Computer engineering: Difference between revisions

| type = [[Engineering]]

| activity_sector = Information technologyTelecommunications, technology industry, engineering industry

'''Computer engineering''' ('''CoE''' or '''CpE''') is a branch of [[electrical engineering]] that integrates several fields of [[computerelectrical scienceengineering]] and, [[electronicelectronics engineering]] and [[Computer Science]] required to develop [[computer hardware]] and [[computer software|software]].<ref>{{Cite book

| last = IEEE Computer Society

| author-link = IEEE Computer Society

|author2 =ACM ACM
|author-link2 = Association for Computing Machinery

| title = Computer Engineering 2004: Curriculum Guidelines for Undergraduate Degree Programs in Computer Engineering

| url = http://www.acm.org/education/education/curric_vols/CE-Final-Report.pdf

| access-date = December 17, 2012

|date = December 12, 2004

| page = iii

| quote = Computer System engineering has traditionally been viewed as a combination of both electronic engineering (EE) and computer science (CS).

}}, "Computer engineers need not only to understand how computer systems themselves work but also how they integrate into the larger picture. Consider the car. A modern car contains many separate computer systems for controlling such things as the engine timing, the brakes, and the airbags. To be able to design and implement such a car, the computer engineer needs a broad theoretical understanding of all these various subsystems & how they interact.</ref> [[Robotics]] are one of the applications of computer engineering.

UsualComputer engineering tasksusually involvingdeals computerwith engineersareas includeincluding [[Software programming|writing software]] and [[firmware]] for [[embedded system|embedded]] [[microcontroller]]s, designing [[Very-large-scale integration|VLSI]] [[ComputerIntegrated chipcircuit|chips]], designing [[analog device|analog]] [[sensor]]s, designing [[Mixed-signal integrated circuit|mixed signal]] [[circuit board]]s, and designing [[operating system]]s. Computer engineers are also suited for [[robotics]] research, which relies heavily on using [[digital systems]] to control and monitor [[electrical systems]] like [[Electric motor|motor]]s, [[Computer-mediated communication|communications]], and [[sensor]]s.

In many institutions of higher learning, computer engineering students are allowed to choose areas of in-depth study in their junior and senior yearyears because the full breadth of knowledge used in the design and application of computers is beyond the scope of an [[undergraduate degree]]. Other institutions may require [[engineering student]]s to complete one or two years of [[Engineering|general engineering]] before declaring computer engineering as their primary focus.<ref>{{cite web|title=Changing Majors @ Clemson| url=http://www.registrar.clemson.edu/html/changeMjr_Curr.htm |publisher=Clemson University |access-date=September 20, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Declaring a College of Engineering Major |url=http://freshmanengineering.uark.edu/2041.php |publisher=University of Arkansas |access-date=September 20, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141012182736/http://freshmanengineering.uark.edu/2041.php |archive-date=October 12, 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Degree Requirements| url=http://www.cmu.edu/me/undergraduate/degree-requirements.html |publisher=Carnegie Mellon University |access-date=September 20, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.uca.edu.ar/index.php/site/index/es/uca/facultad-de-ciencias-fisicomatematicas-e-ingenieria/alumnos/programas-de-materias/cc1y2/ | title=Programas de Materias |language=es |publisher=Universidad Católica Argentina}}</ref>

[[File:Babbage Difference Engine.jpg|thumb|The [[Difference engine|Difference Engine]], the first mechanical computer.]]

[[File:EniacGlen Beck and Betty Snyder program the ENIAC in building 328 at the Ballistic Research Laboratory.jpg|thumb|[[ENIAC]], the first electronic computer.]]

Computer engineering began in 1939 when [[John Vincent Atanasoff]] and [[Clifford Berry]] began developing the world's first electronic [[digital computer]] through [[physics]], [[mathematics]], and [[electrical engineering]]. John Vincent Atanasoff was once a physics and mathematics teacher for [[Iowa State University]] and Clifford Berry a former graduate under electrical engineering and physics. Together, they created the [[Atanasoff–Berry computer|Atanasoff-Berry computer]], also known as the ABC which took 5five years to complete.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.columbia.edu/~td2177/JVAtanasoff/JVAtanasoff.html|title=John Vincent Atanasoff - the father of the computer|website=www.columbia.edu|access-date=2017-12-05}}</ref>

While the original ABC was dismantled and discarded in the 1940s, a tribute was made to the late inventors,; a replica of the ABC was made in 1997, where it took a team of researchers and engineers four years and $350,000 to build.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.news.iastate.edu/news/2009/dec/abc|title=Iowa State replica of first electronic digital computer going to Computer History Museum - News Service - Iowa State University|website=www.news.iastate.edu|language=en-us|access-date=2017-12-05}}</ref>

