Computer engineering: Difference between revisions

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'''Computer engineering''' ('''CoE''' or '''CpE''') is a branch of [[computer science]] and [[electronicelectrical engineering]] that integrates several fields of [[computerelectrical scienceengineering]] and, [[electronicelectronics engineering]] and [[Computer Science]] required to develop [[computer hardware]] and [[software]].<ref>{{Cite book

Computer engineers require training in [[electronicelectrical engineering]], [[computerelectronic scienceengineering]], [[Computer Science]], hardware-software integration, [[software design]], and [[software engineering]]. It uses the techniques and principles of electrical engineering and computer science, and can encompass areas such as [[Artificial Intelligence (AI)|artificial intelligence (AI)]], [[robotics]], [[Computer network|computer networks]], [[computer architecture]] and [[Operating system|operating systems]]. Computer engineers are involved in many hardware and software aspects of [[computing]], from the design of individual [[microcontroller]]s, [[microprocessor]]s, [[personal computer]]s, and [[supercomputer]]s, to [[circuit design]]. This field of engineering not only focuses on how computer systems themselves work, but also on how to integrate them into the larger picture.<ref>{{Cite web

The modern [[personal computer]] emerged in the 1970s, after several breakthroughs in [[semiconductor]] technology. These include the first working [[transistor]] by [[William Shockley]], [[John Bardeen]] and [[Walter Brattain]] at [[Bell Labs]] in 1947,<ref>{{cite web |title=1947: Invention of the Point-Contact Transistor |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/invention-of-the-point-contact-transistor/ |website=The Silicon Engine |publisher=[[Computer History Museum]] |access-date=9 October 2019}}</ref> in 1955, silicon dioxide surface passivation by [[Carl Frosch]] and Lincoln Derick,<ref>{{Cite patent|number=US2802760A|title=Oxidation of semiconductive surfaces for controlled diffusion|gdate=1957-08-13|invent1=Lincoln|invent2=Frosch|inventor1-first=Derick|inventor2-first=Carl J.|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US2802760A}}</ref> the first planar silicon dioxide transistors by Frosch and Derick in 1957,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Frosch |first1=C. J. |last2=Derick |first2=L |date=1957 |title=Surface Protection and Selective Masking during Diffusion in Silicon |url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1149/1.2428650 |journal=Journal of the Electrochemical Society |language=en |volume=104 |issue=9 |pages=547 |doi=10.1149/1.2428650}}</ref> [[planar process]] by [[Jean Hoerni]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lojek |first1=Bo |title=History of Semiconductor Engineering |date=2007 |publisher=[[Springer Science & Business Media]] |isbn=9783540342588 |pages=120 & 321–323}}</ref><ref name="Bassett46">{{cite book |last1=Bassett |first1=Ross Knox |title=To the Digital Age: Research Labs, Start-up Companies, and the Rise of MOS Technology |date=2007 |publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]] |isbn=9780801886393 |page=46 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UUbB3d2UnaAC&pg=PA46}}</ref><ref>{{patent|US|3025589|Hoerni, J. A.: "Method of Manufacturing Semiconductor Devices” filed May 1, 1959}}</ref> the [[monolithic integrated circuit]] chip by [[Robert Noyce]] at [[Fairchild Semiconductor]] in 1959,<ref name="Saxena140">{{cite book |last1=Saxena |first1=Arjun N. |title=Invention of Integrated Circuits: Untold Important Facts |date=2009 |publisher=[[World Scientific]] |isbn=9789812814456 |page=140 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-3lpDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA140}}</ref> the [[MOSFET|metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor]] (MOSFET, or MOS transistor) demonstrated by [[Mohameda Atalla]] and [[Dawon Kahng]]team at Bell Labs in 1959,1960<ref name="computerhistory">{{citeCite journal|url=https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/metal-oxide-semiconductor-mos-transistor-demonstrated/|title=1960book - Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Transistor Demonstrated|journallast=TheLojek Silicon Engine|publisherfirst=[[Computer History Museum]]}}</ref><ref name="computerhistory-transistor">{{cite webBo |title=Who Invented the Transistor? |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/atchm/who-invented-the-transistor/ |website=[[Computer History Museum]]of |date=4Semiconductor December 2013Engineering |access-date=20 July 2019}}</ref><ref name="triumph">{{cite web2007 |titlepublisher=TriumphSpringer-Verlag ofBerlin the MOS TransistorHeidelberg |urlisbn=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q6fBEjf9WPw | archive978-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/q6fBEjf9WPw| archive3-date=2021540-1234258-118 | url-statuslocation=live|website=[[YouTube]]Berlin, |publisher=[[Computer History Museum]]Heidelberg |access-datepage=21 July 2019 |date=6 August 2010}}{{cbignore321}}</ref> and the single-chip [[microprocessor]] ([[Intel 4004]]) by [[Federico Faggin]], [[Marcian Hoff]], [[Masatoshi Shima]] and [[Stanley Mazor]] at [[Intel]] in 1971.<ref name="computerhistory1971">{{cite web |title=1971: Microprocessor Integrates CPU Function onto a Single Chip |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/microprocessor-integrates-cpu-function-onto-a-single-chip/ |website=[[Computer History Museum]] |access-date=22 July 2019}}</ref>

