the oceans. Nutrient pollution refers to contamination by excessive inputs of nutrients.

Globally, about 4.5 billion people do not have safely managed sanitation as of 2017, according to an estimate by the Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation.[37] Lack of access to sanitation is concerning and often leads to water pollution, e.g. via the practice of open defecation: during rain events or floods, the human feces are moved from the ground where they were deposited into surface waters. Simple pit latrines may also get flooded during rain events.

As of 2022, Europe and Central Asia account for around 16% of global microplastics discharge into the seas,[35][38] and although management of plastic waste and its recycling is improving globally, the absolute amount of plastic pollution continues to increase unabated due to the large amount of plastic that is being produced and disposed of.[39] Even if sea plastic pollution were to stop entirely, microplastic contamination of the surface ocean would be projected to continue to increase.[39]

Marine pollution

This section is an excerpt from Marine pollution.[edit]
Marine pollution occurs when substances used or spread by humans, such as industrial, agricultural and residential waste, particles, noise, excess carbon dioxide or invasive organisms enter the ocean and cause harmful effects there. The majority of this waste (80%) comes from land-based activity, although marine transportation significantly contributes as well.[40] It is a combination of chemicals and trash, most of which comes from land sources and is washed or blown into the ocean. This pollution results in damage to the environment, to the health of all organisms, and to economic structures worldwide.[41] Since most inputs come from land, either via the rivers, sewage or the atmosphere, it means that continental shelves are more vulnerable to pollution. Air pollution is also a contributing factor by carrying off iron, carbonic acid, nitrogen, silicon, sulfur, pesticides or dust particles into the ocean.[42] The pollution often comes from nonpoint sources such as agricultural runoff, wind-blown debris, and dust. These nonpoint sources are largely due to runoff that enters the ocean through rivers, but wind-blown debris and dust can also play a role, as these pollutants can settle into waterways and oceans.[43] Pathways of pollution include direct discharge, land runoff, ship pollution, bilge pollution, atmospheric pollution and, potentially, deep sea mining.

Nutrient pollution

This section is an excerpt from Nutrient pollution.[edit]
 
Nutrient pollution caused by Surface runoff of soil and fertilizer during a rain storm
Nutrient pollution, a form of water pollution, refers to contamination by excessive inputs of nutrients. It is a primary cause of eutrophication of surface waters (lakes, rivers and coastal waters), in which excess nutrients, usually nitrogen or phosphorus, stimulate algal growth.[44] Sources of nutrient pollution include surface runoff from farm fields and pastures, discharges from septic tanks and feedlots, and emissions from combustion. Raw sewage is a large contributor to cultural eutrophication since sewage is high in nutrients. Releasing raw sewage into a large water body is referred to as sewage dumping, and still occurs all over the world. Excess reactive nitrogen compounds in the environment are associated with many large-scale environmental concerns. These include eutrophication of surface waters, harmful algal blooms, hypoxia, acid rain, nitrogen saturation in forests, and climate change.[45]

Thermal pollution

 
The Brayton Point Power Station in Massachusetts discharged heated water to Mount Hope Bay until 2011.
This section is an excerpt from Thermal pollution.[edit]
Thermal pollution, sometimes called "thermal enrichment", is the degradation of water quality by any process that changes ambient water temperature. Thermal pollution is the rise or drop in the temperature of a natural body of water caused by human influence. Thermal pollution, unlike chemical pollution, results in a change in the physical properties of water. A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as a coolant by power plants and industrial manufacturers.[46] Urban runoff—stormwater discharged to surface waters from rooftops, roads, and parking lots—and reservoirs can also be a source of thermal pollution.[47] Thermal pollution can also be caused by the release of very cold water from the base of reservoirs into warmer rivers.

Elevated water temperatures decrease oxygen levels (due to lower levels of dissolved oxygen, as gases are less soluble in warmer liquids), which can kill fish (which may then rot) and alter food chain composition, reduce species biodiversity, and foster invasion by new thermophilic species.[48]: 179 [15]: 375 

Biological pollution

The introduction of aquatic invasive organisms is a form of water pollution as well. It causes biological pollution.[49]

Groundwater pollution

This section is an excerpt from Groundwater pollution.[edit]
Groundwater pollution (also called groundwater contamination) occurs when pollutants are released to the ground and make their way into groundwater. This type of water pollution can also occur naturally due to the presence of a minor and unwanted constituent, contaminant, or impurity in the groundwater, in which case it is more likely referred to as contamination rather than pollution. Groundwater pollution can occur from on-site sanitation systems, landfill leachate, effluent from wastewater treatment plants, leaking sewers, petrol filling stations, hydraulic fracturing (fracking) or from over application of fertilizers in agriculture. Pollution (or contamination) can also occur from naturally occurring contaminants, such as arsenic or fluoride.[50] Using polluted groundwater causes hazards to public health through poisoning or the spread of disease (water-borne diseases).

In many areas of the world, groundwater pollution poses a hazard to the wellbeing of people and ecosystems. One-quarter of the world's population depends on groundwater for drinking, yet concentrated recharging is known to carry short-lived contaminants into carbonate aquifers and jeopardize the purity of those waters.[51]

Pollution from point sources

Point source water pollution refers to contaminants that enter a waterway from a single, identifiable source, such as a pipe or ditch. Examples of sources in this category include discharges from a sewage treatment plant, a factory, or a city storm drain.

The U.S. Clean Water Act (CWA) defines point source for regulatory enforcement purposes (see United States regulation of point source water pollution).[52] The CWA definition of point source was amended in 1987 to include municipal storm sewer systems, as well as industrial storm water, such as from construction sites.[53]

Sewage

Sewage typically consists of 99.9% water and 0.1% solids.[54] Sewage contributes many classes of nutrients that lead to eutrophication. It is a major source of phosphate for example.[55] Sewage is often contaminated with diverse compounds found in personal hygiene, cosmetics, pharmaceutical drugs (see also drug pollution), and their metabolites[56][32] Water pollution due to environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutants can have wide-ranging consequences. When sewers overflow during storm events this can lead to water pollution from untreated sewage. Such events are called sanitary sewer overflows or combined sewer overflows.

