Mehmed II: Difference between revisions

'''Mehmed II''' ({{lang-langx|ota|محمد ثانى|translit=Meḥmed-i s̱ānī}}; {{lang-langx|tr|II. Mehmed}}, {{IPA|tr|icinˈdʒi ˈmehmet|pron}}; 30 March 1432{{spnd}}3 May 1481), commonly known as '''Mehmed the Conqueror''' ({{lang-langx|ota|ابو الفتح|Ebū'l-fetḥ|lit=the Father of Conquest|links=no}}; {{lang-langx|tr|Fâtih Sultan Mehmed|links=no}}), was twice the [[sultan of the Ottoman Empire]] from August 1444 to September 1446 and then later from February 1451 to May 1481.

In Mehmed II's first reign, he defeated the crusade led by [[John Hunyadi]] after the Hungarian incursions into his country broke the conditions of the truce per the [[Peace of Szeged|Treaties of Edirne and Szeged]]. When Mehmed II ascended the throne again in 1451, he strengthened the [[Ottoman Navy]] and made preparations to attack Constantinople. At the age of 21, he [[Fall of Constantinople|conquered Constantinople]] and brought an end to the [[Byzantine Empire]]. After the conquest, Mehmed claimed the title [[Caesar (title)|caesar]] of [[Roman Empire|Rome]] ({{lang-langx|ota|قیصر‎ روم|qayṣar-i Rūm|links=no}}), based on the fact that Constantinople had been the seat and capital of the surviving [[Byzantine Empire|Eastern Roman Empire]] since its consecration in 330 AD by [[Constantine the Great|Emperor Constantine I]].{{Sfn|Nicolle|2000|p=85}} The claim was soon recognized by the [[Patriarchate of Constantinople]], albeit not by most European monarchs.

When Mehmed II ascended the throne again in 1451, he devoted himself to strengthening the Ottoman navy and made preparations for an attack on Constantinople. In the narrow [[Bosphorus|Bosphorus Straits]], the fortress [[Anadoluhisarı]] had been built by his great-grandfather [[Bayezid I]] on the Asian side; Mehmed erected an even stronger fortress called [[Rumelihisarı]] on the European side, and thus gained complete control of the strait. Having completed his fortresses, Mehmed proceeded to levy a toll on ships passing within reach of their cannon. A [[Republic of Venice|Venetian]] vessel ignoring signals to stop was sunk with a single shot and all the surviving sailors beheaded,<ref name="Silburn1912">Silburn, P. A. B. (1912).</ref> except for the captain, who was impaled and mounted aslike a human scarecrow as a warning to other sailors on the strait.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b03l2shc|title=Byzantium: A Tale of Three Cities|website=BBC Four|access-date=9 April 2017|archive-date=8 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170308102211/http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b03l2shc|url-status=live}}</ref>

Some Muslim scholars claimed that a [[hadith]] in [[Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal|Musnad Ahmad]] referred specifically to Mehmed's conquest of Constantinople, seeing it as the fulfillment of a prophecy and a sign of the approaching apocalypse.<ref>{{multiref2 cite journal| last= Şahin| first= K.|date= 2010| title=Constantinople and the End Time: The Ottoman Conquest as a Portent of the Last Hour| journal=Journal of Early Modern History| volume=14|issue=4|pages= 317–354| doi= 10.1163/157006510X512223|mode=cs2}}</ref>

