Content deleted Content added
Sira Aspera (talk | contribs) mNo edit summary Tags: Manual revert Visual edit Mobile edit Mobile web edit Advanced mobile edit |
|||
| (378 intermediate revisions by more than 100 users not shown) | |||
Line 1:
{{short description|7th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire (r. 1444–1446, 1451–1481)}}
{{Redirect|Fatih Sultan Mehmed|the bridge that spans the Bosphorus strait|Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=
{{Use American English|date=March 2020}}
{{Infobox royalty
| image = Bellini, Gentile
| alt =
| caption = ''[[Portrait of
| title = [[Ottoman claim to Roman succession|
| succession = [[List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire|Sultan of the Ottoman Empire]] ([[Padishah]])
| moretext =
Line 22:
| death_date = {{death date and age|1481|5|3|1432|3|30|df=yes}}
| death_place = Hünkârçayırı (Tekfurçayırı), near [[Gebze]], Ottoman Empire
| burial_place = [[Fatih Mosque, Istanbul|Fatih Mosque]],
| spouse = {{plainlist|
* [[Gülbahar Hatun (wife of Mehmed II)|Gülbahar Hatun]]
Line 30:
*[[Anna Komnenos (daughter of David of Trebizond)|Anna Hatun]]
*[[Helena Palaiologina (daughter of Demetrios)|Helena Hatun]]
*[[Maria Gattilusio|Maria Hatun]]
* Hatice Hatun
}}
| spouse-type = Consorts
| issue = {{plainlist|
* [[Gevherhan Hatun]]▼
* [[Bayezid II]]
* [[Şehzade Mustafa (son of Mehmed II)|Şehzade Mustafa]]
* [[Cem Sultan|Şehzade
| issue-link = #Sons
▲* [[Gevherhan Hatun]]
| issue-pipe = Among others
| full name = Meḥemmed bin Murad Han<ref>{{cite book|title=Pashas, Begs, and Effendis: A Historical Dictionary of Titles and Terms in the Ottoman Empire|year=1997|publisher=Isis Press|page=150|author=Gustav Bayerle}}</ref>
| house = [[Ottoman dynasty|Ottoman]]
| house-type = Dynasty
| father = [[Murad II]]
| mother = [[Hüma Hatun]] {{small|(biological)}}<br/>[[Mara Branković]] {{small|(adoptive)}}
| signature_type = [[Tughra]]
| religion = [[Sunni Islam]]<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=pCxTCwAAQBAJ&dq=ottoman+sultans+were+sunni+muslims&pg=PT94 The Essential World History, Volume II: Since 1500.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180218091003/https://books.google.com.lb/books?id=pCxTCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT94&lpg=PT94&dq=ottoman+sultans+were+sunni+muslims&source=bl&ots=E0iXuCLnFN&sig=NSXc4uohUQcekb_tsYyJKXKwejk&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiC0P-z8a3ZAhXqAsAKHVdXAFUQ6AEIkwEwCQ#v=onepage&q=ottoman%20sultans%20were%20sunni%20muslims&f=false |date=18 February 2018 }} By William J. Duiker, Jackson J. Spielvogel</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=V8vQAgAAQBAJ&dq=ottoman+sultans+were+sunni+muslims&pg=PA88 The Rise of Turkey: The Twenty-First Century's First Muslim Power] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180218091256/https://books.google.com.lb/books?id=V8vQAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA88&lpg=PA88&dq=ottoman+sultans+were+sunni+muslims&source=bl&ots=GAXUcrYjUL&sig=e0xSI5owDuEjZaRdwsOpHXKyzhs&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjXkLnC8q3ZAhUMJcAKHUhTCTs4ChDoAQg2MAQ#v=onepage&q=ottoman%20sultans%20were%20sunni%20muslims&f=false |date=18 February 2018 }}. By Soner Cagaptay</ref>
Line 58:
| signature = Tughra of Mehmed II.svg
}}
'''Mehmed II''' ({{
In Mehmed II's first reign, he defeated the crusade led by [[John Hunyadi]] after the Hungarian incursions into his country broke the conditions of the truce per the [[Peace of Szeged|Treaties of Edirne and Szeged]]. When Mehmed II ascended the throne again in 1451, he strengthened the [[Ottoman
Mehmed continued his conquests in [[Anatolia]] with its reunification and in Southeast Europe as far west as [[Bosnia]]. At home, he made many political and social reforms
== Early life and first reign ==
[[File:Hunername accession Mehmed II.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Accession of Mehmed II in [[Edirne]], 1451]]
Mehmed II was born on 30 March 1432, in [[Edirne]], then the capital city of the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman state]]. His father was Sultan [[Murad II]] (1404–1451) and his mother [[Hüma Hatun]], a slave of uncertain origin.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Freely|first=John|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0D8MAQAAMAAJ&q=%22March+1432%22|title=The Grand Turk: Sultan Mehmet II
When Mehmed II was eleven years old he was sent to [[Amasya]] with his two ''lalas'' (advisors) to govern and thus gain experience, per the custom of Ottoman rulers before his time.{{Sfn|Nicolle|2000|p=19}} Sultan Murad II also sent a number of teachers for him to study under. This Islamic education had a great impact in molding Mehmed's mindset and reinforcing his Muslim beliefs. He was influenced in his practice of Islamic [[Wiktionary:epistemology#Noun|epistemology]] by practitioners of science, particularly by his mentor, [[Molla
After [[Murad II]] made peace with [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungary]] on
In 1446, while Murad II returned to the throne
==Conquests==
=== Conquest of Constantinople ===
{{Main|Fall of Constantinople}}
[[File:OttomanEmpire1451.png|thumb|The Ottoman Empire at the beginning of Mehmed II's second reign
[[File:Rumeli Castle.jpg|thumb|[[Roumeli Hissar Castle]], built by Sultan Mehmed II between 1451 and 1452, before the [[Fall of Constantinople]]<ref name="WDL">{{cite web|url=http://www.wdl.org/en/item/8836/|title=Bosphorus (i.e. Bosporus), View from Kuleli, Constantinople, Turkey|website=[[World Digital Library]]|date=1890–1900|access-date=12 December 2013|archive-date=20 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020201630/http://www.wdl.org/en/item/8836/|url-status=live}}</ref>]]
When Mehmed II ascended the throne again in 1451, he devoted himself to strengthening the Ottoman navy and made preparations for an attack on Constantinople. In the narrow [[Bosphorus|Bosphorus Straits]], the fortress [[Anadoluhisarı]] had been built by his great-grandfather [[Bayezid I]] on the Asian side; Mehmed erected an even stronger fortress called [[Rumelihisarı]] on the European side, and thus gained complete control of the strait. Having completed his fortresses, Mehmed proceeded to levy a toll on ships passing within reach of their cannon. A [[Republic of Venice|Venetian]] vessel ignoring signals to stop was sunk with a single shot and all the surviving sailors beheaded,<ref name="Silburn1912">Silburn, P. A. B. (1912).</ref> except for the captain, who was impaled and mounted
[[Abu Ayyub al-Ansari]], the companion and standard bearer of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, had died during the first [[Siege of Constantinople (674–678)]]. As Mehmed II's army approached Constantinople, Mehmed's sheikh [[Akshamsaddin]]{{sfn|Stavrides|2001|p=23}} discovered the tomb of Abu Ayyub al-Ansari. After the conquest, Mehmed built [[Eyüp Sultan Mosque]] at the site to emphasize the importance of the conquest to the Islamic world and highlight his role as [[Ghazi warriors|ghazi]].{{sfn|Stavrides|2001|p=23}}
In 1453, Mehmed commenced the siege of Constantinople with an army between 80,000 and 200,000 troops, an artillery train of over seventy large field pieces,{{sfn|Arnold|2001|p=111}} and a navy of 320 vessels, the bulk of them transports and storeships. The city was surrounded by sea and land; the fleet at the entrance of the [[Bosphorus]] stretched from shore to shore in the form of a crescent, to intercept or repel any assistance for Constantinople from the sea.<ref name="Silburn1912"/> In early April, the [[Fall of Constantinople|Siege of Constantinople]] began. At first, the city's walls held off the Turks, even though Mehmed's army used the new bombard designed by [[Orban]], a giant cannon similar to the [[Dardanelles Gun]]. The harbor of the [[Golden Horn]] was blocked by a [[boom (navigational barrier)|boom chain]] and defended by twenty-eight [[warship]]s.