 
A polluted river draining an abandoned copper mine on Anglesey

Industrial wastewater

 
Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) is a global pollutant that has been found in drinking water. It appears not to biodegrade.[57]
Further information: Industrial wastewater treatment

Industrial processes that use water also produce wastewater. This is called industrial wastewater. Using the US as an example, the main industrial consumers of water (using over 60% of the total consumption) are power plants, petroleum refineries, iron and steel mills, pulp and paper mills, and food processing industries.[2] Some industries discharge chemical wastes, including solvents and heavy metals (which are toxic) and other harmful pollutants.

Industrial wastewater could add the following pollutants to receiving water bodies if the wastewater is not treated and managed properly:

Oil spills

This section is an excerpt from Oil spill.[edit]
An oil spill is the release of a liquid petroleum hydrocarbon into the environment, especially the marine ecosystem, due to human activity, and is a form of pollution. The term is usually given to marine oil spills, where oil is released into the ocean or coastal waters, but spills may also occur on land. Oil spills may be due to releases of crude oil from tankers, offshore platforms, drilling rigs and wells, as well as spills of refined petroleum products (such as gasoline and diesel fuel) and their by-products, heavier fuels used by large ships such as bunker fuel, or the spill of any oily refuse or waste oil.[citation needed]

Pollution from nonpoint sources

This section is an excerpt from Nonpoint source pollution.[edit]
Nonpoint source (NPS) pollution refers to diffuse contamination (or pollution) of water or air that does not originate from a single discrete source. This type of pollution is often the cumulative effect of small amounts of contaminants gathered from a large area. It is in contrast to point source pollution which results from a single source. Nonpoint source pollution generally results from land runoff, precipitation, atmospheric deposition, drainage, seepage, or hydrological modification (rainfall and snowmelt) where tracing pollution back to a single source is difficult.[63] Nonpoint source water pollution affects a water body from sources such as polluted runoff from agricultural areas draining into a river, or wind-borne debris blowing out to sea. Nonpoint source air pollution affects air quality, from sources such as smokestacks or car tailpipes. Although these pollutants have originated from a point source, the long-range transport ability and multiple sources of the pollutant make it a nonpoint source of pollution; if the discharges were to occur to a body of water or into the atmosphere at a single location, the pollution would be single-point.

Agriculture

Agriculture is a major contributor to water pollution from nonpoint sources. The use of fertilizers as well as surface runoff from farm fields, pastures and feedlots leads to nutrient pollution.[64] In addition to plant-focused agriculture, fish-farming is also a source of pollution. Additionally, agricultural runoff often contains high levels of pesticides.[2]

Atmospheric contributions (air pollution)

Air deposition is a process whereby air pollutants from industrial or natural sources settle into water bodies. The deposition may lead to polluted water near the source, or at distances up to a few thousand miles away. The most frequently observed water pollutants resulting from industrial air deposition are sulfur compounds, nitrogen compounds, mercury compounds, other heavy metals, and some pesticides and industrial by-products. Natural sources of air deposition include forest fires and microbial activity.[65]

Acid rain is caused by emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide, which react with the water molecules in the atmosphere to produce acids.[66] Some governments have made efforts since the 1970s to reduce the release of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide into the atmosphere. The main source of sulfur and nitrogen compounds that result in acid rain are anthropogenic, but nitrogen oxides can also be produced naturally by lightning strikes and sulphur dioxide is produced by volcanic eruptions.[67] Acid rain can have harmful effects on plants, aquatic ecosystems and infrastructure.[68][69]

Carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere have increased since the 1850s due anthropogenic influences (emissions of greenhouse gases).[70] This leads to ocean acidification and is another form of water pollution from atmospheric contributions.[71]

Sampling, measurements, analysis

 
Environmental scientists preparing water autosamplers
Further information: Water quality § Sampling and measurement, Environmental monitoring, Analysis of water chemistry, Water sampling station, and Regulation and monitoring of pollution § Water pollution

Water pollution may be analyzed through several broad categories of methods: physical, chemical and biological. Some methods may be conducted in situ, without sampling, such as temperature. Others involve collection of samples, followed by specialized analytical tests in the laboratory. Standardized, validated analytical test methods, for water and wastewater samples have been published.[72]

Common physical tests of water include temperature, Specific conductance or electrical conductance (EC) or conductivity, solids concentrations (e.g., total suspended solids (TSS)) and turbidity. Water samples may be examined using analytical chemistry methods. Many published test methods are available for both organic and inorganic compounds. Frequently used parameters that are quantified are pH, BOD,[73]: 102  chemical oxygen demand (COD),[73]: 104  dissolved oxygen (DO), total hardness, nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus compounds, e.g. nitrate and orthophosphates), metals (including copper, zinc, cadmium, lead and mercury), oil and grease, total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH), surfactants and pesticides.

The use of a biomonitor or bioindicator is described as biological monitoring. This refers to the measurement of specific properties of an organism to obtain information on the surrounding physical and chemical environment.[74] Biological testing involves the use of plant, animal or microbial indicators to monitor the health of an aquatic ecosystem. They are any biological species or group of species whose function, population, or status can reveal what degree of ecosystem or environmental integrity is present.[75] One example of a group of bio-indicators are the copepods and other small water crustaceans that are present in many water bodies. Such organisms can be monitored for changes (biochemical, physiological, or behavioral) that may indicate a problem within their ecosystem.