The modern [[personal computer]] emerged in the 1970s, after several breakthroughs in [[semiconductor]] technology. These include the first working [[transistor]] by [[William Shockley]], [[John Bardeen]] and [[Walter Brattain]] at [[Bell Labs]] in 1947,<ref>{{cite web |title=1947: Invention of the Point-Contact Transistor |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/invention-of-the-point-contact-transistor/ |website=The Silicon Engine |publisher=[[Computer History Museum]] |access-date=9 October 2019}}</ref> thein 1955, [[silicon]] [[dioxide surface passivation by [[Carl Frosch]] processand (viaLincoln Derick,<ref>{{Cite patent|number=US2802760A|title=Oxidation of semiconductive surfaces for controlled diffusion|gdate=1957-08-13|invent1=Lincoln|invent2=Frosch|inventor1-first=Derick|inventor2-first=Carl J.|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US2802760A}}</ref> the first planar silicon dioxide transistors by Frosch and Derick in 1957,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Frosch |first1=C. J. |last2=Derick |first2=L |date=1957 |title=Surface Protection and Selective Masking during Diffusion in Silicon |url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1149/1.2428650 |journal=Journal of the Electrochemical Society |language=en |volume=104 |issue=9 |pages=547 |doi=10.1149/1.2428650}}</ref> [[thermalplanar oxidationprocess]]) by [[MohamedJean AtallaHoerni]] at Bell Labs in 1957,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lojek |first1=Bo |title=History of Semiconductor Engineering |date=2007 |publisher=[[Springer Science & Business Media]] |isbn=9783540342588 |pages=120 & 321–323}}</ref><ref name="Bassett46">{{cite book |last1=Bassett |first1=Ross Knox |title=To the Digital Age: Research Labs, Start-up Companies, and the Rise of MOS Technology |date=2007 |publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]] |isbn=9780801886393 |page=46 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UUbB3d2UnaAC&pg=PA46}}</ref><ref name="Sah">{{cite journal patent|last=Sah US|first=Chih-Tang 3025589|author-link=Chih-TangHoerni, SahJ. |title=Evolution of the MOS transistor-from conception to VLSI |journal=[[Proceedings of the IEEE]] |date=October 1988 |volume=76 |issue=10 |pages=1280–1326 (1290) |doi=10A.1109/5.16328 |url=http://www.dejazzer.com/ece723/resources/Evolution_of_the_MOS_transistor.pdf |issn=0018-9219 |bibcode=1988IEEEP..76.1280S |quote=Those"Method of usManufacturing activeSemiconductor inDevices” siliconfiled materialMay and device research during 1956{{ndash}}1960 considered this successful effort by the Bell Labs group led by Atalla to stabilize the silicon surface the most important and significant technology advance1, which blazed the trail that led to silicon integrated circuit technology developments in the second phase and volume production in the third phase.1959}}</ref> the [[monolithic integrated circuit]] chip by [[Robert Noyce]] at [[Fairchild Semiconductor]] in 1959,<ref name="Saxena140">{{cite book |last1=Saxena |first1=Arjun N. |title=Invention of Integrated Circuits: Untold Important Facts |date=2009 |publisher=[[World Scientific]] |isbn=9789812814456 |page=140 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-3lpDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA140}}</ref> the [[metal-oxide-semiconductorMOSFET|metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor]] (MOSFET, or MOS transistor) demonstrated by Mohameda Atalla and [[Dawon Kahng]]team at Bell Labs in 1959,1960<ref name="computerhistory">{{citeCite book journal|urllast=https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/metal-oxide-semiconductor-mos-transistor-demonstrated/Lojek |first=Bo |title=1960History - Metal Oxideof Semiconductor (MOS)Engineering Transistor Demonstrated|journaldate=The2007 Silicon Engine|publisher=[[Computer History Museum]]}}</ref><ref name="computerhistorySpringer-transistor">{{citeVerlag webBerlin |title=Who Invented the Transistor?Heidelberg |urlisbn=https://www.computerhistory.org/atchm/who978-invented3-the540-transistor/ |website=[[Computer History Museum]] |date=4 December 2013 |access34258-date=20 July 2019}}</ref><ref name="triumph">{{cite web8 |titlelocation=TriumphBerlin, of the MOS TransistorHeidelberg |urlpage=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q6fBEjf9WPw |website=[[YouTube]] |publisher=[[Computer History Museum]] |access-date=21 July 2019 |date=6 August 2010321}}</ref> and the single-chip [[microprocessor]] ([[Intel 4004]]) by [[Federico Faggin]], [[Marcian Hoff]], [[Masatoshi Shima]] and [[Stanley Mazor]] at [[Intel]] in 1971.<ref name="computerhistory1971">{{cite web |title=1971: Microprocessor Integrates CPU Function onto a Single Chip |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/microprocessor-integrates-cpu-function-onto-a-single-chip/ |website=[[Computer History Museum]] |access-date=22 July 2019}}</ref>

