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Scholars have long identified a number of similarities between the ancient Guatemalan and Mexican art styles and cultures. These similarities start as far north as the Mexico Central Plateau and continue to the Pacific coast and as far as Central America. There are many common elements in iconography, stone sculptures and artefacts. All this led to the investigation of possible trade patterns and communication networks.
Based on archaeological and ethno historical study in eastern Guerrero since 1998, an important network of roads through the [[Sierra Madre del Sur|Sierra Madres of Guerrero]] has been identified. These roads connected the settlements in [[Morelos]] and [[Puebla]] to the longer Pacific Coast communication and trade route.<ref name=Icon >{{cite conference|last1=Gutiérrez |first1=Gerardo |last2=Pye |first2=Mary E. |title= Conexiones Iconográficas entre Guatemala y Guerrero: Entendiendo el funcionamiento de la ruta de comunicación a lo largo de la planicie costera del Océano Pacifico |conference=Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala |conference-url=http://www.equiponaya.com.ar/eventos/20siag.htm |book-title=Memoria del Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala |volume=2 |publisher=Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. Instituto de Antropología e Historia |location=Guatemala, Guatemala |language=
It is certain this route played a critical role in the political and economic development of southern Mesoamerica, although its importance varied over time.<ref name=Icon />
There was material and information trade between the Mexico Central Plateau, the [[Gulf of Mexico]] and the [[Pacific Ocean]], it is not certain whether it was made through direct contact (15 day or more trips and 15 days to return)<ref name=Alva >{{cite book |last1= Durán |first1=Rafael |last2=Alvarez |first2=Jose J. |year= 1856 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J4VUUDoXXMEC
===Roads===
[[File:Mesoamerican obsidian sourc.png|thumb|Map showing Mesoamerican obsidian sources, as well as the sources of other important semi-precious minerals. [[Obsidian use in Mesoamerica]] goes back to the earliest times, and there were extensive trade routes]]
Routes from the Gulf of Mexico Mountains and the center of Oaxaca seem to have been constantly open to circulation, since at least the early preclassical period; the Pacific route was apparently blocked at different points, between [[Chiapas]] and [[Oaxaca]], for example, during the postclassical period by the Mixtec kingdom of Tututepec on the eve of the [[Colonial Spanish America|Spanish Conquest]]. One group of epiclassical sculptures indicates iconographic relationships between [[Morelos]] and [[Guerrero]], with examples also found in Pacific Coastal Chiapas and Guatemala.<ref name=Icon /><ref name=Spores >{{cite journal |last= Spores |first= Ronald |year= 1993|title= Tutupec: A Postclassic-Period Mixtec Conquest State
According to Fray Bernardino de Sahagún (1989:267) Mesoamerica prehispanic roads were simple compacted dirt paths, full of stone and limited by surrounding vegetation. Today these roads have disappeared, whether by railway or asphalt roads and freeways or by abandonment at prehispanic times, in addition to normal erosion deterioration, sedimentation and invasion of adjacent vegetation.<ref name=Icon />
Systematic archaeological and ethnic-historical studies in eastern Guerrero from 1998, have demonstrated the existence of an important road network through the mountain ranges of Guerrero, that connected archaeological sites of Morelos and the south of Puebla with a communication and commerce trade route throughout the Pacific Ocean coast.<ref name=Guti >{{cite thesis|type=Ph.D. |last= Gutiérrez |first= Gerardo |year= 2002|title= The Expanding Polity: Patterns of the Territorial Expansion of the Post-Classic Señorío of Tlapa-Tlachinollan in the Mixteca-Nahua-Tlapaneca Region of Guerrero
===Historical Routes===
Without taking into consideration branches and secondary deviations, there are several routes identified, that connected the center of Mexico with the Guatemala Pacific Coast, one through [[Puebla]] and the sierra, and the other through
===North Route Tenochtitlan – Juchitán===
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* The southern Isthmus or Soconusco route continued from [[San Pedro Tapanatepec|Tapanatepec]] to [[Tonalá, Chiapas|Tonalá]], [[Pijijiapan]], Tuxtla Chico, and then in Guatemalan territory, onto [[Retalhuleu]] and down to [[Santa Lucía Cotzumalguapa]], [[Escuintla]].<ref name=Icon />
In spite of the importance of these routes, passage through these routes was blocked by the Mixtec Kingdom of Tututepec, that monopolized it for their own benefit<ref name="Acuña" >{{cite
==Regional relations and commerce==
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There are numerous evidences of regional trade from northwestern mesoamerican civilizations, the Mexican highlands and Centro America with southern lands as far down as Peru and Colombia, some of which are suspected but remain a strong possibility, based on evidences. Certainly, it is elemental understanding how people traveled and traded.