Mehmed II's first campaigns after Constantinople were in the direction of Serbia, which had been an Ottoman [[vassal state]] intermittently since the [[Battle of Kosovo]] in 1389. The Ottoman ruler had a connection with the [[Serbian Despotate]] – one of [[Murad II]]'s wives was [[Mara Branković]] – and he used that fact to claim Serbian lands. [[Đurađ Branković]]'s recently made alliance with the Hungarians, and his irregular payments of tribute, further served as justifications for the invasion. The Ottomans sent an ultimatum demanding the keys to some Serbian castles which formerly belonged to the Ottomans.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Uzunçarşılı |first=İsmail Hakkı |title=Osmanlı Tarihi Cilt II |publisher=Türk Tarih Kurumu |year=2019 |isbn=9789751600127 |pages=13–18 |language=tr |trans-title=History of the Ottomans Volume II}}</ref> When Serbia refused these demands, the Ottoman army led by Mehmed set out from [[Edirne]] towards Serbia in 1454, sometime after the 18th of April.<ref name=":4">Elizabeth A. Zachariadou, Romania and the Turks Pt. XIII p. 837-840, “First Serbian Campaigns of Mehemmed II (1454-1455)”</ref> Mehmed's forces quickly succeeded in capturing Sivricehisar (sometimes identified with the [[Ostrvica Fortress]]) and Omolhisar,<ref name=":5">Ibn Kemal, Tevarih-i Al-i Osman, VII. Defter, ed. Ş. Turan, 1957, pp. 109-118</ref> and [[Battle of Ostrvica|repulsed]] a Serbian cavalry force of 9,000 cavalry sent against them by the despot.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Jorga |first=Nicolae |title=Büyük Türk - Fatih Sultan Mehmed |publisher=Yeditepe Yayınevi |year=2018 |isbn=9786052070383 |pages=73–84 |language=tr}}</ref> Following these actions, the Serbian capital of [[Smederevo]] was put under siege by the Ottoman forces. Before the city could be taken, intelligence was received about an approaching Hungarian relief force led by Hunyadi, which caused Mehmed to lift the siege and start marching back to his domains.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Muresanu |first=Camil |title=John Hunyadi: Defender of Christendom |publisher=Center for Romanian Studies |year=2018 |isbn=9781592111152 |pages=205 |language=en}}</ref> By August the campaign was effectively over,<ref name=":4" /> Mehmed left a part of his force under the command of Firuz Bey in Serbia in anticipation of a possible offensive on Ottoman territories by Hunyadi.<ref name=":3" /> This force was defeated by a combined Hungarian-Serbian army led by Hunyadi and [[Nikola Skobaljić]] on the 2nd of October near [[Battle of Kruševac|Kruševac]], after which Hunyadi went on to raid Ottoman controlled Nish and Pirot before returning back to Belgrade.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last=Babinger |first=Franz |title=Fatih Sultan Mehmed ve Zamanı |publisher=Oğlak Yayıncılık |year=2003 |isbn=975-329-417-4 |pages=109 |language=tr |trans-title=Mehmed the Conqueror and His Times}}</ref> Roughly a month later, on the 16th of November, the Ottomans avenged their earlier defeat at Kruševac by defeating Skobaljić's army near Tripolje, where the Serbian voivode was captured and executed via impalement.<ref name=":7" /> Following this a temporary treaty was signed with the Serbian despot, where Đurađ would formally recognize the recently captured Serbian forts as Ottoman land, send thirty thousand [[florin|florins]] to the [[Sublime Porte|Porte]] as yearly tribute and provide troops for Ottoman campaigns.<ref name=":3" /> The 1454 campaign had resulted in the capture of fifty thousand prisoners from Serbia, four thousand of whom were settled in various villages near [[Constantinople]].<ref name=":3" /> The following year, Mehmed received reports from one of his frontier commanders about Serbian weakness against a possible invasion, the reports in combination with the dissatisfactory results of the 1454 campaign convinced Mehmed to initiate another campaign against Serbia.<ref name=":3" /> The Ottoman army marched on the important mining town of [[Novo Brdo]], which Mehmed put under [[Siege of Novo Brdo (1455)|siege]]. The Serbians couldn't resist the Ottoman army out in the open, thus resorted to fortifying their various settlements and having their peasants flee to either various fortresses or forests.<ref name=":6" /> After forty days of siege and intense cannon fire, Novo Brdo surrendered.<ref name=":6" /> Following the conquest of the city, Mehmed captured various other Serbian settlements in the surrounding area,<ref name=":5" /> after which he started his march back towards Edirne, visiting his ancestor [[Murad I]]'s grave in Kosovo on the way.<ref name=":4" />