The first computer engineering degree program in the United States was established in 1971 at [[Case Western Reserve University]] in [[Cleveland]], [[Ohio]].<ref>{{cite web |title=History |url=https://engineering.case.edu/about/history |website=engineering.case.edu |date=January 5, 2017 |publisher=Case School of Engineering}}</ref> {{As of|2015}}, there were 250 [[ABET]]-accredited computer engineering programs in the U.S.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Find an ABET-Accredited Program {{!}} ABET|url = http://main.abet.org/aps/accreditedprogramsearch.aspx|website = main.abet.org|access-date = 2015-11-29}}</ref> In Europe, accreditation of computer engineering schools is done by a variety of agencies as part of the [[EQANIE]] network. Due to increasing job requirements for engineers who can concurrently design hardware, [[Computer software|software]], firmware, and manage all forms of computer systems used in industry, some tertiary institutions around the world offer a [[bachelor's degree]] generally called computer engineering. Both computer engineering and [[electronic engineering]] programs include analog and digital circuit design in their curriculum. As with most engineering disciplines, having a sound knowledge of [[mathematics]] and science is necessary for computer engineers.

Computer engineering is referred to as [[computer science and engineering]] at some universities. Most entry-level computer engineering jobs require at least a bachelor's degree in computer engineering, electrical engineering (or computer science and engineering). Typically one must learn an array of [[mathematics]] such as [[calculus]], [[linear algebra]] and [[trigonometrydifferential equation]]s, andalong somewith [[computer science]] classes.<ref>{{CitationCite neededweb|url=https://engineering.utdallas.edu/academics/undergraduate-majors/undergrad-advising/current-students/|website=The University of Texas at Dallas|date=AprilJanuary 2019}}8, Sometimes2024|title=Erik aJonsson School of Engineering and Computer Science}}</ref> degreeDegrees in [[electronic engineering|electronic]] isor accepted,[[Electrical engineering|electric engineering]] also suffice due to the similarity of the two fields. Because hardware engineers commonly work with computer software systems, a strong background in computer programming is necessary. According to BLS, "''a computer engineering major is similar to electrical engineering but with some computer science courses added to the curriculum''".<ref name="CHE">{{cite web|url=http://www.bls.gov/ooh/architecture-and-engineering/computer-hardware-engineers.htm|title=Computer Hardware Engineers|date=January 8, 2014|publisher=Bureau of Labor Statistics|access-date=July 20, 2012}}</ref> Some large firms or specialized jobs require a master's degree.

It is also important for computer engineers to keep up with rapid advances in [[technology]]. Therefore, many continue learning throughout their careers. This can be helpful, especially when it comes to learning new skills or improving existing ones. For example, as the relative cost of fixing a [[Bug (programming)|bug]] increases the further along it is in the software development cycle, there can be greater cost savings attributed to developing and testing for quality code as soon as possible in the process, and particularly before release.<ref name="The cost of fixing a bug">{{cite web|url=http://www.feabhas.com/sites/default/files/uploads/News/Feabhas_Infographic_FINAL.pdf|title=Feabhas_Infographic_FINAL|website=feabhas|publisher=Feabhas}}</ref>

<small>Institution: Educational Institution (such as Collegecolleges, Universityuniversities)</small>

According to the [[Bureau of Labor Statistics|BLS]], Job Outlook employment for computer hardware engineers, the expected ten-year growth from 2019 to 2029 for computer hardware engineering was an estimated 2% and a total of 71,100 jobs. ("''Slower than average''" in their own words when compared to other occupations)".<ref name="hweng">{{cite web|url=http://www.bls.gov/ooh/architecture-and-engineering/computer-hardware-engineers.htm|title=Computer Hardware Engineers: Occupational Outlook Handbook|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics}}</ref> This is a decrease from the 2014 to 2024 BLS computer hardware engineering estimate of 3% and a total of 77,700 jobs.; "<ref name="hweng"/> ''and is down from 7% for the 2012 to 2022 BLS estimate<ref name="hweng" /> and is further down from 9% in the BLS 2010 to 2020 estimate.''"<ref name="hweng" />." Today, computer hardware is somehowsomewhat equal{{clarification neededclarify|date=June 2019}} to electronic and computer engineering (ECE) and has been divided into many subcategories;, the most significant{{citation needed|date=June 2019}} isbeing [[Embedded system|embedded system design]].<ref name = "CHE" />