On 22 April, Mehmed transported his lighter warships overland, around the [[Republic of Genoa|Genoese]] [[Genoese colonies|colony]] of [[Galata]], and into the Golden Horn's northern shore; eighty galleys were transported from the Bosphorus after paving a route, little over one mile, with wood. Thus, the Byzantines stretched their troops over a longer portion of the walls. About a month later, Constantinople fell, on 29 May, following a fifty-seven-day siege.<ref name="Silburn1912"/> After this conquest, Mehmed moved the Ottoman capital from [[Edirne|Adrianople]] to Constantinople.
Line 95:
The owl sounds the relief in the castle of Afrasiyab.</poem>}}
Some Muslim scholars claimed that a [[hadith]] in [[Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal|Musnad Ahmad]] referred specifically to Mehmed's conquest of Constantinople, seeing it as the fulfillment of a prophecy and a sign of the approaching apocalypse.<ref>{{ cite journal| last= Şahin| first= K.|date= 2010| title=Constantinople and the End Time: The Ottoman Conquest as a Portent of the Last Hour| journal=Journal of Early Modern History| volume=14|issue=4|pages= 317–354| doi= 10.1163/157006510X512223|mode=cs2}}</ref>
[[File:Zonaro GatesofConst.jpg|thumb|The entry of Sultan Mehmed II into [[Constantinople]], painting by [[Fausto Zonaro]] (1854–1929)]]
After the conquest of Constantinople, Mehmed claimed the title of [[Caesar (title)|caesar]] of the [[Roman Empire]] (''Qayser-i Rûm''), based on the assertion that Constantinople had been the seat and capital of the [[Roman Empire]] since 330 AD
Emperor [[Constantine XI Palaiologos]] died without producing an heir, and had Constantinople not fallen to the Ottomans, he likely would have been succeeded by the sons of his deceased elder brother. Those children were taken into the palace service of Mehmed after the fall of Constantinople. The oldest boy, renamed Has Murad, became a personal favorite of Mehmed and served as [[beylerbey]] of the [[Balkans]]. The younger son, renamed [[Mesih Pasha]], became admiral of the Ottoman fleet and [[sanjak-bey]] of the [[Sanjak of Gelibolu|Gallipoli]]. He eventually served twice as [[Grand Vizier]] under Mehmed's son, [[Bayezid II]].<ref>Lowry, Heath W. (2003). ''The Nature of the Early Ottoman State''. Albany, NY: SUNY Press.
After the fall of Constantinople, Mehmed would also go on to conquer the [[Despotate of Morea]] in the [[Peloponnese]] in [[Ottoman conquest of the Morea|two campaigns in 1458 and 1460
=== Conquest of Serbia (1454–1459) ===
{{further|List of campaigns of Mehmed the Conqueror|Ottoman Serbia}}
[[File:Siegebelgrade.jpg|thumb|[[Ottoman miniature]] of the [[Siege of Belgrade (1456)|Siege of Belgrade]], 1456]]
Mehmed II's first campaigns after Constantinople were in the direction of Serbia, which had been an Ottoman [[vassal state]] intermittently since the [[Battle of Kosovo]] in 1389. The Ottoman ruler had a connection with the [[Serbian Despotate]] – one of [[Murad II]]'s wives was [[Mara Branković]] – and he used that fact to claim Serbian lands. [[Đurađ Branković]]'s recently made alliance with the Hungarians, and his irregular payments of tribute, further served as justifications for the invasion. The Ottomans sent an ultimatum demanding the keys to some Serbian castles which formerly belonged to the Ottomans.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Uzunçarşılı |first=İsmail Hakkı |title=Osmanlı Tarihi Cilt II |publisher=Türk Tarih Kurumu |year=2019 |isbn=9789751600127 |pages=13–18 |language=tr |trans-title=History of the Ottomans Volume II}}</ref> When Serbia refused these demands, the Ottoman army led by Mehmed set out from [[Edirne]] towards Serbia in 1454, sometime after the 18th of April.<ref name=":4">Elizabeth A. Zachariadou, Romania and the Turks Pt. XIII p. 837-840, “First Serbian Campaigns of Mehemmed II (1454-1455)”</ref> Mehmed's forces quickly succeeded in capturing Sivricehisar (sometimes identified with the [[Ostrvica Fortress]]) and Omolhisar,<ref name=":5">Ibn Kemal, Tevarih-i Al-i Osman, VII. Defter, ed. Ş. Turan, 1957, pp. 109-118</ref> and [[Battle of Ostrvica|repulsed]] a Serbian cavalry force of 9,000 cavalry sent against them by the despot.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Jorga |first=Nicolae |title=Büyük Türk - Fatih Sultan Mehmed |publisher=Yeditepe Yayınevi |year=2018 |isbn=9786052070383 |pages=73–84 |language=tr}}</ref> Following these actions, the Serbian capital of [[Smederevo]] was put under siege by the Ottoman forces. Before the city could be taken, intelligence was received about an approaching Hungarian relief force led by Hunyadi, which caused Mehmed to lift the siege and start marching back to his domains.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Muresanu |first=Camil |title=John Hunyadi: Defender of Christendom |publisher=Center for Romanian Studies |year=2018 |isbn=9781592111152 |pages=205 |language=en}}</ref> By August the campaign was effectively over,<ref name=":4" /> Mehmed left a part of his force under the command of Firuz Bey in Serbia in anticipation of a possible offensive on Ottoman territories by Hunyadi.<ref name=":3" /> This force was defeated by a combined Hungarian-Serbian army led by Hunyadi and [[Nikola Skobaljić]] on the 2nd of October near [[Battle of Kruševac|Kruševac]], after which Hunyadi went on to raid Ottoman controlled Nish and Pirot before returning back to Belgrade.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last=Babinger |first=Franz |title=Fatih Sultan Mehmed ve Zamanı |publisher=Oğlak Yayıncılık |year=2003 |isbn=975-329-417-4 |pages=109 |language=tr |trans-title=Mehmed the Conqueror and His Times}}</ref> Roughly a month later, on the 16th of November, the Ottomans avenged their earlier defeat at Kruševac by defeating Skobaljić's army near Tripolje, where the Serbian voivode was captured and executed via impalement.<ref name=":7" /> Following this a temporary treaty was signed with the Serbian despot, where Đurađ would formally recognize the recently captured Serbian forts as Ottoman land, send thirty thousand [[florin|florins]] to the [[Sublime Porte|Porte]] as yearly tribute and provide troops for Ottoman campaigns.<ref name=":3" /> The 1454 campaign had resulted in the capture of fifty thousand prisoners from Serbia, four thousand of whom were settled in various villages near [[Constantinople]].<ref name=":3" /> The following year, Mehmed received reports from one of his frontier commanders about Serbian weakness against a possible invasion, the reports in combination with the dissatisfactory results of the 1454 campaign convinced Mehmed to initiate another campaign against Serbia.<ref name=":3" /> The Ottoman army marched on the important mining town of [[Novo Brdo]], which Mehmed put under [[Siege of Novo Brdo (1455)|siege]]. The Serbians couldn't resist the Ottoman army out in the open, thus resorted to fortifying their various settlements and having their peasants flee to either various fortresses or forests.<ref name=":6" /> After forty days of siege and intense cannon fire, Novo Brdo surrendered.<ref name=":6" /> Following the conquest of the city, Mehmed captured various other Serbian settlements in the surrounding area,<ref name=":5" /> after which he started his march back towards Edirne, visiting his ancestor [[Murad I]]'s grave in Kosovo on the way.<ref name=":4" />
In 1456, Mehmed decided to continue his momentum towards the northwest and capture the city of [[Belgrade]], which had been ceded to the [[Kingdom of Hungary]] by the Serbian despot [[Đurađ Branković]] in 1427. Significant preparations were made by the Sultan for the conquest of the city, including the casting of 22 large cannons alongside many smaller ones and the establishment of a navy which would sail up the [[Danube]] to aid the army during the siege.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last=Türkmen |first=İlhan |date=5 January 2015 |title=The Campaigns Against Serbia During the Reign of Mehmed the Conqueror per Ottoman Chronicles |trans-title= |journal=Asia Minor Studies - International Journal of Social Sciences |volume=3 |issue=5 |pages=115–132 |via=Dergipark}}</ref> The exact number of troops Mehmed commanded varies between sources,<ref name=":9">{{Cite book |last=Babinger |first=Franz |title=Fatih Sultan Mehmed ve Zamanı |publisher=Oğlak Yayıncılık |year=2003 |isbn=975-329-417-4 |pages=132–137 |language=tr |trans-title=Mehmed the Conqueror and His Times}}</ref> but the rumours of its size were significant enough to cause panic in Italy.<ref name=":10">{{Cite book |last=Setton |first=Kenneth M. |title=A History of the Crusades Volume VI |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |year=1989 |isbn=0-299-10740-X |pages=323–325 |language=en}}</ref> Ottoman troops began arriving at Belgrade on the 13th of June.<ref name=":8" /> After the necessary preparations were finished, Ottoman cannons started bombarding the city walls and Ottoman troops started filling the ditches in front of the walls with earth to advance forward.<ref name=":8" /> As despair started to set in amongst the defenders, news started arriving of a relief force assembling across the Danube under the command of John Hunyadi.<ref name=":8" /> Upon learning of this development, Mehmed held a war council with his commanders to determine the army's next actions.<ref name=":8" /> [[Karaca Pasha]] recommended that a part of the army should cross the Danube to counter the approaching relief army.<ref name=":11">{{Cite book |last=Tansel |first=Selahattin |title=Osmanlı Kaynaklarına Göre Fatih Sultan Mehmed'in Siyasi ve Askeri Faaliyeti |publisher=Türk Tarih Kurumu |year=1953 |isbn=9789751610812 |pages=122–123 |language=tr |trans-title=Mehmed the Conqueror's Political and Military Activity per Ottoman Sources}}</ref> This plan was rejected by the council, particularly due to the opposition by the Rumelian Begs.