As early as 1881, [[Carl Bovallius]] Swedish archaeologist and investigator exploring Central America ([[Ometepe (archaeological site)|Ometepe]] and [[Zapatera (archaeological site)|Zapatera]]), noted: "Los Orotinas far separated from their relations, inhabiting the peninsula of [[Nicoya]] and the territory of [[Guanacaste Province|Guanacaste]], which comprises the north-
According to Bovallius, other writers are disposed to ascribe a Mexican origin to the
An elemental piece of this discussion was provided by Bernal Diaz del Castillo,<ref name=Diaz >{{cite
There are many debates related to the definition of specific sculptures styles,<ref name=Christa >{{cite
This process has an effect in the chronology, makes an exact dating of pieces troublesome, the problem is compounded because the majority of the pieces lost their original context, some from prehispanic times.<ref name=Icon />
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Based on the presence of a ceramic style pottery shaped as pots (Tecomates), found in the Tlapa and Huamuxtitlán, it is known that the region had an early cultural development predating the Olmecs.<ref name=Icon />
A female ceramic figurine from the Huamuxtitlán valley indicates an archaeological occupation of eastern Guerrero
===Mid-Preclassical Period (900-500 BCE)===
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Olmec-style murals in the [[Oxotitlán]], [[Juxtlahuaca]] and Cauadzidziqui caves and sculpture from the [[Teopantecuanitlan]] site, confirm a strong connection with [[Chalcatzingo]] in the Valley of Morelos. Iconographic representations similarities of these sites with the Pacific coast of Chiapas and Guatemala, depict closer relations than those suggested by the argument that they simply share a pan-mesoamerican tradition.<ref name=Icon />
Thus, the style resemblance between [[Takalik Abaj|Tak´alik Ab´aj]], Guatemala monument 1 and individuals depicted on Chalcatzingo relief 1-B-2 have been repeatedly established.<ref name=Cova >{{cite
Should also note the similarity between the relief of [[Chalchuapa]] ([[El Salvador]]) with the main character of Cauadzidziqui, Guerrero. Other cases involving close similarities are noted in Xoc, Chiapas, and the San Miguel Amuco, Guerrero relief.<ref name=Louis >{{cite journal |
===Late Preclassical Period (500 BCE – 200 CE)===
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However, for the case of Guerrero and Morelos this phase lends itself to controversy, since chronologically speaking the mixture of time periods of Olmec symbols in sculptures and reliefs is not understood, as reported by the main archeological sites of the region. The symbols permanence from one period to another is the main factor that makes the task difficult of understanding the styles evolution and the connections between diverse regions.<ref name=Icon />
See Takalik Abaj, Guatemala, [http://www.asociaciontikal.com/pdf/54_-_Mary_Pye.pdf Monument 55]<ref name=Graham81 >{{cite
The S-inverted glyph complex would be represented by [[Chalcatzingo]] petroglyph 1-A- : a seated individual inside a cavity, accompanied by two glyphs precisely resembling a horizontal letter S.<ref name=Icon />
Parsons noticed that this S-inverted glyph<ref>Parsons, Lee A. (1981:256)</ref> appears also at the chest of the post-Olmec sculpture of Palo Gordo, Suchitepéquez, known as the "Piedra Santa" (holy stone) sculpture. This same glyph is repeated in Chalcatzingo's monument 31<ref name=GroveD >{{cite
Another identifiable figure is the bird-man, characterized by men dressed as birds. This figure can be identified at the mid-preclassical Oxotitlan cave, as well as Estela 4 and altar 3 at [[Izapa]], during the late preclassical and continues to be used during the epiclassical sculpture at Villa Rotaria, in the Guerrero Costa Grande.<ref name=Icon />
The use of the Pacific Ocean communication route during the late preclassical, is also inferred from the Izapa estela-smooth altar and its similarity to the steles and smooth altars found at the sites of the Pelillo and Metates sites of the Costa Chica, Guerrero; as with the "barrigones" of Monte Alto, Guatemala and the full-bodied "barrigon" from Cola Palma, Pinotepa Nacional in the boundaries between Oaxaca and Guerrero.<ref name=Gamio >{{cite journal |last= Gamio |first= Lorenzo |year= 1967|title= Zona arqueológica Cola de Palma, Pinotepa Nacional, Oaxaca |