In 1456, Mehmed decided to continue his momentum towards the northwest and capture the city of [[Belgrade]], which had been ceded to the [[Kingdom of Hungary]] by the Serbian despot [[Đurađ Branković]] in 1427. Significant preparations were made by the Sultan for the conquest of the city, including the casting of 22 large cannons alongside many smaller ones and the establishment of a navy which would sail up the [[Danube]] to aid the army during the siege.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last=Türkmen |first=İlhan |date=5 January 2015 |title=The Campaigns Against Serbia During the Reign of Mehmed the Conqueror per Ottoman Chronicles |trans-title= |journal=Asia Minor Studies - International Journal of Social Sciences |volume=3 |issue=5 |pages=115–132 |via=Dergipark}}</ref> The exact number of troops Mehmed commanded varies between sources,<ref name=":9">{{Cite book |last=Babinger |first=Franz |title=Fatih Sultan Mehmed ve Zamanı |publisher=Oğlak Yayıncılık |year=2003 |isbn=975-329-417-4 |pages=132–137 |language=tr |trans-title=Mehmed the Conqueror and His Times}}</ref> but the rumours of its size were significant enough to cause panic in Italy.<ref name=":10">{{Cite book |last=Setton |first=Kenneth M. |title=A History of the Crusades Volume VI |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |year=1989 |isbn=0-299-10740-X |pages=323-325323–325 |language=en}}</ref> OnOttoman thetroops 13thbegan ofarriving Juneat theBelgrade Ottomanon armythe reached13th Belgradeof June.<ref name=":8" /> After the necessary preparations were finished, Ottoman cannons started bombarding the city walls and Ottoman troops started filling the ditches in front of the walls with earth to advance forward.<ref name=":8" /> As despair started to set in amongst the defenders, news started arriving of a relief force assembling across the Danube under the command of John Hunyadi.<ref name=":8" /> Upon learning of this development, Mehmed held a war council with his commanders to determine the army's next actions.<ref name=":8" /> [[Karaca Pasha]] recommended that a part of the army should cross the Danube to counter the approaching relief army.<ref name=":11">{{Cite book |last=Tansel |first=Selahattin |title=Osmanlı Kaynaklarına Göre Fatih Sultan Mehmed'in Siyasi ve Askeri Faaliyeti |publisher=Türk Tarih Kurumu |year=1953 |isbn=9789751610812 |pages=122–123 |language=tr |trans-title=Mehmed the Conqueror's Political and Military Activity per Ottoman Sources}}</ref> This plan was rejected by the council, particularly due to the opposition by the Rumelian Begs.<ref name=":8" /> Instead, the decision was made to prioritize capturing the fortress, a move seen as a tactical blunder by modern historians.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":8" /> This allowed Hunyadi to set up camp with his army across the Danube uncontested.<ref name=":11" /> Shortly after, the Ottoman navy was defeated in a five hour long battle by the newly arrived Christian Danubian navy.<ref name=":11" /> Following this, Hunyadi's troops started entering the city to reinforce the besieged, which increased the morale of the defending forces.<ref name=":9" /> Infuriated by the unfolding events, Mehmed ordered a final attack to capture the city on the 21st of July, after continuous cannon fire building up to the day of the attack.<ref name=":9" /> Ottoman troops were initially successful in breaching the defences and entering the city, however were eventually repulsed by the defenders.<ref name=":10" /> The Christians pressed their advantage by launching a counter attack, which started pushing back the Ottoman forces,<ref name=":8" /> managing to advance as far as the Ottoman camp.<ref name=":3" /> At this crucial point of the battle, one of the viziers advised Mehmed to abandon the camp for his safety, which he refused to do so on the grounds that it would be a “sign of cowardice”.<ref name=":3" /> After this, Mehmed personally joined the fighting, accompanied by two of his [[Bey|begs]].<ref name=":8" /> The Sultan managed to personally kill three<ref name=":3" /> enemy soldiers before being injured, forcing him to abandon the battlefield.<ref name=":9" /> The news of their Sultan fighting alongside them and the arrival of reinforcements caused a morale boost amongst the Ottoman troops, which allowed them to go on the offensive again and push the Christian forces out of the Ottoman camp.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mureşanu |first=Camil |title=John Hunyadi: Defender of Christendom |publisher=Histria Books |year=2021 |isbn=978-1-59211-115-2 |pages=221–224 |language=en |quote=The janissaries, however, were still fighting vigorously. Mehmed II, although wounded by an arrow in his calf, stayed among them... Mehmed repelled the troops that had penetrated into his camp}}</ref><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":8" /> The actions of the Sultan had prevented a complete rout of the Ottoman army,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mixson |first=James D. |title=The Crusade of 1456: Texts and Documentation in Translation |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2022 |isbn=978-1-4875-3262-8 |pages=26 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":8" /> however, the army had been far too weakened to attempt to take the city again, causing the Ottoman war council to decide on ending the siege.<ref name=":8" /> The Sultan and his army retreatedbegan a retreat to Edirne during the night, without the Christian forces being able to pursue them.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jorga |first=Nicolae |title=Büyük Türk - Fatih Sultan Mehmed |publisher=Yeditepe Yayınevi |year=2018 |isbn=9786052070383 |pages=93–97 |language=tr}}</ref> Hunyadi died shortly after the siege, meanwhile [[Đurađ Branković]] regained possession of some parts of Serbia.