<ref name=":8" /> Instead, the decision was made to prioritize capturing the fortress, a move seen as a tactical blunder by modern historians.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":8" /> This allowed Hunyadi to set up camp with his army across the Danube uncontested.<ref name=":11" /> Shortly after, the Ottoman navy was defeated in a five hour long battle by the newly arrived Christian Danubian navy.<ref name=":11" /> Following this, Hunyadi's troops started entering the city to reinforce the besieged, which increased the morale of the defending forces.<ref name=":9" /> Infuriated by the unfolding events, Mehmed ordered a final attack to capture the city on the 21st of July, after continuous cannon fire building up to the day of the attack.<ref name=":9" /> Ottoman troops were initially successful in breaching the defences and entering the city, however were eventually repulsed by the defenders.<ref name=":10" /> The Christians pressed their advantage by launching a counter attack, which started pushing back the Ottoman forces,<ref name=":8" /> managing to advance as far as the Ottoman camp.<ref name=":3" /> At this crucial point of the battle, one of the viziers advised Mehmed to abandon the camp for his safety, which he refused to do so on the grounds that it would be a “sign of cowardice”.<ref name=":3" /> After this, Mehmed personally joined the fighting, accompanied by two of his [[Bey|begs]].<ref name=":8" /> The Sultan managed to personally kill three<ref name=":3" /> enemy soldiers before being injured, forcing him to abandon the battlefield.<ref name=":9" /> The news of their Sultan fighting alongside them and the arrival of reinforcements caused a morale boost amongst the Ottoman troops, which allowed them to go on the offensive again and push the Christian forces out of the Ottoman camp.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mureşanu |first=Camil |title=John Hunyadi: Defender of Christendom |publisher=Histria Books |year=2021 |isbn=978-1-59211-115-2 |pages=221–224 |language=en |quote=The janissaries, however, were still fighting vigorously. Mehmed II, although wounded by an arrow in his calf, stayed among them... Mehmed repelled the troops that had penetrated into his camp}}</ref><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":8" /> The actions of the Sultan had prevented a complete rout of the Ottoman army,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mixson |first=James D. |title=The Crusade of 1456: Texts and Documentation in Translation |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2022 |isbn=978-1-4875-3262-8 |pages=26 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":8" /> however, the army had been far too weakened to attempt to take the city again, causing the Ottoman war council to decide on ending the siege.<ref name=":8" /> The Sultan and his army began a retreat to Edirne during the night, without the Christian forces being able to pursue them.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jorga |first=Nicolae |title=Büyük Türk - Fatih Sultan Mehmed |publisher=Yeditepe Yayınevi |year=2018 |isbn=9786052070383 |pages=93–97 |language=tr}}</ref> Hunyadi died shortly after the siege, meanwhile [[Đurađ Branković]] regained possession of some parts of Serbia.
Shortly before the end of the year 1456, roughly 5 months after the [[Siege of Belgrade (1456)|Siege of Belgrade]], the 79-year-old Branković died. Serbian independence survived after him for only around three years, when the Ottoman Empire formally annexed Serbian lands following dissension among his widow and three remaining sons. Lazar, the youngest, poisoned his mother and exiled his brothers, but he died soon afterwards. In the continuing turmoil the oldest brother [[Stefan Branković]] gained the throne. Observing the chaotic situation in Serbia, the Ottoman government decided to definitively conclude the Serbian issue.{{sfn|Uzunçarşılı|2019|p=20}} The Grand Vizier [[Mahmud Pasha Angelović|Mahmud Pasha]] was dispatched with an army to the region in 1458, where he initially conquered [[Resava (river)#Region|Resava]] and a number of other settlements before moving towards Smederevo.{{sfn|Tansel|1953|p=130}} After a battle outside the city walls, the defenders were forced to retreat inside the fortress.{{sfn|Tansel|1953|p=130}} In the ensuing siege, the outer walls were breached by Ottoman forces, however the Serbians continued to resist inside the inner walls of the fortress.{{sfn|Tansel|1953|p=130}} Not wanting to waste time capturing the inner citadel, Mahmud lifted the siege diverted his army elsewhere, conquering [[Rudnik (mountain)|Rudnik]] and its environs before attacking and capturing the fortress of Golubac.{{sfn|Tansel|1953|p=130}} Subsequently, Mehmed who had returned from his campaign in Morea met up with Mahmud Pasha in [[Skopje]].<ref name=":10" />{{sfn|Uzunçarşılı|2019|p=20}} During this meeting, reports were received that a Hungarian army was assembling near the Danube to launch an offensive against the Ottoman positions in the region.{{sfn|Tansel|1953|p=131}} The Hungarians crossed the Danube near Belgrade, after which they marched south towards [[Užice]].{{sfn|Tansel|1953|p=131}} While the Hungarian troops were engaged in plunder near Užice, they got [[Battle of Užice|ambushed]] by the Ottoman forces in the region, forcing them to retreat.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Aşıkpaşazade |first=Ahmed |title=Osmanoğulları'nın Tarihi |publisher=K Kitaplığı |year=2003 |isbn=975-296-043-X |editor-last=Yavuz |editor-first=Kemal |pages=228–229 |language=tr |trans-title=Aşıkpaşazade's History of the Ottomans}}</ref><ref name=":10" />{{sfn|Tansel|1953|p=131}} Despite this victory, for Serbia to be fully annexed into the empire, Smederevo still had to be taken.{{sfn|Tansel|1953|p=131}} The opportunity for its capture presented itself the following year. [[Stefan Branković]] was ousted from power in March 1459. After that the Serbian throne was offered to [[Stephen Tomašević]], the future king of Bosnia, which infuriated Sultan Mehmed. After Mahmud Pasha suppressed an uprising near [[Prizren|Pizren]],{{sfn|Uzunçarşılı|2019|p=20}} Mehmed personally led an army against the Serbian capital,<ref name=":10" /> capturing [[Smederevo]] on the 20th of June 1459.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SEMENDİRE |url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/semendire |access-date=2024-09-14 |website=TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi |language=tr}}</ref> After the surrender of the capital, other Serbian castles which continued to resist were captured in the following months,{{sfn|Uzunçarşılı|2019|p=20}} ending the existence of the [[Serbian Despotate]].<ref name="Miller1">{{cite book |title=The Balkans: Roumania, Bulgaria, Servia, and Montenegro |last=Miller |first=William |year=1896 |publisher=G.P. Putnam's Sons |location=London |isbn=978-0836999655 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J98DAAAAYAAJ |access-date=8 February 2011 |archive-date=29 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160429210022/https://books.google.com/books?id=J98DAAAAYAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>
=== Conquest of Morea (1458–1460) ===▼
[[File:Sarayi Album 145ba.jpg|thumb|15th century portrait of Mehmed II (1432–1481), showing Italian influence]]▼
▲=== Conquest of the Morea (1458–1460) ===
The [[Despotate of the Morea]] bordered the southern Ottoman Balkans. The Ottomans had already invaded the region under [[Murad II]], destroying the Byzantine defenses – the [[Hexamilion wall]] – at the [[Isthmus of Corinth]] in 1446. Before the final siege of [[Constantinople]] Mehmed ordered Ottoman troops to attack the Morea. The despots, [[Demetrios Palaiologos]] and [[Thomas Palaiologos]], brothers of the last emperor, failed to send any aid. Their own incompetence resulted in an [[Morea revolt of 1453–1454|Albanian-Greek revolt]] against them, during which they invited in Ottoman troops to help put down the revolt.{{sfn|Babinger|1992|pp=125–126}} At this time, a number of influential Moreote Greeks and Albanians made private peace with Mehmed.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://angiolello.net/ARCHONS.pdf |title=Contemporary Copy of the Letter of Mehmet II to the Greek Archons 26 December 1454 (ASV Documenti Turchi B.1/11) |publisher=Angiolello.net |access-date=17 September 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130727041148/http://angiolello.net/ARCHONS.pdf |archive-date=27 July 2013 }}</ref> After more years of incompetent rule by the despots, their failure to pay their annual tribute to the Sultan, and finally their own revolt against Ottoman rule, Mehmed entered the Morea in May 1460. The capital [[Mystras|Mistra]] fell exactly seven years after Constantinople, on 29 May 1460. Demetrios ended up a prisoner of the Ottomans and his younger brother Thomas fled. By the end of the summer, the Ottomans had achieved the submission of virtually all cities possessed by the Greeks.▼
▲[[File:Sarayi Album 145ba.jpg|thumb|15th century portrait of Mehmed II (1432–1481), showing Italian influence]]
{{main|Ottoman conquest of the Morea}}
▲The [[Despotate of the Morea]] bordered the southern Ottoman Balkans. The Ottomans had already invaded the region under [[Murad II]], destroying the Byzantine defenses – the [[Hexamilion wall]] – at the [[Isthmus of Corinth]] in 1446. Before the final siege of [[Constantinople]], Mehmed ordered Ottoman troops to attack the Morea. The despots, [[Demetrios Palaiologos]] and [[Thomas Palaiologos]], brothers of the last emperor, failed to send any aid.