===Late Classical Period (600–900 CE)===
During the early classical and even up to 600 CE, the iconographic codes seem to be silenced. The Petén and Usumacinta Mayan style dominate in the Chiapas and Guatemala highlands. On the Oaxaca coast the codes become Zapote and Ñuiñe, while in Guerrero and the Guatemala Costa Teotihuacan predominates.<ref name=Bove >{{cite
Again there are coincidences style and themes throughout the coast of the Pacific, there is a clear example in crossed arms sculptures, apparently representations of ancestors.<ref name=Urcid >{{cite journal |
In 1986, when Carlos Navarrete<ref name=Navarrete >{{cite journal |last= Navarrete |first= Carlos |year= 1978|title= The Prehispanic System of Communications Between Chiapas and Tabasco. En Mesoamerican Communication Routes and Cultural Contacts
Another example present in both regions is the death deities that "crumble" hearts with skeletal hands, as the case of El Baúl, monument 4 and Terreno de Coimbra monument 1, near Marquelia, on the Guerrero Costa Chica. The Coimbra death deity is probably associated with the complex of death gods, such as those of Palo Gordo,<ref name=Chin >{{cite
Just like during the early classical, is during the postclassical period when the iconographic connection is lost again, detected between the Valley of Morelos and Guerrero, and Guerrero eastern coast of Chiapas with Guatemala, is lost. But unlike the early classical, it is known that during the postclassical period, the Tututepec political expansion is responsible for having blocked the Pacific route and the route never again had important traffic. Ironically it is today, with migrants and narcotics trafficking, when the Pacific route, land and maritime, has strongly resurfaced reviving routes lost a thousand years ago.<ref name=Icon />
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==Bibliography==
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* De la Fuente, Beatriz 1995. Tetitla. En La pintura mural prehispánica en México, Teotihuacan (editado por B. De la Fuente), Vol.1, No.1, pp. 258–311. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México.
* Díaz del Castillo, Bernal 1976. Historia de la conquista de Nueva España, undécima edición. Editorial Porrúa, México.
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* Grove, David C. 1996. Archaeological Contexts of Olmec Art Outside of the Gulf Coast. En Olmec Art of Ancient Mexico (editado por E. Benson y B. de la Fuente), pp. 105–117. National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C..
* Gutiérrez, Gerardo, Viola Köenig, and Baltazar Brito 2009. Codex Humboldt Fragment 1 (Ms. Amer. 2) and Codex Azoyú 2 Reverse: The Tribute Record of Tlapa to the Aztec Empire/Códice Humboldt Fragmento 1 (Ms.amer.2) y Códice Azoyú 2 Reverso: Nómina de tributos de Tlapa y su provincial al Imperio Mexicano. Bilingual (Spanish-English) edition. Mexico: CIESAS and Stiftung Preußischer Kulturbesitz (Berlin). [
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▲* Gutiérrez, Gerardo, Viola Köenig, and Baltazar Brito 2009. Codex Humboldt Fragment 1 (Ms. Amer. 2) and Codex Azoyú 2 Reverse: The Tribute Record of Tlapa to the Aztec Empire/Códice Humboldt Fragmento 1 (Ms.amer.2) y Códice Azoyú 2 Reverso: Nómina de tributos de Tlapa y su provincial al Imperio Mexicano. Bilingual (Spanish-English) edition. Mexico: CIESAS and Stiftung Preußischer Kulturbesitz (Berlin). [http://www.academia.edu/5049415/Codice_Humboldt_Fragmento_1_Ms._amer._2_and_Codice_Azoyu_2_Reverso_Estudio_de_la_Nomina_de_Tributos_de_Tlapa_y_su_Provincia_al_Imperio_Mexicano]
*Gutiérrez, Gerardo 2003. Territorial Structure and Urbanism in Mesoamerica: The Huaxtec and Mixtec-Tlapanec-Nahua Cases. In Urbanism in Mesoamerica, W. Sanders, G. Mastache and R. Cobean, (eds.), pp. 85–118. University Park: The Pennsylvania State University and INAH. [