This section is an excerpt from Water quality § Sample collection.[edit]
The complexity of water quality as a subject is reflected in the many types of measurements of water quality indicators. Some measurements of water quality are most accurately made on-site, because water exists in equilibrium with its surroundings. Measurements commonly made on-site and in direct contact with the water source in question include temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, oxygen reduction potential (ORP), turbidity, and Secchi disk depth.

Impacts

 
Oxygen depletion, resulting from nitrogen pollution and eutrophication, is a common cause of fish kills.

Ecosystems

Water pollution is a major global environmental problem because it can result in the degradation of all aquatic ecosystems – fresh, coastal, and ocean waters.[76] The specific contaminants leading to pollution in water include a wide spectrum of chemicals, pathogens, and physical changes such as elevated temperature. While many of the chemicals and substances that are regulated may be naturally occurring (calcium, sodium, iron, manganese, etc.) the concentration usually determines what is a natural component of water and what is a contaminant. High concentrations of naturally occurring substances can have negative impacts on aquatic flora and fauna. Oxygen-depleting substances may be natural materials such as plant matter (e.g. leaves and grass) as well as human-made chemicals. Other natural and anthropogenic substances may cause turbidity (cloudiness) which blocks light and disrupts plant growth, and clogs the gills of some fish species.[77]

 
Fecal sludge collected from pit latrines is dumped into a river at the Korogocho slum in Nairobi, Kenya.

Public health and waterborne diseases

Further information: WASH § Health aspects

A study published in 2017 stated that "polluted water spread gastrointestinal diseases and parasitic infections and killed 1.8 million people" (these are also referred to as waterborne diseases).[78] Persistent exposure to pollutants through water are environmental health hazards, which can increase the likelihood for one to develop cancer or other diseases.[79]

Eutrophication from nitrogen pollution

Nitrogen pollution can cause eutrophication, especially in lakes. Eutrophication is an increase in the concentration of chemical nutrients in an ecosystem to an extent that increases the primary productivity of the ecosystem. Subsequent negative environmental effects such as anoxia (oxygen depletion) and severe reductions in water quality may occur.[1]: 131  This can harm fish and other animal populations.

This section is an excerpt from Eutrophication.[edit]

Eutrophication is a general term describing a process in which nutrients accumulate in a body of water, resulting in an increased growth of microorganisms that may deplete the oxygen of water.[80][81] Eutrophication may occur naturally or as a result of human actions. Manmade, or cultural, eutrophication occurs when sewage, industrial wastewater, fertilizer runoff, and other nutrient sources are released into the environment.[82] Such nutrient pollution usually causes algal blooms and bacterial growth, resulting in the depletion of dissolved oxygen in water and causing substantial environmental degradation.[83]

Ocean acidification

Ocean acidification is another impact of water pollution. Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH value of the Earth's oceans, caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere.[70]

Prevalence

Water pollution is a problem in developing countries as well as in developed countries.

By country

For example, water pollution in India and China is widespread. About 90 percent of the water in the cities of China is polluted.[84]

Control and reduction

 
View of secondary treatment reactors (activated sludge process) at the Blue Plains Advanced Wastewater Treatment Plant, Washington, D.C., United States. Seen in the distance are the sludge digester building and thermal hydrolysis reactors.

Pollution control philosophy

One aspect of environmental protection are mandatory regulations but they are only part of the solution. Other important tools in pollution control include environmental education, economic instruments, market forces and stricter enforcements. Standards can be "precise" (for a defined quantifiable minimum or maximum value for a pollutant), or "imprecise" which would require the use of Best available technology (BAT) or Best practicable environmental option (BPEO). Market-based economic instruments for pollution control can include: charges, subsidies, deposit or refund schemes, the creation of a market in pollution credits, and enforcement incentives.[85]

Moving towards a holistic approach in chemical pollution control combines the following approaches: Integrated control measures, trans-boundary considerations, complementary and supplementary control measures, life-cycle considerations, the impacts of chemical mixtures.[85]

Control of water pollution requires appropriate infrastructure and management plans. The infrastructure may include wastewater treatment plants, for example sewage treatment plants and industrial wastewater treatment plants. Agricultural wastewater treatment for farms, and erosion control at construction sites can also help prevent water pollution. Effective control of urban runoff includes reducing speed and quantity of flow.

Water pollution requires ongoing evaluation and revision of water resource policy at all levels (international down to individual aquifers and wells).

Sanitation and sewage treatment

Further information: Sanitation, WASH, and Water issues in developing countries
 
Plastic waste on the big drainage, and air pollution in the far end of the drainage in Ghana

Municipal wastewater can be treated by centralized sewage treatment plants, decentralized wastewater systems, nature-based solutions[86] or in onsite sewage facilities and septic tanks. For example, waste stabilization ponds can be a low cost treatment option for sewage.[1]: 182  UV light (sunlight) can be used to degrade some pollutants in waste stabilization ponds (sewage lagoons).[87] The use of safely managed sanitation services would prevent water pollution caused by lack of access to sanitation.[37]

Well-designed and operated systems (i.e., with secondary treatment stages or more advanced tertiary treatment) can remove 90 percent or more of the pollutant load in sewage.[88] Some plants have additional systems to remove nutrients and pathogens. While such advanced treatment techniques will undoubtedly reduce the discharges of micropollutants, they can also result in large financial costs, as well as environmentally undesirable increases in energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions.[89]

Sewer overflows during storm events can be addressed by timely maintenance and upgrades of the sewerage system. In the US, cities with large combined systems have not pursued system-wide separation projects due to the high cost,[90] but have implemented partial separation projects and green infrastructure approaches.[91] In some cases municipalities have installed additional CSO storage facilities[92] or expanded sewage treatment capacity.[93]