A few holdouts remained for a time. The island of [[Monemvasia]] refused to surrender, and it was ruled for a brief time by a Catalan corsair. When the population drove him out they obtained the consent of Thomas to submit to the Pope's protection before the end of 1460.{{sfn|Babinger|1992|pp=173–175}} The [[Mani Peninsula]], on the Morea's south end, resisted under a loose coalition of local clans, and the area then came under the rule of [[Republic of Venice|Venice]]. The last holdout was [[Salmeniko]], in the Morea's northwest. [[Graitzas Palaiologos]] was the military commander there, stationed at [[Salmeniko Castle]] (also known as Castle Orgia). While the town eventually surrendered, Graitzas and his garrison and some town residents held out in the castle until July 1461, when they escaped and reached Venetian territory.{{sfn|Babinger|1992|pp=176–177}}
Line 123:
=== Conquest of Trebizond (1460–1461) ===
Emperors of [[Empire of Trebizond|Trebizond]] formed alliances through royal marriages with various Muslim rulers. Emperor [[John IV of Trebizond]] married his daughter to the son of his brother-in-law, [[Uzun Hasan]],
After John's death in 1459, his brother [[David of Trebizond|David]] came to power and intrigued with various European powers for help against the Ottomans, speaking of wild schemes that included the conquest of [[Jerusalem]]. Mehmed II eventually heard of these intrigues and was further provoked to action by David's demand that Mehmed remit the tribute imposed on his brother.
Mehmed the Conqueror's response came in the summer of 1461. He led a sizable army from [[Bursa, Turkey|Bursa]] by land and the Ottoman navy by sea, first to [[Sinop, Turkey|Sinope]], joining forces with Ismail's brother Ahmed (the Red). He captured Sinope and ended the official reign of the Jandarid dynasty, although he appointed Ahmed as the governor of Kastamonu and Sinope, only to revoke the appointment the same year. Various other members of the Jandarid dynasty were offered important functions throughout the history of the Ottoman Empire. During the march to Trebizond,
{{blockquote|Mother, in my hand is the sword of Islam, without this hardship I should not deserve the name of ''[[Ghazi warriors|ghazi]]'', and today and tomorrow I should have to cover my face in shame before [[Allah]].{{sfn|Babinger|1992|p=193}}}}
Line 137:
[[File:AtaculdeNoapte.jpg|thumb|right|[[The Night Attack of Târgovişte]], which resulted in a failed assassination attempt of Mehmed]]
The Ottomans since the early 15th century tried to bring Wallachia ({{
Vlad III Dracula fled to Moldavia, where he lived under the protection of his uncle, [[Bogdan II of Moldavia|Bogdan II]]. In October 1451, Bogdan was assassinated and Vlad fled to Hungary. Impressed by Vlad's vast knowledge of the mindset and inner workings of the Ottoman Empire, as well as his hatred towards the Turks and new Sultan Mehmed II, Hunyadi reconciled with his former enemy and tried to make Vlad III his own
In 1456, three years after the Ottomans had conquered Constantinople, they threatened Hungary by besieging [[Belgrade]]. Hunyadi began a concerted
In 1459, Mehmed II sent envoys to Vlad to urge him to pay a delayed [[tribute]]{{sfn|Babinger|1992}} of 10,000 ducats and 500 recruits into the Ottoman forces. Vlad III Dracula refused and had the Ottoman envoys killed by nailing their [[turban]]s to their heads, on the pretext that they had refused to raise their "hats" to him, as they only removed their headgear before
Meanwhile, the Sultan sent the Bey of Nicopolis, [[Hamza Bey|Hamza Pasha]], to make peace and, if necessary, eliminate Vlad III.<ref name=explore>{{cite web|url=http://www.exploringromania.com/vlad-the-impaler-3.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090608112020/http://www.exploringromania.com/vlad-the-impaler-3.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=8 June 2009 |title=Vlad the Impaler second rule [3] |publisher=Exploringromania.com |access-date=17 August 2012}}</ref> Vlad III set an ambush; the Ottomans were surrounded and almost all of them caught and impaled, with Hamza Pasha impaled on the highest stake, as befit his rank.<ref name=explore/>
Line 154:
=== Conquest of Bosnia (1463) ===
[[File:Mehmed II ferman.jpg|thumb|Mehmed II's [[ahidnâme]] to the Catholic monks of the recently conquered Bosnia issued in 1463, granting them full religious freedom and protection
The despot of Serbia, [[Lazar Branković]], died in 1458, and a civil war broke out among his heirs that resulted in the Ottoman conquest of Serbia in 1459/1460. [[Stephen Tomašević]], son of the king of Bosnia, tried to bring Serbia under his control, but Ottoman expeditions forced him to give up his plan and Stephen fled to Bosnia, seeking refuge at the court of his father.{{sfn|Fine|1994|pp=575–581}} After some battles, Bosnia became tributary kingdom to the Ottomans.
Line 163:
{{Main|Ottoman–Venetian War (1463–1479)}}
[[File:"I Turchi respinti da Scutari" Gatteri's Etching of the Siege of Shkodra.jpg|thumb|right|Scene depicts the fifth and greatest assault upon the Shkodra Castle by Ottoman forces in the [[Siege of Shkodra]], 1478–79]]
According to the Byzantine historian [[Michael Critobulus]], hostilities broke out after an Albanian slave of the Ottoman commander of Athens fled to the Venetian fortress of Coron ([[Koroni]]) with 100,000 silver [[Aspron|aspers]] from his master's treasure. The fugitive then converted to Christianity, so Ottoman demands for his rendition were refused by the Venetian authorities.<ref name="Setton241">{{harvnb|Setton|1978|p=241}}</ref> Using this as a pretext in November 1462, the Ottoman commander in central Greece, [[Turahanoğlu Ömer Bey]], attacked and nearly succeeded in taking the strategically important Venetian fortress of Lepanto ([[Nafpaktos]]). On 3 April 1463, however, the governor of the Morea, Isa Beg, took the Venetian-held town of [[Argos, Peloponnese|Argos]] by treason.<ref name="Setton241"/>
The new alliance launched a two-pronged offensive against the Ottomans: a Venetian army, under the Captain General of the Sea [[Alvise Loredan]], landed in the Morea, while [[Matthias Corvinus]] invaded Bosnia.<ref name="Finkel63">{{harvnb|Finkel|2007|p=63}}</ref> At the same time, [[Pius II]] began assembling an army at [[Ancona]], hoping to lead it in person.<ref name="Shaw65">{{harvnb|Shaw|1976|p=65}}</ref> Negotiations were also begun with other rivals of the Ottomans, such as [[Karamanids]], [[Uzun Hassan]] and the [[Crimean Khanate]].<ref name="Shaw65"/>
Line 185:
=== Anatolian conquests (1464–1473) ===
[[File:Fetihname Fatih.jpg|Mehmed's ''Fetihname'' (Declaration of conquest) after the [[Battle of Otlukbeli]]|thumb|right|150px]]
During the post-[[Sultanate of Rum|Seljuks]] era in the second half of the [[
[[İbrahim II of Karaman]] was the ruler of Karaman, and during his last years, his sons began struggling for the throne. His heir apparent was [[İshak of Karaman]], the governor of [[Silifke]]. But [[Pir Ahmet of Karaman|Pir Ahmet]], a younger son, declared himself as the bey of Karaman in [[Konya]]. İbrahim escaped to a small city in western territories where he died in 1464. The competing claims to the throne resulted in an interregnum in the ''beylik''. Nevertheless, with the help of
Pir Ahmet as well as his brother [[Kasım of Karaman|Kasım]] escaped to Uzun Hasan's territory. This gave Uzun Hasan a chance to interfere. In 1472, the Akkoyunlu army invaded and raided most of Anatolia (this was the reason behind the [[Battle of Otlukbeli]] in 1473). But then Mehmed led a successful campaign against Uzun Hasan in 1473 that resulted in the decisive victory of the Ottoman Empire in the [[Battle of Otlukbeli]]. Before that, Pir Ahmet with Akkoyunlu help had captured Karaman. However, Pir Ahmet
Uniting the Anatolian ''beylik''s was first accomplished by Sultan [[Bayezid I]], more than fifty years before Mehmed II but after the destructive [[Battle of Ankara]] in 1402, the newly formed unification was gone. Mehmed II recovered Ottoman power over the other Turkish states, and these conquests allowed him to push further into Europe.