Shortly before the end of the year 1456, roughly 5 months after the [[Siege of Belgrade (1456)|siegeSiege of Belgrade]], the 79-year-old Branković died. Serbian independence survived after him for only around three years, when the Ottoman Empire formally annexed Serbian lands following dissension among his widow and three remaining sons. Lazar, the youngest, poisoned his mother and exiled his brothers, but he died soon afterwards. In the continuing turmoil the oldest brother [[Stefan Branković]] gained the throne. Observing the chaotic situation in Serbia, the Ottoman government decided to definitively conclude the Serbian issue.{{sfn|Uzunçarşılı|2019|p=20}} The Grand Vizier [[Mahmud Pasha Angelović|Mahmud Pasha]] was dispatched with an army to the region in 1458, where he initially conquered [[Resava (river)#Region|Resava]] and a number of other settlements before moving towards Smederevo.{{sfn|Tansel|1953|p=130}} After a battle outside the city walls, the defenders were forced to retreat inside the fortress.{{sfn|Tansel|1953|p=130}} In the ensuing siege, the outer walls were breached by Ottoman forces, however the Serbians continued to resist inside the inner walls of the fortress.{{sfn|Tansel|1953|p=130}} Not wanting to waste time capturing the inner citadel, Mahmud lifted the siege diverted his army elsewhere, conquering [[Rudnik (mountain)|Rudnik]] and its environs before attacking and capturing the fortress of Golubac.{{sfn|Tansel|1953|p=130}} Subsequently, Mehmed who had returned from his campaign in Morea met up with Mahmud Pasha in [[Skopje]].<ref name=":10" />{{sfn|Uzunçarşılı|2019|p=20}} During this meeting, reports were received that a Hungarian army was assembling near the Danube to launch an offensive against the Ottoman positions in the region.{{sfn|Tansel|1953|p=131}} The Hungarians crossed the Danube near Belgrade, after which they marched south towards [[Užice]].{{sfn|Tansel|1953|p=131}} While the Hungarian troops were engaged in plunder near Užice, they got [[Battle of Užice|ambushed]] by the Ottoman forces in the region, forcing them to retreat.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Aşıkpaşazade |first=Ahmed |title=Osmanoğulları'nın Tarihi |publisher=K Kitaplığı |year=2003 |isbn=975-296-043-X |editor-last=Yavuz |editor-first=Kemal |pages=228-229228–229 |language=tr |trans-title=Aşıkpaşazade's History of the Ottomans}}</ref><ref name=":10" />{{sfn|Tansel|1953|p=131}} Despite this victory, for Serbia to be fully annexed into the empire, Smederevo still had to be taken.{{sfn|Tansel|1953|p=131}} The opportunity for its capture presented itself the following year. [[Stefan Branković]] was ousted from power in March 1459. After that the Serbian throne was offered to [[Stephen Tomašević]], the future king of Bosnia, which infuriated Sultan Mehmed. After Mahmud Pasha suppressed an uprising near [[Prizren|Pizren]],{{sfn|Uzunçarşılı|2019|p=20}} Mehmed personally led an army against the Serbian capital,<ref name=":10" /> capturing [[Smederevo]] on the 20th of June 1459.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SEMENDİRE |url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/semendire |access-date=2024-09-14 |website=TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi |language=tr}}</ref> After the surrender of the capital, other Serbian castles which continued to resist were captured in the following months,{{sfn|Uzunçarşılı|2019|p=20}} ending the existence of the [[Serbian Despotate]].<ref name="Miller1">{{cite book |title=The Balkans: Roumania, Bulgaria, Servia, and Montenegro |last=Miller |first=William |year=1896 |publisher=G.P. Putnam's Sons |location=London |isbn=978-0836999655 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J98DAAAAYAAJ |access-date=8 February 2011 |archive-date=29 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160429210022/https://books.google.com/books?id=J98DAAAAYAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Ottomans since the early 15th century tried to bring Wallachia ({{lang-langx|ota|والاچیا}}) under their control by putting their own candidate on the throne, but each attempt ended in failure. The Ottomans regarded Wallachia as a buffer zone between them and the [[Kingdom of Hungary]] and for a yearly tribute did not meddle in their internal affairs. The two primary Balkan powers, Hungary and the Ottomans, maintained an enduring struggle to make Wallachia their own vassal. To prevent Wallachia from falling into the Hungarian fold, the Ottomans freed young [[Vlad the Impaler|Vlad III]] (Dracula), who had spent four years as a prisoner of Murad, together with his brother [[Radu cel Frumos|Radu]], so that Vlad could claim the throne of Wallachia. His rule was short-lived, however, as Hunyadi invaded Wallachia and restored his ally [[Vladislav II of Wallachia|Vladislav II]], of the [[House of Dănești|Dănești]] clan, to the throne.