Industrial wastewater treatment

This section is an excerpt from Industrial wastewater treatment.[edit]
Industrial wastewater treatment describes the processes used for treating wastewater that is produced by industries as an undesirable by-product. After treatment, the treated industrial wastewater (or effluent) may be reused or released to a sanitary sewer or to a surface water in the environment. Some industrial facilities generate wastewater that can be treated in sewage treatment plants. Most industrial processes, such as petroleum refineries, chemical and petrochemical plants have their own specialized facilities to treat their wastewaters so that the pollutant concentrations in the treated wastewater comply with the regulations regarding disposal of wastewaters into sewers or into rivers, lakes or oceans.[94]: 1412  This applies to industries that generate wastewater with high concentrations of organic matter (e.g. oil and grease), toxic pollutants (e.g. heavy metals, volatile organic compounds) or nutrients such as ammonia.[95]: 180  Some industries install a pre-treatment system to remove some pollutants (e.g., toxic compounds), and then discharge the partially treated wastewater to the municipal sewer system.[96]: 60 

Agricultural wastewater treatment

This section is an excerpt from Agricultural wastewater treatment.[edit]
Agricultural wastewater treatment is a farm management agenda for controlling pollution from confined animal operations and from surface runoff that may be contaminated by chemicals in fertilizer, pesticides, animal slurry, crop residues or irrigation water. Agricultural wastewater treatment is required for continuous confined animal operations like milk and egg production. It may be performed in plants using mechanized treatment units similar to those used for industrial wastewater. Where land is available for ponds, settling basins and facultative lagoons may have lower operational costs for seasonal use conditions from breeding or harvest cycles.[97]: 6–8  Animal slurries are usually treated by containment in anaerobic lagoons before disposal by spray or trickle application to grassland. Constructed wetlands are sometimes used to facilitate treatment of animal wastes.

Management of erosion and sediment control

 
Silt fence installed on a construction site

Sediment from construction sites can be managed by installation of erosion controls, such as mulching and hydroseeding, and sediment controls, such as sediment basins and silt fences.[98] Discharge of toxic chemicals such as motor fuels and concrete washout can be prevented by use of spill prevention and control plans, and specially designed containers (e.g. for concrete washout) and structures such as overflow controls and diversion berms.[99]

Erosion caused by deforestation and changes in hydrology (soil loss due to water runoff) also results in loss of sediment and, potentially, water pollution.[100][101]

Control of urban runoff (storm water)

This section is an excerpt from Urban runoff § Prevention and mitigation.[edit]

Effective control of urban runoff involves reducing the velocity and flow of stormwater, as well as reducing pollutant discharges. Local governments use a variety of stormwater management techniques to reduce the effects of urban runoff. These techniques, called best management practices for water pollution (BMPs) in some countries, may focus on water quantity control, while others focus on improving water quality, and some perform both functions.[102]

Pollution prevention practices include low impact development (LID) or green infrastructure techniques - known as Sustainable Drainage Systems (SuDS) in the UK, and Water-Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) in Australia and the Middle East - such as the installation of green roofs and improved chemical handling (e.g. management of motor fuels & oil, fertilizers, pesticides and roadway deicers).[103][104] Runoff mitigation systems include infiltration basins, bioretention systems, constructed wetlands, retention basins, and similar devices.[105][106]
 
Share of water bodies with good water quality in 2020. A water body is classified as "good" quality if at least 80% of monitoring values meet target quality levels, see also SDG 6, Indicator 6.3.2.

Legislation

Philippines

In the Philippines, Republic Act 9275, otherwise known as the Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004,[107] is the governing law on wastewater management. It states that it is the country's policy to protect, preserve and revive the quality of its fresh, brackish and marine waters, for which wastewater management plays a particular role.[107]