Another important political entity that shaped the Eastern policy of Mehmed II were the
=== War with Moldavia (1475–1476) ===
[[File:Paolo Veronese (Nachfolger) - Sultan Mohammed II. (1451 - 1481) - 2247 - Bavarian State Painting Collections.jpg|thumb|Mehmed the Second, portrait by [[Paolo Veronese]]]]
In 1456, [[Peter III Aaron]] agreed to pay the Ottomans an annual tribute of 2,000 gold ducats to ensure his southern borders, thus becoming the first Moldavian ruler to accept the Turkish demands.<ref>The A to Z of Moldova, Andrei Brezianu, Vlad Spânu, p. 273, 2010</ref> His successor [[Stephen the Great]] rejected Ottoman suzerainty and a series of fierce wars ensued.<ref>The A to Z of Moldova, Andrei Brezianu, Vlad Spânu, p. 242, 2010</ref> Stephen tried to bring Wallachia under his sphere of influence and so supported his own choice for the Wallachian throne. This resulted in an enduring struggle between different Wallachian rulers backed by Hungarians, Ottomans, and Stephen. An Ottoman army under Hadim Pasha (governor of Rumelia) was sent in 1475 to punish Stephen for his meddling in Wallachia; however, the Ottomans suffered a great defeat at the [[Battle of Vaslui]]. Stephen inflicted a decisive defeat on the Ottomans, described as "the greatest ever secured by the Cross against Islam,"{{By whom|date=July 2020}} with casualties, according to Venetian and Polish records, reaching beyond 40,000 on the Ottoman side. Mara Brankovic (Mara Hatun), the former younger wife of Murad II, told a Venetian envoy that the invasion had been worst ever defeat for the Ottomans. Stephen was later awarded the title "Athleta Christi" (Champion of Christ) by Pope Sixtus IV, who referred to him as "verus christianae fidei athleta" ("the true defender of the Christian faith"). Mehmed II assembled a large army and entered Moldavia in June 1476. Meanwhile, groups of [[Tartars]] from the [[Crimean Khanate]] (the Ottomans' recent ally) were sent to attack Moldavia. Romanian sources may state that they were repelled.<ref name="ir">Mihai Bărbulescu, [[Dennis Deletant]], [[Keith Hitchins]], [[Șerban Papacostea]], Pompiliu Teodor, ''Istoria României (History of Romania)'', Ed. Corint, Bucharest, 2002, {{ISBN|973-653-215-1}}, p. 157 {{Dead link|date=April 2017}}</ref> Other sources state that joint Ottoman and Crimean Tartar forces "occupied Bessarabia and took Akkerman, gaining control of the southern mouth of the Danube. Stephan tried to avoid open battle with the Ottomans by following a scorched-earth policy".<ref name="shaw">{{cite book |last=Shaw |first=Stanford J |year=1976 |title=History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey |volume=1: Empire of Gazis |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-29163-1 |page=68 }}</ref>
Finally, Stephen faced the Ottomans in battle. The Moldavians luring the main Ottoman forces into a forest that was set on fire, causing some casualties. According to another battle description, the defending Moldavian forces repelled several Ottoman attacks with steady fire from hand-guns.<ref>{{in lang|ro}} Akademia, ''[http://www.akademia.ro/articole.php?view=26 Rolul distinctiv al artileriei în marile oști moldovenești] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927092344/http://www.akademia.ro/articole.php?view=26 |date=27 September 2007 }} (The special role of artillery in the larger Moldavian armies)'', April 2000</ref> The attacking Turkish [[Janissary|Janissaries]] were forced to crouch on their stomachs instead of charging headlong into the defenders positions. Seeing the imminent defeat of his forces, Mehmed charged with his personal guard against the Moldavians, managing to rally the Janissaries, and turning the tide of the battle. Turkish Janissaries penetrated inside the forest and engaged the defenders in man-to-man fighting.
Line 206 ⟶ 205:
Stephen the Great retreated into the north-western part of Moldavia or even into the [[History of Poland (1385–1569)|Polish Kingdom]]<ref name="jn">{{in lang|ro}} [[Jurnalul Național]], ''[http://old.jurnalul.ro/articol.php?id=2790 Calendar 26 iulie 2005.Moment istoric]{{dead link|date=July 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} (Anniversaries on 26 July 2005. A historical moment)'' {{Dead link|date=April 2017}}</ref> and began forming another army.
The Ottomans were unable to conquer any of the major Moldavian strongholds ([[Suceava]], [[Neamț Citadel|Neamț]], and [[Hotin]])<ref name="ir"/> and were constantly harassed by small
===Conquest of Albania (1466–1478)===
[[File:Gjergj Kastrioti.jpg|thumb|right|Portrait of [[Skanderbeg]], prince of [[League of Lezhë]]]]
[[Skanderbeg]], a member of the [[Albanian nobility]] and a former member of the Ottoman ruling elite, led [[Skanderbeg's rebellion|a rebellion]] against the expansion of the Ottoman Empire into Europe. Skanderbeg, son of [[Gjon Kastrioti]] (who had joined the unsuccessful [[Albanian revolt of 1432–1436]]), united the [[Albanian principalities]] in a military and diplomatic alliance, the [[League of Lezhë]], in 1444. Mehmed II was never successful in his efforts to subjugate [[Albania]] while Skanderbeg was alive, even though he twice (1466 and 1467) led the Ottoman armies himself against [[Krujë]]. After Skanderbeg died in 1468, the Albanians
In spring 1466, Sultan Mehmed marched with a large army against Skanderbeg and the [[Albanians]]. Skanderbeg had repeatedly sought assistance from Italy,<ref name="Finkel63"/> and believed that the ongoing [[Ottoman–Venetian War (1463–1479)]] offered a golden opportunity to reassert Albanian independence; for the Venetians, the Albanians provided a useful cover to the Venetian coastal holdings of [[Durrës]] ({{
After Skanderbeg died, Mehmed II personally led the [[Siege of Shkodra (1478)|siege of Shkodra in 1478–79]], of which early Ottoman chronicler [[Aşıkpaşazade]] (1400–81) wrote, "All the conquests of Sultan Mehmed were fulfilled with the seizure of Shkodra."<ref>Pulaha, Selami. ''Lufta shqiptaro-turke në shekullin XV. Burime osmane''. Tirana: Universiteti Shtetëror i Tiranës, Instituti i Historisë dhe Gjuhësisë, 1968, p. 72</ref>{{Better source needed|date=April 2017|reason=Unable to verify source; English source needed to verify; there must be more objective sources available for this}}{{Better source needed|date=April 2017|reason=Unable to verify source; English source needed to verify; there must be more objective sources available for this}} The Venetians and Shkodrans resisted the assaults and continued to hold the fortress until Venice ceded Shkodra to the Ottoman Empire in the [[Treaty of Constantinople (1479)|Treaty of Constantinople]] as a condition of ending the war.
Line 224 ⟶ 223:
=== Expedition to Italy (1480) ===
{{main|Ottoman invasion of Otranto}}[[File:Mehmed II (1432-1481).jpg|thumb|A [[bronze medal]] of Mehmed II the Conqueror by [[Bertoldo di Giovanni]], 1480<ref>{{cite web|url=https://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O142648/mehmed-ii-medal-bellini-gentile/|title=Mehmed II {{!}} Bellini, Gentile {{!}} V&A Search the Collections|website=collections.vam.ac.uk|year=1480 |language=en|access-date=9 April 2017|archive-date=9 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170409203927/http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O142648/mehmed-ii-medal-bellini-gentile/|url-status=live}}</ref>|alt=A bronze medal of Mehmed II the Conqueror]]
[[File:Mehmed II Doppelbildnis.jpg|thumb|right|Portrait of Mehmed II with a young man on the left. It is assumed that Bellini himself did not create the two portraits in Istanbul, but only after his return to Venice. The young man is sometimes interpreted as Mehmed's son Cem, but there is no proof of this.]]