Computer engineering is referred to as [[computer science and engineering]] at some universities. Most entry-level computer engineering jobs require at least a bachelor's degree in computer engineering, electrical engineering or computer science. Typically one must learn an array of [[mathematics]] such as [[calculus]], [[linear algebra]] and [[differential equation]]s, along with [[computer science]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://engineering.utdallas.edu/academics/undergraduate-majors/undergrad-advising/current-students/|website=The University of Texas at Dallas|date=January 8, 2024|title=Erik Jonsson School of Engineering and Computer Science}}</ref> Degrees in [[electronic engineering|electronic]] or [[Electrical engineering|electric engineering]] also suffice due to the similarity of the two fields. Because hardware engineers commonly work with computer software systems, a strong background in computer programming is necessary. According to BLS, "''a computer engineering major is similar to electrical engineering but with some computer science courses added to the curriculum''".<ref name="CHE">{{cite web|url=http://www.bls.gov/ooh/architecture-and-engineering/computer-hardware-engineers.htm|title=Computer Hardware Engineers|date=January 8, 2014|publisher=Bureau of Labor Statistics|access-date=July 20, 2012}}</ref> Some large firms or specialized jobs require a master's degree.

It is also important for computer engineers to keep up with rapid advances in [[technology]]. Therefore, many continue learning throughout their careers. This can be helpful, especially when it comes to learning new skills or improving existing ones. For example, as the relative cost of fixing a [[Bug (programming)|bug]] increases the further along it is in the software development cycle, there can be greater cost savings attributed to developing and testing for quality code as soon as possible in the process, particularly before release.<ref name="The cost of fixing a bug">{{cite web|url=http://www.feabhas.com/sites/default/files/uploads/News/Feabhas_Infographic_FINAL.pdf|title=Feabhas_Infographic_FINAL|website=feabhas}}</ref>

According to the [[Bureau of Labor Statistics|BLS]], Job Outlook employment for computer hardware engineers, the expected ten-year growth from 2019 to 2029 for computer hardware engineering was an estimated 2% and a total of 71,100 jobs. ("''Slower than average''" in their own words when compared to other occupations)".<ref name="hweng">{{cite web|url=http://www.bls.gov/ooh/architecture-and-engineering/computer-hardware-engineers.htm|title=Computer Hardware Engineers: Occupational Outlook Handbook|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics}}</ref> This is a decrease from the 2014 to 2024 BLS computer hardware engineering estimate of 3% and a total of 77,700 jobs.; "<ref name="hweng"/> ''and is down from 7% for the 2012 to 2022 BLS estimate<ref name="hweng" /> and is further down from 9% in the BLS 2010 to 2020 estimate.''"<ref name="hweng" />" Today, computer hardware is somehowsomewhat equal{{clarify|date=June 2019}} to electronic and computer engineering (ECE) and has been divided into many subcategories;, the most significant{{citation needed|date=June 2019}} isbeing [[Embedded system|embedded system design]].<ref name = "CHE" />