United States

This section is an excerpt from Water pollution in the United States § Current regulations.[edit]
The Clean Water Act is the primary federal law in the United States governing water pollution in surface waters.[108] The 1972 CWA amendments established a broad regulatory framework for improving water quality. The law defines procedures for pollution control and developing criteria and standards for pollutants in surface water.[109] The law authorizes the Environmental Protection Agency to regulate surface water pollution in the United States, in partnership with state agencies. Prior to 1972 it was legal to discharge wastewater to surface waters without testing for or removing water pollutants. The CWA was amended in 1981 and 1987 to adjust the federal proportion of construction grant funding for local governments, regulate municipal storm sewer discharges and to later establish the Clean Water State Revolving Fund. The fund provides low-interest loans to improve municipal sewage treatment systems and finance other water quality improvements.[110]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Von Sperling, Marcos (2007). Wastewater Characteristics, Treatment and Disposal. Biological Wastewater Treatment. Vol. 6. IWA Publishing. doi:10.2166/9781780402086. ISBN 978-1-78040-208-6. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
  2. ^ a b c Eckenfelder Jr WW (2000). Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. John Wiley & Sons. doi:10.1002/0471238961.1615121205031105.a01. ISBN 978-0-471-48494-3.
  3. ^ "Water Pollution". Environmental Health Education Program. Cambridge, MA: Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health. July 23, 2013. Archived from the original on September 18, 2021. Retrieved September 18, 2021.
  4. ^ Schaffner, Monika; Bader, Hans-Peter; Scheidegger, Ruth (August 15, 2009). "Modeling the contribution of point sources and non-point sources to Thachin River water pollution". Science of The Total Environment. 407 (17): 4902–4915. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2009.05.007. ISSN 0048-9697.
  5. ^ Moss B (February 2008). "Water pollution by agriculture". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 363 (1491): 659–666. doi:10.1098/rstb.2007.2176. PMC 2610176. PMID 17666391.
  6. ^ Alexandrou L, Meehan BJ, Jones OA (October 2018). "Regulated and emerging disinfection by-products in recycled waters". The Science of the Total Environment. 637–638: 1607–1616. Bibcode:2018ScTEn.637.1607A. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.04.391. PMID 29925195. S2CID 49355478.
  7. ^ "Environment Agency (archive) – Persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic PBT substances". Environment Agency (UK). Archived from the original on August 4, 2006. Retrieved November 14, 2012.
  8. ^ Natural Environmental Research Council – River sewage pollution found to be disrupting fish hormones Archived April 27, 2015, at the Wayback Machine. Planetearth.nerc.ac.uk. Retrieved on 2012-12-19.
  9. ^ "Endocrine Disruption Found in Fish Exposed to Municipal Wastewater". Reston, VA: US Geological Survey. Archived from the original on October 15, 2011. Retrieved November 14, 2012.
  10. ^ Takuissu GR, Kenmoe S, Ebogo-Belobo JT, Kengne-Ndé C, Mbaga DS, Bowo-Ngandji A, et al. (2023). "Occurrence of Hepatitis A Virus in Water Matrices: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 20 (2): 1054. doi:10.3390/ijerph20021054. PMC 9859052. PMID 36673812. Art. No. 1054.
  11. ^ Guidelines for the Safe Use of Wastewater, Excreta and Greywater, Volume 4 Excreta and Greywater Use in Agriculture (third ed.). Geneva: World Health Organization. 2006. ISBN 92-4-154685-9.
  12. ^ Harrison RM (2013). Harrison RM (ed.). Pollution: Causes, effects, and control (5th ed.). Cambridge, UK: Royal Society of Chemistry. doi:10.1039/9781782626527. ISBN 978-1-78262-560-5. OCLC 1007100256.
  13. ^ Schueler, Thomas R. "Microbes and Urban Watersheds: Concentrations, Sources, & Pathways." Reprinted in The Practice of Watershed Protection. Archived January 8, 2013, at the Wayback Machine 2000. Center for Watershed Protection. Ellicott City, MD.
  14. ^ Report to Congress: Impacts and Control of CSOs and SSOs (Report). EPA. August 2004. EPA 833-R-04-001.
  15. ^ a b c Laws EA (2018). Aquatic Pollution: An Introductory Text (4th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-119-30450-0 – via Google Books.
  16. ^ a b Burton Jr GA, Pitt R (2001). "2". Stormwater Effects Handbook: A Toolbox for Watershed Managers, Scientists, and Engineers. New York: CRC/Lewis Publishers. ISBN 0-87371-924-7. Archived from the original on May 19, 2009. Retrieved January 26, 2009.
  17. ^ a b Johnson MS, Buck RC, Cousins IT, Weis CP, Fenton SE (March 2021). "Estimating Environmental Hazard and Risks from Exposure to Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs): Outcome of a SETAC Focused Topic Meeting". Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. 40 (3): 543–549. doi:10.1002/etc.4784. PMC 8387100. PMID 32452041.
  18. ^ a b Sinclair GM, Long SM, Jones OA (November 2020). "What are the effects of PFAS exposure at environmentally relevant concentrations?". Chemosphere. 258: 127340. Bibcode:2020Chmsp.25827340S. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.127340. PMID 32563917. S2CID 219974801.
  19. ^ Schueler, Thomas R. "Cars Are Leading Source of Metal Loads in California." Reprinted in The Practice of Watershed Protection. Archived March 12, 2012, at the Wayback Machine 2000. Center for Watershed Protection. Ellicott City, MD.
  20. ^ Kaushal SS, Likens GE, Pace ML, Utz RM, Haq S, Gorman J, Grese M (January 2018). "Freshwater salinization syndrome on a continental scale". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 115 (4): E574–E583. Bibcode:2018PNAS..115E.574K. doi:10.1073/pnas.1711234115. PMC 5789913. PMID 29311318.
  21. ^ Evans DM, Villamagna AM, Green MB, Campbell JL (August 2018). "Origins of stream salinization in an upland New England watershed". Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 190 (9): 523. Bibcode:2018EMnAs.190..523E. doi:10.1007/s10661-018-6802-4. PMID 30116969. S2CID 52022441.