An Ottoman army under [[Gedik Ahmed Pasha]] invaded
In 1481 king [[Ferdinand I of Naples]] raised an army to be led by his son [[Alphonso II of Naples]]. A contingent of troops was provided by king [[Matthias Corvinus]] of Hungary. The city was besieged starting 1 May 1481. After the death of Mehmed on 3 May, ensuing quarrels about his succession possibly prevented the Ottomans from sending reinforcements to Otranto. So, the Turkish occupation of Otranto ended by negotiation with the Christian forces, permitting the Turks to withdraw to Albania, and Otranto was retaken by Papal forces in 1481.
Line 233 ⟶ 232:
===Return to Constantinople (1453–1478)===
{{further|History of Istanbul}}
[[File:Fatih Camii 1888-1910 yılları.jpg|thumb|right|Historical photo of [[Fatih Mosque, Istanbul|Fatih Mosque]], built by order of Sultan Mehmed II in Constantinople, the first [[imperial mosque]] built in the city after the Ottoman conquest
After conquering Constantinople, when Mehmed II finally entered the city through what is now known as the [[Topkapi Palace|Topkapi Gate]], he immediately rode his horse to the [[Hagia Sophia]], where he ordered the building to be protected. He ordered that an [[imam]] meet him there in order to chant the [[Shahada|Muslim Creed]]: "I testify that there is no
Mehmed's main concern with Constantinople was with rebuilding the city's defenses and repopulation. Building projects were commenced immediately after the conquest, which included the repair of the walls, construction of the citadel, a remarkable hospital with students and medical staff, a large cultural complex, two sets of [[barracks]] for the [[janissaries]], a ''tophane'' gun foundry outside [[Galata]], and
Mehmed restored the [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople|Ecumenical Orthodox Patriarchate]] (6 January 1454), [[Gennadius Scholarius|monk Gennadios]] being appointed as the first Orthodox Patriarch,{{Sfn|Nicolle|2000|p=17}} and established a
By the end of his reign, Mehmed's ambitious rebuilding program had changed the city into a thriving imperial capital.{{sfn|Stavrides|2001|p=23}} According to the contemporary Ottoman historian [[Neşri]], "Sultan Mehmed created all of Istanbul".{{sfn|Stavrides|2001|p=23}} Fifty years later, Constantinople had again become the largest city in Europe.
Two centuries later, the well-known Ottoman itinerant [[Evliya Çelebi]] gave a list of groups introduced into the city with their respective origins. Even today, many quarters of [[Istanbul]], such as [[Aksaray, Istanbul|Aksaray]] and [[Çarşamba, Istanbul|Çarşamba]], bear the names of the places of origin of their inhabitants.<ref name=mw28/> However, many people escaped again from the city, and there were several outbreaks of plague, so that in 1459 Mehmed allowed the deported Greeks to come back to the city.<ref name=mw28/> This measure apparently had no great success, since
== Administration and culture ==
Line 249 ⟶ 248:
[[File:Gennadios II and Mehmed II.jpg|thumb|200px|Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror with patriarch [[Gennadius II]] depicted on an 18th-century mosaic]]
Mehmed II introduced the word Politics into Arabic "Siyasah" from a book he published and claimed to be the collection of Politics doctrines of the Byzantine Caesars before him. He gathered Italian artists, [[humanism|humanists]] and Greek scholars at his court, allowed the [[Eastern Orthodox|Byzantine Church]] to continue functioning, ordered the patriarch [[Gennadius Scholarius|Gennadius]] to translate
Around the [[Fatih Mosque|grand mosque]] that he constructed, he erected [[Sahn-ı Seman Medrese|eight madrasas]], which, for nearly a century, kept their rank as the highest teaching institutions of the Islamic sciences in the empire.
Mehmed II allowed his subjects a considerable degree of religious freedom, provided they were obedient to his rule. After his conquest of Bosnia in 1463, he issued the [[Ahdname of Milodraž]] to the [[Bosnian Franciscans]], granting them the freedom to move freely within the
Within Constantinople, Mehmed established a ''[[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|millet]]'', or an autonomous religious community, and appointed the former Patriarch [[Gennadius Scholarius]] as religious leader for the Orthodox Christians<ref>''Renaissance and Reformation'': James Patrick, p. 170, 2007</ref> of the city. His authority extended to all Ottoman Orthodox Christians, and this excluded the [[Republic of Genoa|Genoese]] and [[Republic of Venice|Venetian]] settlements in the suburbs, and excluded Muslim and
===Centralization of government===
[[File:Costanzo da ferrara, medaglia con mehmed II, sultano ottomano, conquistatore di costantinopoli, 1478.jpg|thumb|Medal of Mehmet II, with mention "Emperor of Byzantium" ("Byzantii Imperatoris 1481"), made by [[Costanzo da Ferrara]] (1450-1524).]]
Mehmed the Conqueror consolidated power by building his imperial court, the divan, with officials who would be solely loyal to him and allow him greater autonomy and authority. Under previous sultans the divan had been filled with members of aristocratic families that sometimes had other interests and loyalties than that of the sultan. Mehmed the Conqueror transitioned the empire away from the [[Ghazi (warrior)|Ghazi]] mentality that emphasizes ancient traditions and ceremonies in governance<ref name="Architectural History Foundation">{{cite book|last1=Necipoğlu|first1=Gülru|title=Architecture, Ceremonial, and Power: The Topkapi Palace in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries|date=1991|publisher=Architectural History Foundation|page=21}}</ref> and moved
Once Mehmed had created an Ottoman bureaucracy and transformed the empire from a frontier society to a centralized government, he took care to appoint officials who would help him implement his agenda. His first grand vizier was [[Zaganos Pasha]], who was of devşirme background as opposed to an aristocrat,<ref name="Meḥemmed Ii">{{EI2|last1=İnalcık|first1=Halil|title=Meḥemmed II|volume=6|url=http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/mehemmed-ii-SIM_5111}}</ref> and Zaganos Pasha's successor, [[Mahmud Pasha Angelović]], was also of devşirme background.{{sfn|Babinger|1992|p=114}} Mehmed was the first sultan who was able to codify and implement kanunname solely based on his own independent authority.<ref name="Meḥemmed Ii"/> Additionally, Mehmed was able to later implement kanunname that went against previous tradition or precedent.<ref name="Architectural History Foundation"/> This was monumental in an empire that was so steeped in tradition and could be slow to change or adapt. Having viziers and other officials who were loyal to Mehmed was an essential part of this government because he transferred more power to the viziers than previous sultans had. He delegated significant powers and functions of government to his viziers as part of his new policy of imperial seclusions.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Necipoğlu|first1=Gülru|title=Architecture, Ceremonial, and Power: The Topkapi Palace in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries|date=1991|publisher=Architectural History Foundation|page=15}}</ref> A wall was built around the palace as an element of the more closed era, and unlike previous sultans Mehmed was no longer accessible to the public or even lower officials. His viziers directed the military and met foreign ambassadors, two essential parts of governing especially with his numerous military campaigns.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Necipoğlu|first1=Gülru|title=Architecture, Ceremonial, and Power: The Topkapi Palace in the fifteenth and sixteenth Centuries|date=1991|publisher=Architectural History Foundation|page=18}}</ref> One such notable ambassador was Kinsman Karabœcu Pasha (Turkish: "Karaböcü Kuzen Paşa"), who came from a rooted family of spies, which enabled him to play a notable role in Mehmed's campaign of conquering Constantinople.<ref name="historytoday.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.historytoday.com/bernard-lewis/europe-and-turks-civilization-ottoman-empire|title=Europe and the Turks: The Civilization of the Ottoman Empire {{!}} History Today|website=www.historytoday.com|access-date=9 April 2017|archive-date=12 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170512171213/http://www.historytoday.com/bernard-lewis/europe-and-turks-civilization-ottoman-empire|url-status=live}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=March 2022}}
=== Patronage of Renaissance artists ===
[[File:Sarayi Album 10a.jpg|thumb|right|Portrait of Mehmed, by [[Nakkaş Sinan Bey]] ([[Topkapı Palace]] albums)]]