▲*Gutiérrez, Gerardo, and Constantino Medina 2008. Toponimia nahuatl en los codices Azoyú 1 y 2: Un estudio crítico de los nombres de lugar de los antiguos señoríos del oriente de Guerrero. [Nahuatl Toponymy in the Azoyú Codices 1 and 2: A Critical Study of the Placenames of the Ancient Lords of Eastern Guerrero]. Mexico: CIESAS. [http://www.academia.edu/5049025/Toponimia_Nahuatl_en_los_Codices_Azoyu_1_Azoyu_2_Palimpsesto_de_Veinte_Mazorcas_Lienzo_de_Chiepetlan_1._Un_Estudio_Critico_de_los_nombres_de_lugar_de_los_antiguos_senorios_del_oriente_de_Guerrero]
* Gutiérrez, Gerardo, Alfredo Vera, Mary E. Pye, and Juan Mitzi Serrano 2011. Contlalco y La Coquera: Arqueología de dos sitios tempranos del Municipio de Tlapa, Guerrero. Mexico: Municipio de Tlapa de Comonfort, Letra Antigua. [
▲*Gutiérrez, Gerardo 2003. Territorial Structure and Urbanism in Mesoamerica: The Huaxtec and Mixtec-Tlapanec-Nahua Cases. In Urbanism in Mesoamerica, W. Sanders, G. Mastache and R. Cobean, (eds.), pp. 85–118. University Park: The Pennsylvania State University and INAH. [http://www.academia.edu/5050058/Territorial_Structure_and_Urbanism_in_Mesoamerica_Huaxtecs_Mixtecs_Tlapanecs_and_Nahuas_the_Ethno-Urban_Approach]
▲* Gutiérrez, Gerardo, Alfredo Vera, Mary E. Pye, and Juan Mitzi Serrano 2011. Contlalco y La Coquera: Arqueología de dos sitios tempranos del Municipio de Tlapa, Guerrero. Mexico: Municipio de Tlapa de Comonfort, Letra Antigua. [http://www.academia.edu/5049318/Contlalco_y_La_Coquera_Arqueologia_de_Dos_Sitios_Tempranos_del_Municipio_de_Tlapa_en_el_Estado_de_Guerrero]
* Miles, Susana W. 1965. Summary of Preconquest Ethnology of the Guatemala-Chiapas Highlands and Pacific Slopes. En Handbook of Middle American Indians, Vol.2 (editado por G. Willey), pp. 276–287. University of Texas Press, Austin.
* Navarrete, Carlos 1978. The Prehispanic System of Communications Between Chiapas and Tabasco. En Mesoamerican Communication Routes and Cultural Contacts (editado por T. A. Lee
* Stephen A. Kowalewski y Andrew K. Balkansky, 1999. [http://www.famsi.org/reports/98064es/index.html Estudio Regional en la Mixteca Alta Central, Oaxaca, México]
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* Christensen, Alexander F. 1998. Colonization and Microevolution in Formative Oaxaca, Mexico, World Archaeology, Vol 30, 2 pp. 262–285 [
* Coll Hurtado, Atlántida 1998. Oaxaca: geografía histórica de la grana cochinilla, Boletín de Investigaciones Geográficas. Vol. 38 pp. 71–81 [http://www.igeograf.unam.mx/instituto/publicaciones/boletin/bol36/b36art6.pdf]{{dead link|date=April 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} March 2007▼
▲* Balkansky, Andrew K. 1998. Urbanism and Early State Formation in the Huamelulpan Valley of Southern Mexico. Latin American Antiquity. Vol 9 No. 1, pp. 37–67 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/972127] Dec 2007
▲* Christensen, Alexander F. 1998. Colonization and Microevolution in Formative Oaxaca, Mexico, World Archaeology, Vol 30, 2 pp. 262–285 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/124986] Dec 2007
▲* Coll Hurtado, Atlántida 1998. Oaxaca: geografía histórica de la grana cochinilla, Boletín de Investigaciones Geográficas. Vol. 38 pp. 71–81 [http://www.igeograf.unam.mx/instituto/publicaciones/boletin/bol36/b36art6.pdf] March 2007
*[[Barbro Dahlgren|Dalghren de Jordán, Barbro]] (1966): ''La Mixteca, su cultura e historia prehispánicas'', [[UNAM|Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México]], México.
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*Joyce, Arthur A. y [[Marcus Winter]] (1996), "Ideology, Power, and Urban Society in Pre-Hispanic Oaxaca", en ''Current Anthropology'', 37(1, feb. 1996):
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==Further reading==
* ''Nuu Savi'' (Nuu Savi – Pueblo de Lluvia), Miguel Ángel Chávez Guzman (compilador), Juxtlahuaca.org, 2005. {{
*Joyce, Arthur A., ''Mixtecs, Zapotecs and Chatinos: Ancient peoples of Southern Mexico.'' 2010, Wiley Blackwell {{ISBN
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Mexico]]
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