  22. ^ Cañedo-Argüelles M, Kefford B, Schäfer R (December 2018). "Salt in freshwaters: causes, effects and prospects - introduction to the theme issue". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 374 (1764). doi:10.1098/rstb.2018.0002. PMC 6283966. PMID 30509904.
  23. ^ a b Wang J, Wang S (November 2016). "Removal of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) from wastewater: A review". Journal of Environmental Management. 182: 620–640. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2016.07.049. PMID 27552641.
  24. ^ Shinn H (2019). "The Effects of Ultraviolet Filters and Sunscreen on Corals and Aquatic Ecosystems: Bibliography". NOAA Central Library. doi:10.25923/hhrp-xq11.
  25. ^ Downs CA, Kramarsky-Winter E, Segal R, Fauth J, Knutson S, Bronstein O, et al. (February 2016). "Toxicopathological Effects of the Sunscreen UV Filter, Oxybenzone (Benzophenone-3), on Coral Planulae and Cultured Primary Cells and Its Environmental Contamination in Hawaii and the U.S. Virgin Islands". Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 70 (2): 265–88. doi:10.1007/s00244-015-0227-7. PMID 26487337. S2CID 4243494.
  26. ^ Downs CA, Kramarsky-Winter E, Fauth JE, Segal R, Bronstein O, Jeger R, et al. (March 2014). "Toxicological effects of the sunscreen UV filter, benzophenone-2, on planulae and in vitro cells of the coral, Stylophora pistillata". Ecotoxicology. 23 (2): 175–91. doi:10.1007/s10646-013-1161-y. PMID 24352829. S2CID 1505199.
  27. ^ Niemuth NJ, Klaper RD (September 2015). "Emerging wastewater contaminant metformin causes intersex and reduced fecundity in fish". Chemosphere. 135: 38–45. Bibcode:2015Chmsp.135...38N. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.03.060. PMID 25898388.
  28. ^ Larsson DG, Adolfsson-Erici M, Parkkonen J, Pettersson M, Berg AH, Olsson PE, Förlin L (April 1, 1999). "Ethinyloestradiol — an undesired fish contraceptive?". Aquatic Toxicology. 45 (2): 91–97. doi:10.1016/S0166-445X(98)00112-X. ISSN 0166-445X.
  29. ^ "Pharmaceuticals in rivers threaten world health - study". BBC News. February 15, 2022. Retrieved March 10, 2022.
  30. ^ Wilkinson, John L.; Boxall, Alistair B. A.; et al. (February 14, 2022). "Pharmaceutical pollution of the world's rivers". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 119 (8). Bibcode:2022PNAS..11913947W. doi:10.1073/pnas.2113947119. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 8872717. PMID 35165193.
  31. ^ Knight K (2021). "Freshwater methamphetamine pollution turns brown trout into addicts". Journal of Experimental Biology. 224 (13): jeb242971. doi:10.1242/jeb.242971. ISSN 0022-0949.
  32. ^ a b De Lorenzo, D (June 18, 2021). "MDMA Gangs Are Literally Polluting Europe". Vice World News. Brooklyn, NY: Vice Media Group.
  33. ^ "Development solutions: Building a better ocean". European Investment Bank. Retrieved August 19, 2020.
  34. ^ Resnick B (September 19, 2018). "More than ever, our clothes are made of plastic. Just washing them can pollute the oceans". Vox. Retrieved October 4, 2021.
  35. ^ a b European Investment Bank (February 27, 2023). "Microplastics and Micropollutants in Water: Contaminants of Emerging Concern". Retrieved April 12, 2024.
  36. ^ "Microplastics from textiles: towards a circular economy for textiles in Europe — European Environment Agency". www.eea.europa.eu. Retrieved March 24, 2023.
  37. ^ a b WHO and UNICEF (2017) Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines. Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), 2017
  38. ^ Ferris, Robert (January 13, 2016). "Half of plastic trash in oceans comes from 5 countries". CNBC. Retrieved March 24, 2023.
  39. ^ a b Ritchie, Hannah; Samborska, Veronika; Roser, Max (2023). "Plastic Pollution". Our World in Data. Retrieved April 12, 2024.
  40. ^ Sheppard, Charles, ed. (2019). World seas: an Environmental Evaluation. Vol. III, Ecological Issues and Environmental Impacts (Second ed.). London: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-805204-4. OCLC 1052566532.
  41. ^ "Marine Pollution". Education | National Geographic Society. Retrieved June 19, 2023.
  42. ^ Duce, Robert; Galloway, J.; Liss, P. (2009). "The Impacts of Atmospheric Deposition to the Ocean on Marine Ecosystems and Climate WMO Bulletin Vol 58 (1)". Archived from the original on December 18, 2023. Retrieved September 22, 2020.
  43. ^ "What is the biggest source of pollution in the ocean?". National Ocean Service (US). Silver Spring, MD: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved September 21, 2022.
  44. ^ Walters, Arlene, ed. (2016). Nutrient Pollution From Agricultural Production: Overview, Management and a Study of Chesapeake Bay. Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science Publishers. ISBN 978-1-63485-188-6.
  45. ^ "Reactive Nitrogen in the United States: An Analysis of Inputs, Flows, Consequences, and Management Options, A Report of the Science Advisory Board" (PDF). Washington, DC: US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). EPA-SAB-11-013. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 19, 2013.
  46. ^ "Brayton Point Station Power Plant, Somerset, MA: Final NPDES Permit". Boston, MA: United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). May 21, 2021.
  47. ^ "Protecting Water Quality from Urban Runoff". Washington, D.C.: EPA. February 2003. Fact Sheet. EPA 841-F-03-003.
  48. ^ Goel PK (2006). Water pollution: causes, effects and control (Rev. 2nd ed.). New Delhi: New Age International. ISBN 81-224-1839-2. OCLC 85857626.
  49. ^ Olenin S, Minchin D, Daunys D (2007). "Assessment of biopollution in aquatic ecosystems". Marine Pollution Bulletin. 55 (7–9): 379–394. Bibcode:2007MarPB..55..379O. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2007.01.010. PMID 17335857.
  50. ^ Adelana, Segun Michael (2014). Groundwater: Hydrogeochemistry, Environmental Impacts and Management Practices. Nova Science Publishers, Inc. ISBN 978-1-63321-791-1. OCLC 915416488.