Aside from his efforts to expand Ottoman dominion throughout the Eastern Mediterranean, Mehmed II also cultivated a large collection of Western art and literature, many of which were produced by Renaissance artists. From a young age, Mehmed had shown interest in Renaissance art and Classical literature and histories, with his school books having caricaturistic illustrations of ancient coins and portraiture sketched in distinctly European styles. Furthermore, he reportedly had two tutors, one trained in Greek and another in Latin, who read him Classical histories, including those of [[Laertius]], [[Livy]], and [[Herodotus]], in the days leading up to the fall of Constantinople.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Raby|first=J.|date=1 January 1982|title=A Sultan of Paradox: Mehmed the Conqueror as a Patron of the Arts|journal=Oxford Art Journal|language=en|volume=5|issue=1|pages=3–8|doi=10.1093/oxartj/5.1.3|issn=0142-6540}}</ref>
From early on in his reign, Mehmed invested in the patronage of Italian Renaissance artists. His first documented request in 1461 was a commission from artist Matteo de' Pasti, who resided in the court of the lord of [[Rimini]], [[Sigismondo Malatesta]]. This first attempt was unsuccessful, though, as Pasti was arrested in Crete by Venetian authorities accusing him of being an Ottoman spy. Later attempts would prove more fruitful, with some notable artists including Costanzo da Ferrara and Gentile Bellini both being invited to the Ottoman court.<ref name=":0" />
Aside from his patronage of Renaissance artists, Mehmed was also an avid scholar of contemporary and Classical literature and history. This interest culminated in Mehmed's work on building a massive multilingual library that contained over 8000 manuscripts in Persian, Ottoman Turkish, Arabic, Latin, and Greek, among other languages.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Necipoğlu|first=Gülru|title=Visual Cosmopolitanism and Creative Translation: Artistic Conversations with Renaissance Italy in Mehmed Ii's Constantinople|date=1 January 2012|journal=Muqarnas Online|volume=29|issue=1|pages=1–81|doi=10.1163/22118993-90000183|issn=0732-2992}}</ref> Of note in this large collection was Mehmed's Greek scriptorium, which included copies of
Historians believe that Mehmed's widespread cultural and artistic tastes, especially those aimed towards the West, served various important diplomatic and administrative functions. His patronage of Renaissance artists have been interpreted as a method of diplomacy with other influential Mediterranean states, significantly many Italian states including the Kingdom of Naples and the Republic of Florence.<ref name=":1" /> Furthermore, historians speculate that his Greek scriptorium was used to educate Greek chancellery officials in an attempt to reintegrate former Byzantine diplomatic channels with several Italian states that conducted their correspondences in Greek.<ref name=":2" /> Importantly, historians also assert that Mehmed's vast collection of art and literature worked towards promoting his imperial authority and legitimacy, especially in his newly conquered lands. This was accomplished through various means, including the invocation of Mehmed's image as an Oriental neo-Alexandrian figure, which is seen through shared helmet ornaments in depictions of Mehmed and Alexander on medallion portraits produced during Mehmed's reign, as well as being a leitmotiv in
Mehmed's affinity towards the Renaissance arts, and his strong initiative in its creation and collection, did not have a large base of support within his own court. One of the many opponents to Mehmed's collection was his own son and future Sultan, Bayezid II, who was backed by powerful religious and Turkish factions in his opposition. Upon his accession, Bayezid II sold Mehmed's collection of portraits and disposed of his statuary.<ref name=":0" />
Line 278 ⟶ 277:
=== Consorts ===
Mehmed II was the last sultan to legally marry until 1533/1534, when [[Suleiman the Magnificent]] married his favorite concubine [[Hurrem Sultan|Hürrem Sultan]].
Mehmed II's eight known consorts are:<ref>Necdet Sakaoğlu (2008). Bu mülkün kadın sultanları: Vâlide sultanlar, hâtunlar, hasekiler, kadınefendiler, sultanefendiler. Oğlak publications. pp. 110–112. {{ISBN
*[[Gülbahar Hatun (wife of Mehmed II)|Gülbahar Hatun]]<ref name="Edmonds 1997">{{cite book|last=Edmonds|first=Anna|title=Turkey's Religious Sites|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xVbkAAAAMAAJ&q=An+Albanian+by+birth,+legend+also+has+it+that+Gulbahar+Hatun+was+a+French+princess+kidnapped+for+the+sultan's+harem.|publisher=Damko|isbn=975-8227-00-9|page=1997|year=1997|access-date=12 October 2020|archive-date=12 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201012041256/https://books.google.com/books?id=xVbkAAAAMAAJ&dq=G%C3%BClbahar+Albanian&q=An+Albanian+by+birth%2C+legend+also+has+it+that+Gulbahar+Hatun+was+a+French+princess+kidnapped+for+the+sultan%27s+harem.|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Babinger|1992|p=51}} Mother of Bayezid II.
*[[Gülşah Hatun]]. Mother of Şehzade Mustafa.
*[[Sittişah Hatun|Sittişah Mukrime Hatun]].<ref>Wedding portrait, [http://nauplion.net/M2-SittHatun.jpg Nauplion.net] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304122825/http://nauplion.net/M2-SittHatun.jpg |date=4 March 2016 }}</ref> Sometimes mistakenly believed to be the mother of Bayezid II. Called also Sitti Hatun. Daughter of [[Suleiman of Dulkadir|Dulkadiroğlu Süleyman Bey]], sixth ruler of [[Beylik of Dulkadir|Dulkadir]], she was his
*[[Çiçek Hatun]]. Mother of Şehzade Cem.
*[[Anna Komnenos (daughter of David of Trebizond)|Anna Hatun]]. Daughter of the Greek emperor of [[Trabzon|Trebizond]] [[David of Trebizond|David II Komnenos]] and his wife [[Helena Kantakouzene, Empress of Trebizond|Helena Kantakuzenos]]. The marriage was initially proposed by her father, but Mehmed refused. However, after the [[Trebizond Campaign|conquest of Trebizond]] in 1461, Anna entered
*[[Helena Palaiologina (daughter of Demetrios)|Helena Hatun]] (
*Maria Hatun. Born [[Maria Gattilusio]], she was widow of [[Alexander of Trebizond|Alexander Komnenos Asen]],
*Hatice Hatun. Daughter of [[Zagan Pasha|Zaganos Mehmed Pasha]] by his first wife Sitti Nefise Hatun. She entered the harem in 1463
===Sons===
Mehmed II had at least four sons:<ref>Uluçay 2011,
*[[Bayezid II]] (3 December 1447
*[[
*[[Cem Sultan|Şehzade Cem]] (22 December 1459, Constantinople – 25 February 1495; [[Capua]], [[Kingdom of Naples]], Italy) – son of Çiçek Hatun. Governor of Konya after the death of his brother Mustafa, he fought for the throne against his half-brother Bayezid. He died in exile.
*Şehzade Nureddin. Probably died as an infant.
===Daughters===
Mehmed II had at least four daughters:<ref>Leslie P. Peirce (1993). ''The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire''. Oxford University Press. pp.
*[[Gevherhan Hatun (daughter of Mehmed the Conqueror)|Gevherhan Hatun]] (1446
*Ayşe Hatun.
*Kamerhan Hatun. She married her cousin Hasan Bey, son of [[
*''Fülane'' Hatun.
== Personal life ==
[[File:OttomanEmpire1481.png|thumb|right|The territorial extent of the Ottoman Empire upon the death of Mehmed II
Some sources indicate that Mehmed had a passion for his hostage and [[favourite]], [[Radu the Fair]].<ref>{{harvnb|Babinger|1992|p=207}}</ref> Young men condemned to death were spared and added to Mehmed's [[seraglio]] if he found them attractive, and [[the Porte]] went to great lengths to procure young noblemen for him.<ref name="PhilippidesHanak2011">{{cite book|author1=[[Marios Philippides]]|author2=Walter K. Hanak|title=The" Siege and the Fall of Constantinople in 1453: Historiography, Topography, and Military Studies|year=2011|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=978-1-4094-1064-5|pages=255–256}}</ref>▼
Mehmed had a strong interest in ancient Greek and medieval Byzantine civilization. His heroes were [[Achilles]] and [[Alexander the Great]] and he could discuss Christian religion with some authority.{{Sfn|Nicolle|2000|p=19}} He was reputed to be fluent in several languages, including [[Ottoman Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Serbian language|Serbian]], [[
At times, he assembled the [[Ulama]], or learned Muslim teachers, and caused them to discuss theological problems in his presence. During his reign, mathematics, astronomy, and theology reached their highest level among the Ottomans. His social circle included a number of humanists and sages such as [[Ciriaco de' Pizzicolli]] of Ancona, [[Benedetto Dei]] of Florence and [[Michael Critobulus]] of Imbros,<ref name="historytoday.com"/> who mentions Mehmed as a [[Philhellene]] thanks to his interest in Grecian antiquities and relics. It was on his orders that the [[Parthenon]] and other Athenian monuments were spared destruction. Besides, Mehmed II himself was a poet writing under the name "Avni" (the helper, the helpful one) and he left a classical [[diwan (poetry)|diwan]] poetry collection.