According to the U.S. [[Bureau of Labor Statistics]] (BLS), "''computer applications software engineers and computer systems software engineers are projected to be among the faster than average growing occupations''" The expected ten-year growth {{as of|2014|lc=true}} for computer software engineering was an estimated seventeen percent and there was a total of 1,114,000 jobs that same year.<ref name="softdev">{{cite web|url=http://www.bls.gov/ooh/computer-and-information-technology/software-developers.htm|title=Software Developers: Occupational Outlook Handbook|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics}}</ref> This is down from the 2012 to 2022 BLS estimate of 22% for software developers.<ref name = "C.S.E.">{{cite web |title=Computer Software Engineer |url=http://www.bls.gov/k12/computers04.htm |publisher=Bureau of Labor Statistics |date=March 19, 2010 |access-date=July 20, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130726002354/http://www.bls.gov/k12/computers04.htm |archive-date=July 26, 2013}}</ref><ref name="softdev" /> And, further down from the 30% 2010 to 2020 BLS estimate.<ref name = "CSE2">{{cite web |title=Software Developers |url=http://www.bls.gov/ooh/computer-and-information-technology/software-developers.htm |date=January 8, 2014 |publisher=Bureau of Labor Statistics |access-date=July 21, 2012}}</ref> In addition, growing concerns over cybersecurity add up to put computer software engineering high above the average rate of increase for all fields. However, some of the work will be outsourced in foreign countries.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2020-08-04/big-tech-wants-you-to-believe-america-has-a-skills-gap|title=Tech Companies Want You to Believe America Has a Skills Gap|newspaper=Bloomberg |date=August 4, 2020}}</ref> Due to this, job growth will not be as fast as during the last decade, as jobs that would have gone to computer software engineers in the United States would instead go to computer software engineers in countries such as India.<ref name="bls.gov">{{cite web|url=http://www.bls.gov/ooh/computer-and-information-technology/computer-programmers.htm|title=Computer Programmers: Occupational Outlook Handbook|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics}}</ref> In addition, the BLS Job Outlook for Computer Programmers, 2014–24 has an −8% (a decline, in their words),<ref name="bls.gov"/> then a Job Outlook, 2019-29 of -9% (Decline),<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite web|url=https://www.bls.gov/ooh/computer-and-information-technology/computer-programmers.htm|title=Computer Programmers : Occupational Outlook Handbook: : U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics|website=www.bls.gov}}</ref> then a 10% decline for 2021-2031<ref name="ReferenceA"/> and now an 11% decline for 2022-2032<ref name="ReferenceA"/> for those who program computers (i.e. embedded systems) who are not computer application developers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bls.gov/opub/btn/archive/publication.htm#regional-reports|title=Archive By Publication : Beyond the Numbers: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics|website=www.bls.gov}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.designnews.com/design-hardware-software/soon-be-extinct-embedded-software-engineer|title=The Soon-to-Be-Extinct Embedded Software Engineer|date=May 10, 2018|website=designnews.com}}</ref> Furthermore, women in software fields has been declining over the years even faster than other engineering fields.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://developers.hp.com/public/blog/hp-international-womens-week-women-computer-science-dropping-1980s|title=hp's Developer Portal &#124; HP International Women's Week: Women in Computer Science dropping since 1980s|website=developers.hp.com}}</ref>

Computer engineering is generally practiced within larger product development firms, and such practice may not be subject to licensing.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ncleg.gov/Laws/GeneralStatuteSections/Chapter89C|title=General Statute Sections - North Carolina General Assembly|website=www.ncleg.gov}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ncleg.gov/EnactedLegislation/Statutes/HTML/BySection/Chapter_89C/GS_89C-3.html|title=G.S. 89C-3|website=www.ncleg.gov}}</ref> However, independent consultants who advertise computer engineering, just like any form of engineering, may be subject to state laws which restrict [[professional engineer]] practice to only those who have received the appropriate License.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ncleg.gov/EnactedLegislation/Statutes/HTML/BySection/Chapter_89C/GS_89C-23.html|title=§ 89C-23|website=www.ncleg.gov}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Professional Licensure for Computer Engineers and Software Engineers |url=https://insight.ieeeusa.org/articles/professional-licensure-for-computer-engineers-and-software-engineers/ |website=IEEE-USA InSight |date=April 14, 2015 |access-date=6 January 2020}}</ref> The [[National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying]] (NCEES) first offered a [[Principles and Practice of Engineering Examination]] for computer engineering<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://ncees.org/engineering/pe/electrical-computer/ |title=PE Electrical and Computer exam, &#91;NCEES&#93; |access-date=December 13, 2019 |archive-date=September 18, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200918203855/https://ncees.org/engineering/pe/electrical-computer/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> in 2003.

[[Processor (computing)|Processor]] design process involves choosing an [[Instruction set architecture|instruction set]] and a certain execution paradigm (e.g. [[VLIW]] or [[RISC]]) and results in a [[microarchitecture]], which might be described in e.g. [[VHDL]] or [[Verilog]]. [[Central processing unit|CPU]] design is divided into design of the following components: [[Datapath|datapaths]] (such as [[Arithmetic logic unit|ALUs]] and [[Pipeline (computing)|pipelines]]), control unit: logic which controls the datapaths, [[Computer memory|memory]] components such as [[Register file|register files]], [[Cache (computing)|caches]], clock circuitry such as clock drivers, PLLs, clock distribution networks, pad transceiver circuitry, logic gate cell library which is used to implement the logic.