  51. ^ Hartmann, Andreas; Jasechko, Scott; Gleeson, Tom; Wada, Yoshihide; Andreo, Bartolomé; Barberá, Juan Antonio; Brielmann, Heike; Bouchaou, Lhoussaine; Charlier, Jean-Baptiste; Darling, W. George; Filippini, Maria (May 18, 2021). "Risk of groundwater contamination widely underestimated because of fast flow into aquifers". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 118 (20): e2024492118. Bibcode:2021PNAS..11824492H. doi:10.1073/pnas.2024492118. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 8158018. PMID 33972438.
  52. ^ United States. Clean Water Act (CWA), section 502(14), 33 U.S.C. § 1362 (14).
  53. ^ U.S. CWA section 402(p), 33 U.S.C. § 1342(p)
  54. ^ Scholz M (2016). "Sewage Treatment". Wetlands for Water Pollution Control. pp. 13–15. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-63607-2.00003-4. ISBN 978-0-444-63607-2.
  55. ^ Nesaratnam ST, ed. (2014). Water Pollution Control. doi:10.1002/9781118863831. ISBN 978-1-118-86383-1.
  56. ^ Knight K (2021). "Freshwater methamphetamine pollution turns brown trout into addicts". Journal of Experimental Biology. 224 (13): jeb242971. doi:10.1242/jeb.242971. ISSN 0022-0949.
  57. ^ "Governments unite to step-up reduction on global DDT reliance and add nine new chemicals under international treaty". Geneva: Stockholm Convention Secretariat. May 8, 2009. Press release.
  58. ^ Tchobanoglous G, Burton FL, Stensel HD (2003). "Chapter 3: Analysis and Selection of Wastewater Flowrates and Constituent Loadings". Wastewater engineering: treatment and reuse (4th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-041878-0. OCLC 48053912.
  59. ^ Arvaniti OS, Stasinakis AS (August 2015). "Review on the occurrence, fate and removal of perfluorinated compounds during wastewater treatment". The Science of the Total Environment. 524–525: 81–92. Bibcode:2015ScTEn.524...81A. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.04.023. PMID 25889547.
  60. ^ Bletsou AA, Asimakopoulos AG, Stasinakis AS, Thomaidis NS, Kannan K (February 2013). "Mass loading and fate of linear and cyclic siloxanes in a wastewater treatment plant in Greece". Environmental Science & Technology. 47 (4): 1824–32. Bibcode:2013EnST...47.1824B. doi:10.1021/es304369b. PMID 23320453. S2CID 39997737.
  61. ^ Gatidou G, Kinyua J, van Nuijs AL, Gracia-Lor E, Castiglioni S, Covaci A, Stasinakis AS (September 2016). "Drugs of abuse and alcohol consumption among different groups of population on the Greek Island of Lesvos through sewage-based epidemiology". The Science of the Total Environment. 563–564: 633–40. Bibcode:2016ScTEn.563..633G. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.04.130. hdl:10067/1345920151162165141. PMID 27236142. S2CID 4073701.
  62. ^ Gatidou G, Arvaniti OS, Stasinakis AS (April 2019). "Review on the occurrence and fate of microplastics in Sewage Treatment Plants". Journal of Hazardous Materials. 367: 504–512. Bibcode:2019JHzM..367..504G. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2018.12.081. PMID 30620926. S2CID 58567561.
  63. ^ "Basic Information about Nonpoint Source Pollution". Washington, DC: US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). October 7, 2020.
  64. ^ Walters A, ed. (2016). Nutrient Pollution From Agricultural Production: Overview, Management and a Study of Chesapeake Bay. Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science Publishers. ISBN 978-1-63485-188-6. OCLC 960163923.
  65. ^ Frequently Asked Questions About Air Deposition (Report). EPA. September 2001. pp. 3–7. EPA 453/R-01-009.
  66. ^ "What is Acid Rain?". EPA. June 24, 2022.
  67. ^ Sisterson DL, Liaw YP (January 1, 1990). "An evaluation of lightning and corona discharge on thunderstorm air and precipitation chemistry". Journal of Atmospheric Chemistry. 10 (1): 83–96. Bibcode:1990JAtC...10...83S. doi:10.1007/BF01980039. ISSN 1573-0662. S2CID 97714446.
  68. ^ "Effects of Acid Rain". EPA. April 24, 2022.
  69. ^ Kjellstrom T, Lodh M, McMichael T, Ranmuthugala G, Shrestha R, Kingsland S (2006). "Air and Water Pollution: Burden and Strategies for Control". In Jamison DT, Breman JG, Measham AR, Alleyne G, Claeson M, Evans DB, Jha P, Mills A, Musgrove P (eds.). Disease Control Priorities in Developing Countries (2nd ed.). World Bank. ISBN 978-0-8213-6179-5. PMID 21250344. Archived from the original on August 7, 2020.
  70. ^ a b Caldeira K, Wickett ME (September 2003). "Oceanography: anthropogenic carbon and ocean pH". Nature. 425 (6956): 365. Bibcode:2001AGUFMOS11C0385C. doi:10.1038/425365a. PMID 14508477. S2CID 4417880.
  71. ^ Doney SC, Fabry VJ, Feely RA, Kleypas JA (January 1, 2009). "Ocean acidification: the other CO2 problem". Annual Review of Marine Science. 1 (1): 169–192. Bibcode:2009ARMS....1..169D. doi:10.1146/annurev.marine.010908.163834. PMID 21141034. S2CID 402398.
  72. ^ For example, see Eaton, Andrew D.; Greenberg, Arnold E.; Rice, Eugene W.; Clesceri, Lenore S.; Franson, Mary Ann H., eds. (2005). Standard Methods For the Examination of Water and Wastewater (21 ed.). American Public Health Association. ISBN 978-0-87553-047-5. Also available on CD-ROM and online by subscription.
  73. ^ a b Newton D (2008). Chemistry of the Environment. Checkmark Books. ISBN 978-0-8160-7747-2.
  74. ^ National Rivers and Streams Assessment 2008–2009: A Collaborative Study (PDF) (Report). EPA. March 2016. EPA 841/R-16/007.
  75. ^ Karr JR (1981). "Assessment of biotic integrity using fish communities". Fisheries. 6 (6): 21–27. Bibcode:1981Fish....6f..21K. doi:10.1577/1548-8446(1981)006<0021:AOBIUF>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 1548-8446.
  76. ^ Donat-P. Häder; E. Walter Helbling; Virginia E. Villafañe (September 30, 2021). Anthropogenic Pollution of Aquatic Ecosystems. Springer Nature. p. 1. ISBN 978-3-030-75602-4. Retrieved August 9, 2022. Pollution is a major stress factor affecting all aquatic ecosystems including fresh, coastal and open ocean waters.
  77. ^ Davies-Colley, R. J.; Smith, D. G. (October 2001). "Turbidity, Suspended Sediment and Water Clarity: A Review". Journal of the American Water Resources Association. 37 (5): 1085–1101. Bibcode:2001JAWRA..37.1085D. doi:10.1111/j.1752-1688.2001.tb03624.x. eISSN 1752-1688. ISSN 1093-474X. S2CID 129093839. Retrieved August 9, 2022.