In spring 1466, Sultan Mehmed marched with a large army against Skanderbeg and the [[Albanians]]. Skanderbeg had repeatedly sought assistance from Italy,<ref name="Finkel63"/> and believed that the ongoing [[Ottoman–Venetian War (1463–1479)]] offered a golden opportunity to reassert Albanian independence; for the Venetians, the Albanians provided a useful cover to the Venetian coastal holdings of [[Durrës]] ({{lang-langx|it|Durazzo}}) and [[Shkodër]] ({{lang-langx|it|Scutari}}). The major result of this campaign was the construction of the fortress of [[Elbasan]], allegedly within just 25 days. This strategically sited fortress, at the lowlands near the end of the old ''[[Via Egnatia]]'', cut Albania effectively in half, isolating Skanderbeg's base in the northern highlands from the Venetian holdings in the south.<ref name="Finkel64">{{harvnb|Finkel|2007|p=64}}</ref> However, following the Sultan's withdrawal Skanderbeg himself spent the winter in Italy, seeking aid. On his return in early 1467, his forces sallied from the highlands, defeated [[Ballaban Badera|Ballaban Pasha]], and lifted the [[Second Siege of Krujë|siege]] of the fortress of Croia ([[Krujë]]); they also attacked Elbasan but failed to capture it.<ref name="Crusades327">Setton, Hazard & Norman (1969), p. 327</ref><ref name="Setton278">{{harvnb|Setton|1978|p=278}}</ref> Mehmed II responded by marching again against Albania. He energetically pursued the attacks against the Albanian strongholds, while sending detachments to raid the Venetian possessions to keep them isolated.<ref name="Crusades327"/> The Ottomans [[Third Siege of Krujë|failed again]] to take Croia, and they failed to subjugate the country. However, the winter brought an outbreak of plague, which would recur annually and sap the strength of the local resistance.<ref name="Setton283" /> Skanderbeg himself died of malaria in the Venetian stronghold of Lissus ([[Lezhë]]), ending the ability of Venice to use the Albanian lords for its own advantage.<ref name="Finkel64"/> The Albanians were left to their own devices and were gradually subdued over the next decade.