Computer engineers work in coding, applied cryptography, and information protection to develop new methods for protecting various information, such as [[Digital image|digital images]] and [[Digital Music|music]], fragmentation, [[copyright infringement]] and other forms of tampering. Examples include work on wireless communicationsby, multi-antennafor systemsexample, optical transmission, and [[digital watermarking]].<ref name="SCCC">{{cite web |title=Computer Engineering Overview |url=http://www.careercornerstone.org/pdf/compeng/compeng.pdf |publisher=Sloan Career Cornerstone Center |access-date=July 20, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120916035940/http://www.careercornerstone.org/pdf/compeng/compeng.pdf |archive-date=September 16, 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

This specialty focuses on [[compiler]]s and [[operating system]]s design and development. Engineers in this field develop new operating system architecture, program analysis techniques, and new techniques to assure quality. Examples of work in this field include post-link-time code transformation [[algorithm]] development and new operating system development.<ref name="SCCC" />

Computational science and engineering is a relatively new discipline. According to the Sloan Career Cornerstone Center, individuals working in this area, "''computational methods are applied to formulate and solve complex mathematical problems in engineering and the physical and the social sciences. Examples include aircraft design, the plasma processing of nanometer features on semiconductor wafers, [[VLSI]] circuit design, radar detection systems, ion transport through biological channels, and much more''".<ref name="SCCC" />

In this specialty, engineers build integrated environments for computing, communications, and [[information access]]. Examples include shared-channel wireless networks, [[Adaptive management|adaptive resource management]] in various systems, and improving the quality of service in [[Mobile technology|mobile]] and ATM environments. Some other examples include work on [[Wireless network|wireless network systems]] and fast [[Ethernet]] cluster wired systems.<ref name="SCCC" />

Engineers working in computer systems work on research projects that allow for reliable, secure, and high-performance computer systems. Projects such as designing processors for multi-threading[[Multithreading (computer architecture)|multithreading]] and [[Parallel processing (computing)|parallel processing]] are included in this field. Other examples of work in this field include the development of new theories, [[Algorithm|algorithms]], and other tools that add [[Computer performance|performance]] to computer systems.<ref name="SCCC" />

Individuals working in this area design technology for enhancing the speed, reliability, and performance of systems. [[Embedded system|Embedded systems]] are found in many devices from a small [[FM radio]] to the space shuttle. According to the Sloan Cornerstone Career Center, ongoing developments in embedded systems include "''automated vehicles and equipment to conduct search and rescue, automated transportation systems, and human-robot coordination to repair equipment in space.''"<ref name="SCCC" /> {{As of|2018}}, computer embedded systems specializations include [[System on a chip|system-on-chip]] design, the architecture of [[edge computing]] and the [[Internet of things]].

An accessible avenue for obtaining information and opportunities in technology, especially for young students, is through digital platforms, enabling learning, exploration, and potential income generation at minimal cost and in regional languages, none of which would be possible without engineers.<ref>{{Cite web |s2cid=216185589 }}</ref> Computer engineering is important in the changes involved in industry 4.0, with engineers responsible for designing and optimizing the technology that surrounds our lives, from [[big data]] to [[AI]]. Their work not only facilitates global connections and knowledge access, but also plays a pivotal role in shaping our future, as technology continues to evolve rapidly, leading to a growing demand for skilled computer engineers.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=A Global Manufacturing Big Data Ecosystem for Fault Detection in Predictive Maintenance |url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8710319 |access-date=2023-10-26 |journal=IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics |date=2020 |doi=10.1109/TII.2019.2915846 |s2cid=164670300 |language=en-US |last1=Yu |first1=Wenjin |last2=Dillon |first2=Tharam |last3=Mostafa |first3=Fahed |last4=Rahayu |first4=Wenny |last5=Liu |first5=Yuehua |volume=16 |pages=183–192 }}</ref> Engineering contributes to improving society by creating devices and structures impacting various aspects of our lives, from technology to infrastructure. Engineers also address challenges such as [[environmental protection]] and [[sustainable development]], while developing medical treatments.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What are the Benefits of Studying Engineering? |url=https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/what-benefits-studying-engineering-rasmi-shah |access-date=2023-10-26 |website=www.linkedin.com |language=en}}</ref> As of 2016, the median annual wage across all BLS engineering categories was over $91,000. Some were much higher, with engineers working for petroleum companies at the top (over $128,000). Other top jobs include: Computer Hardware Engineer – $115,080, Aerospace Engineer – $109,650, Nuclear Engineer – $102,220.<ref>{{Cite web |title=8 Reasons to Get an Engineering Degree that Might Surprise You |url=https://enc.edu/blog/8-reasons-to-get-an-engineering-degree-that-might-surprise-you/ |access-date=2023-10-26 |website=Eastern Nazarene College |language=en-US}}</ref>