  78. ^ Kelland K (October 19, 2017). "Study links pollution to millions of deaths worldwide". Reuters.
  79. ^ Dovjak, Mateja; Kukec, Andreja (2019), "Health Outcomes Related to Built Environments", Creating Healthy and Sustainable Buildings, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 43–82, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-19412-3_2, ISBN 978-3-030-19411-6, S2CID 190160283
  80. ^ "Nutrients and Eutrophication | U.S. Geological Survey". www.usgs.gov. Retrieved February 9, 2024.
  81. ^ Aczel, Miriam R. (2019). "What Is the Nitrogen Cycle and Why Is It Key to Life?". Frontiers for Young Minds. 7. doi:10.3389/frym.2019.00041. hdl:10044/1/71039.
  82. ^ "Cultural eutrophication | ecology | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved February 9, 2024.
  83. ^ Carpenter, S. R. (2008). "Phosphorus control is critical to mitigating eutrophication". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 105 (32): 11039–11040. Bibcode:2008PNAS..10511039C. doi:10.1073/pnas.0806112105. PMC 2516213. PMID 18685114.
  84. ^ "China says water pollution so severe that cities could lack safe supplies". China Daily. June 7, 2005.
  85. ^ a b Jones OA, Gomes RL (2013). "Chapter 1: Chemical Pollution of the Aquatic Environment by Priority Pollutants and its Control". In Harrison RM (ed.). Pollution: Causes, Effects and Control (5th ed.). Royal Society of Chemistry. doi:10.1039/9781782626527. ISBN 978-1-84973-648-0.
  86. ^ UN-Water (2018) World Water Development Report 2018: Nature-based Solutions for Water, Geneva, Switzerland
  87. ^ Wang Y, Fan L, Jones OA, Roddick F (April 2021). "Quantification of seasonal photo-induced formation of reactive intermediates in a municipal sewage lagoon upon sunlight exposure". The Science of the Total Environment. 765: 142733. Bibcode:2021ScTEn.76542733W. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142733. PMID 33572041. S2CID 225156609.
  88. ^ Primer for Municipal Wastewater Treatment Systems (Report). EPA. 2004. p. 11. EPA 832-R-04-001.
  89. ^ Jones OA, Green PG, Voulvoulis N, Lester JN (July 2007). "Questioning the excessive use of advanced treatment to remove organic micropollutants from wastewater". Environmental Science & Technology. 41 (14): 5085–5089. Bibcode:2007EnST...41.5085J. doi:10.1021/es0628248. PMID 17711227.
  90. ^ Renn AM (February 25, 2016). "Wasted: How to Fix America's Sewers" (PDF). New York, NY: Manhattan Institute. p. 7.
  91. ^ Greening CSO Plans: Planning and Modeling Green Infrastructure for Combined Sewer Overflow Control (PDF) (Report). EPA. March 2014. 832-R-14-001.
  92. ^ "Clean Rivers Project". Washington, DC: District of Columbia Water and Sewer Authority. Retrieved April 13, 2024.
  93. ^ "United States and Ohio Reach Clean Water Act Settlement with City of Toledo, Ohio". EPA. August 28, 2002. Press release. Archived from the original on January 13, 2016.
  94. ^ Tchobanoglous G, Burton FL, Stensel HD (2003). Metcalf & Eddy Wastewater Engineering: treatment and reuse (4th ed.). McGraw-Hill Book Company. ISBN 0-07-041878-0.
  95. ^ George Tchobanoglous; Franklin L. Burton; H. David Stensel (2003). "Chapter 3: Analysis and Selection of Wastewater Flowrates and Constituent Loadings". Metcalf & Eddy Wastewater engineering: treatment and reuse (4th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-041878-0. OCLC 48053912.
  96. ^ Von Sperling, M. (2007). "Wastewater Characteristics, Treatment and Disposal". Water Intelligence Online. 6. doi:10.2166/9781780402086. ISSN 1476-1777. Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
  97. ^ Reed, Sherwood C. (1988). Natural systems for waste management and treatment. E. Joe Middlebrooks, Ronald W. Crites. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-051521-2. OCLC 16087827.
  98. ^ Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation. Nashville, TN (2012). "Tennessee Erosion and Sediment Control Handbook."
  99. ^ Concrete Washout (Report). Stormwater Best Management Practice. EPA. February 2012. BMP fact sheet. EPA 833-F-11-006.
  100. ^ Mapulanga AM, Naito H (April 2019). "Effect of deforestation on access to clean drinking water". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 116 (17): 8249–8254. Bibcode:2019PNAS..116.8249M. doi:10.1073/pnas.1814970116. PMC 6486726. PMID 30910966.
  101. ^ University of Basel (August 24, 2020). "Climate change and land use are accelerating soil erosion by water". Science Daily.
  102. ^ "Ch. 5: Description and Performance of Storm Water Best Management Practices". Preliminary Data Summary of Urban Storm Water Best Management Practices (Report). Washington, DC: United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). August 1999. EPA-821-R-99-012.
  103. ^ Protecting Water Quality from Urban Runoff (Report). EPA. February 2003. EPA 841-F-03-003.
  104. ^ "Low Impact Development and Other Green Design Strategies". National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System. EPA. 2014. Archived from the original on February 19, 2015.
  105. ^ California Stormwater Quality Association. Menlo Park, CA. "Stormwater Best Management Practice (BMP) Handbooks." 2003.
  106. ^ New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection. Trenton, NJ. "New Jersey Stormwater Best Management Practices Manual." April 2004.
  107. ^ a b "An Act Providing for a Comprehensive Water Quality Management And For Other Purposes". The LawPhil Project. Archived from the original on 21 September 2016. Retrieved 30 September 2016.
  108. ^ United States. Clean Water Act. 33 U.S.C. § 1251 et seq. Pub. L. 92–500. Approved October 18, 1972.
  109. ^ "Summary of the Clean Water Act". Laws & Regulations. EPA. June 12, 2024.
  110. ^ "History of the Clean Water Act". Laws & Regulations. EPA. June 12, 2024.
 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Water pollution.
Library resources about
Water pollution
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_pollution&oldid=1229426171"