Mehmed's main concern with Constantinople was with rebuilding the city's defenses and repopulation. Building projects were commenced immediately after the conquest, which included the repair of the walls, construction of the citadel, a remarkable hospital with students and medical staff, a large cultural complex, two sets of [[barracks]] for the [[janissaries]], a ''tophane'' gun foundry outside [[Galata]], and a new palace.<ref name="Inalcik, Halil 1969, p. 236">Inalcik, Halil. "The Policy of Mehmed II toward the Greek Population of Istanbul and the Byzantine Buildings of the City". ''Dumbarton Oaks Papers'' 23, (1969): 229–249. p. 236</ref>{{Sfn|Nicolle|2000|p=84}} To encourage the return of the Greeks and the Genoese who had fled from Galata, the trading quarter of the city, he returned their houses and provided them with guarantees of safety. Mehmed issued orders across his empire that Muslims, Christians, and Jews should resettle in the city, demanding that five thousand households needed to be transferred to Constantinople by September.<ref name="Inalcik, Halil 1969, p. 236"/> From all over the Islamic empire, prisoners of war and deported people were sent to the city; these people were called "Sürgün" in Turkish ({{lang-grlangx|el|σουργούνιδες}} ''sourgounides''; "immigrants").<ref name="mw28">{{harvnb|Müller-Wiener|1977|p=28}}</ref>

Mehmed II was the last sultan to legally marry until 1533/1534, when [[Suleiman the Magnificent]] married his favorite concubine [[Hurrem Sultan|Hürrem Sultan]].

In 1481 Mehmed marched with the Ottoman army, but upon reaching [[Maltepe, Istanbul]], he became ill. He was just beginning new campaigns to capture [[Rhodes]] and [[southern Italy]], however according to some historians his next voyage was planned to overthrow the [[Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt]] and to capture Egypt and claim the [[caliphate]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.guncelkaynak.com/kimdir/memlukler-2/|title=Memlûkler|date=6 January 2015|work=Güncel Kaynağın Merkezi|access-date=9 April 2017|language=tr-TR|archive-date=13 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113062747/https://www.guncelkaynak.com/kimdir/memlukler-2/|url-status=dead}}</ref> But after some days he died, on 3 May 1481, at the age of forty-nine, and was buried in his ''[[türbe]]'' near the [[Fatih Mosque, Istanbul|Fatih Mosque]] complex.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.islamiclandmarks.com/turkey/fatih-mosque|title=Fatih Mosque|date=26 June 2014|website=Islamic Landmarks|language=en-GB|access-date=25 February 2020|archive-date=25 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200225151311/https://www.islamiclandmarks.com/turkey/fatih-mosque|url-status=live}}</ref> According to the historian Colin Heywood, "there is substantial circumstantial evidence that Mehmed was poisoned, possibly at the behest of his eldest son and successor, Bayezid."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Heywood |first=Colin |editor-last=Ágoston |editor-first=Gábor |editor2=Bruce Masters |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |chapter=Mehmed II |date=2009 |page=368 }}</ref>