▲Some sources
== Death and legacy==
Line 316 ⟶ 317:
[[File:1000 TL reverse.jpg|thumb|Mehmed II on the backside of 1,000 [[Turkish lira]] dated 1986.]]
In 1481 Mehmed marched with the Ottoman army, but upon reaching [[Maltepe, Istanbul]], he became ill. He was just beginning new campaigns to capture [[Rhodes]] and [[southern Italy]], however according to some historians his next voyage was planned to overthrow the [[Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt]] and to capture Egypt and claim the [[caliphate]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.guncelkaynak.com/kimdir/memlukler-2/|title=Memlûkler|date=6 January 2015|work=Güncel Kaynağın Merkezi|access-date=9 April 2017|language=tr-TR|archive-date=13 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113062747/https://www.guncelkaynak.com/kimdir/memlukler-2/|url-status=dead}}</ref> But after some days he died, on 3 May 1481, at the age of forty-nine, and was buried in his ''[[türbe]]'' near the [[Fatih Mosque, Istanbul|Fatih Mosque]] complex.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.islamiclandmarks.com/turkey/fatih-mosque|title=Fatih Mosque|date=26 June 2014|website=Islamic Landmarks|language=en-GB|access-date=25 February 2020|archive-date=25 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200225151311/https://www.islamiclandmarks.com/turkey/fatih-mosque|url-status=live}}</ref> According to the historian Colin Heywood, "there is substantial circumstantial evidence that Mehmed was poisoned, possibly at the behest of his eldest son and successor, Bayezid."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Heywood |first=Colin |editor-last=Ágoston |editor-first=Gábor |editor2=Bruce Masters |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |chapter=Mehmed II |date=2009 |page=368 }}</ref>
The news of Mehmed's death caused great rejoicing in Europe; church bells were rung, and celebrations held. The news was proclaimed in Venice thus: "La Grande Aquila è morta!" ('The Great Eagle is dead!')<ref>''The Grand Turk'': John Freely, p. 180, 2009</ref><ref>''Minorities and the destruction of the Ottoman Empire'', Salâhi Ramadan Sonyel, p. 14, 1993</ref>
Mehmed II is recognized as the first sultan to codify criminal and constitutional law, long before [[Suleiman the Magnificent]]; he thus established the classical image of the autocratic Ottoman sultan. Mehmed's thirty
Istanbul's [[Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge]] (completed 1988), which crosses the Bosporus Straits, is named after him, and his name and picture appeared on the Turkish 1000 [[Turkish lira|lira]] note from 1986 to 1992.<ref>تاريخ الدولة العليّة العثمانية، تأليف: الأستاذ محمد فريد بك المحامي، تحقيق: الدكتور إحسان حقي، دار النفائس، الطبعة العاشرة: 1427 هـ – 2006 م، صفحة:178–177 {{ISBN|9953-18-084-9}}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=Citation is not in English making difficult to verify; there must be a better English source available|date=April 2017}}<ref>[http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/eng/ Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090615060512/http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/eng/ |date=15 June 2009 }}. Banknote Museum: 7. Emission Group – One Thousand Turkish Lira – [http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E7/268.htm I. Series] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110616144640/http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E7/268.htm |date=16 June 2011 }} & [http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E7/270.htm II. Series] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110616144818/http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E7/270.htm |date=16 June 2011 }}. – Retrieved on 20 April 2009.</ref>
==Portrayal in popular culture==
* Mehmed is the [[:wikt:eponym|eponym]]ous subject of [[Gioachino Rossini|Rossini's]] 1820 opera, ''[[Maometto II]]''. Rossini and librettist [[Cesare della Valle]] offer a nuanced picture of Mehmed, portraying him as a fearless and magnanimous leader, even on the verge of conquering [[Euboea|Negroponte]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/31/arts/music/a-rossini-masterwork-ahead-of-its-time.html|title=A Rossini Masterwork Ahead of Its Time|first=Anthony|last=Tommasini|newspaper=The New York Times|date=30 July 2012|access-date=24 April 2018|archive-date=24 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180424140845/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/31/arts/music/a-rossini-masterwork-ahead-of-its-time.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Portrayed by Sami Ayanoğlu in the Turkish film ''[[The Conquest of Constantinople]]'' (1951)
* Portrayed by [[Devrim Evin]] the Turkish film
* Portrayed by [[Mehmet Akif Alakurt]] in the Turkish television series ''[[Fatih (TV series)|Fatih]]'' (2013).
* Portrayed by [[İsmail Hacıoğlu]] in the Turkish surreal comedy series ''[[:tr:Osmanlı Tokadı (dizi)|Osmanlı Tokadı]]'' (2013).
* Portrayed by [[Dominic Cooper]] in ''[[Dracula Untold]]''.
* Portrayed by [[Kenan İmirzalıoğlu]] in the Turkish television series ''[[:tr:|Mehmed Bir Cihan Fatihi]]'' (2018).
* Portrayed by [[Cem Yiğit Üzümoğlu]] in the docuseries ''[[Rise of Empires: Ottoman]]'' (2020)
* His childhood is portrayed by Miraç Sözer in web series [[:tr:|Kızılelma: Bir Fetih Öyküsü]] (2023).<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.gzt.com/infografik/derin-tarih/kizilelma-bir-fetih-oykusu-25759 | title=Kızılelma: Bir Fetih Öyküsü | date=11 May 2023 | access-date=28 November 2023 | archive-date=3 December 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231203124648/https://www.gzt.com/infografik/derin-tarih/kizilelma-bir-fetih-oykusu-25759 | url-status=live }}</ref>
* Portrayed by [[Serkan Çayoğlu]] in the Turkish television series "Mehmed: Fetihler Sultanı" (2024).<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.cnnturk.com/magazin/mehmed-fetihler-sultani-mehmed-kimdir-serkan-cayoglu-kac-yasinda-hangi-dizilerde-oynadi-2089325 |title=Mehmed: Fetihler Sultanı Mehmed kimdir? Serkan Çayoğlu kaç yaşında, hangi dizilerde oynadı? |access-date=6 March 2024 |archive-date=7 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240307221059/https://www.cnnturk.com/magazin/mehmed-fetihler-sultani-mehmed-kimdir-serkan-cayoglu-kac-yasinda-hangi-dizilerde-oynadi-2089325 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.milliyet.com.tr/cadde/en-cok-fatih-e-duygulaniyor-1772988 |title=En çok 'Fatih'e duygulanıyor |date=5 October 2013 |access-date=6 March 2024 |archive-date=7 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240307221059/https://www.milliyet.com.tr/cadde/en-cok-fatih-e-duygulaniyor-1772988 |url-status=live }}</ref>
== See also ==
* [[Classical Age of the Ottoman Empire]]
* [[Decline of the Byzantine Empire]]
Line 342 ⟶ 345:
===Citations===
{{Reflist}}
===Sources===
{{refbegin}}
Line 385 ⟶ 389:
* {{cite book | last=Stavrides | first=Théoharis | title=The Sultan of Vezirs: The Life and Times of the Ottoman Grand Vezir Mahmud Pasha Angelovic (1453–1474) | publisher=Brill | year=2001| isbn=978-90-04-12106-5}}
{{refend}}
==External links==
{{NIE Poster|year=1905|Mohammed (sultans)|Mohammed II}}
{{Commons category|Mehmed II}}
{{Wikiquote}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081121172919/http://nauplion.net/M2-MEHMED-ElFatih-1.html Contemporary portraits]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120305040011/http://www.ccel.org/ccel/gibbon/decline/files/volume2/chap68.htm Chapter LXVIII: "Reign of Mahomet the Second, Extinction of Eastern Empire"] by [[Edward Gibbon]]
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p0038xbd Constantinople Siege & Fall] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190104173556/https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p0038xbd |date=4 January 2019 }}, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Roger Crowley, Judith Herrin & Colin Imber (''[[In Our Time (radio series)|In Our Time]]'', 28 December 2006)
{{S-start}}
Line 416 ⟶ 422:
[[Category:1481 deaths]]
[[Category:Turkish Muslims]]
[[Category:15th-century
[[Category:
[[Category:Fall of Constantinople]]
[[Category:Medieval child monarchs]]
Line 427 ⟶ 431:
[[Category:People from Edirne]]
[[Category:Turkish poets]]
[[Category:
| |||