According to the U.S. [[Bureau of Labor Statistics]] (BLS), "''computer applications software engineers and computer systems software engineers are projected to be among the faster than average growing occupations''" The expected ten-year growth {{as of |2014|lc=true}} for computer software engineering was an estimated seventeen percent and there was a total of 1,114,000 jobs that same year.<ref name="softdev">{{cite web|url=http://www.bls.gov/ooh/computer-and-information-technology/software-developers.htm|title=Software Developers: Occupational Outlook Handbook|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics}}</ref> This is down from the 2012 to 2022 BLS estimate of 22% for software developers.<ref name = "C.S.E.">{{cite web |title=Computer Software Engineer |url=http://www.bls.gov/k12/computers04.htm |publisher=Bureau of Labor Statistics |date=March 19, 2010 |access-date=July 20, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130726002354/http://www.bls.gov/k12/computers04.htm |archive-date=July 26, 2013}}</ref><ref name="softdev" /> And, further down from the 30% 2010 to 2020 BLS estimate.<ref name = "CSE2">{{cite web |title=Software Developers |url=http://www.bls.gov/ooh/computer-and-information-technology/software-developers.htm |date=January 8, 2014 |publisher=Bureau of Labor Statistics |access-date=July 21, 2012}}</ref> In addition, growing concerns over cybersecurity add up to put computer software engineering high above the average rate of increase for all fields. However, some of the work will be outsourced in foreign countries.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2020-08-04/big-tech-wants-you-to-believe-america-has-a-skills-gap|title=Tech Companies Want You to Believe America Has a Skills Gap|newspaper=Bloomberg |date=August 4, 2020}}</ref> Due to this, job growth will not be as fast as during the last decade, as jobs that would have gone to computer software engineers in the United States would instead go to computer software engineers in countries such as India.<ref name="bls.gov">{{cite web|url=http://www.bls.gov/ooh/computer-and-information-technology/computer-programmers.htm|title=Computer Programmers: Occupational Outlook Handbook|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics}}</ref> In addition, the BLS Job Outlook for Computer Programmers, 2014–24 has an −8% (a decline, in their words),<ref name="bls.gov"/> andthen a Job Outlook, 2019-29 of -9% (Decline),<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite web|url=https://www.bls.gov/ooh/computer-and-information-technology/computer-programmers.htm|title=Computer Programmers : Occupational Outlook Handbook: : U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics|website=www.bls.gov}}</ref> then a 10% decline for 2021-2031<ref name="ReferenceA"/> and now an 11% decline for 2022-2032<ref name="ReferenceA"/> for those who program computers (i.e. embedded systems) who are not computer application developers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bls.gov/opub/btn/archive/publication.htm#regional-reports|title=Archive By Publication : Beyond the Numbers: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics|website=www.bls.gov}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.designnews.com/design-hardware-software/soon-be-extinct-embedded-software-engineer|title=The Soon-to-Be-Extinct Embedded Software Engineer|date=May 10, 2018|website=designnews.com}}</ref> Furthermore, women in software fields has been declining over the years even faster than other engineering fields.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://developers.hp.com/public/blog/hp-international-womens-week-women-computer-science-dropping-1980s|title=hp's Developer Portal &#124; HP International Women's Week: Women in Computer Science dropping since 1980s|website=developers.hp.com}}</ref>

Computer engineering is generally practiced within larger product development firms, and such practice may not be subject to licensing.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ncleg.gov/Laws/GeneralStatuteSections/Chapter89C|title=General Statute Sections - North Carolina General Assembly|website=www.ncleg.gov}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ncleg.gov/EnactedLegislation/Statutes/HTML/BySection/Chapter_89C/GS_89C-3.html|title=G.S. 89C-3|website=www.ncleg.gov}}</ref> However, independent consultants who advertise computer engineering, just like any form of engineering, may be subject to state laws which restrict [[professional engineer]] practice to only those who have received the appropriate License.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ncleg.gov/EnactedLegislation/Statutes/HTML/BySection/Chapter_89C/GS_89C-23.html|title=§ 89C-23|website=www.ncleg.gov}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Professional Licensure for Computer Engineers and Software Engineers |url=https://insight.ieeeusa.org/articles/professional-licensure-for-computer-engineers-and-software-engineers/ |website=IEEE-USA InSight |date=April 14, 2015 |access-date=6 January 2020}}</ref> The [[National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying]] (NCEES) first offered a [[Principles and Practice of Engineering Examination]] for computer engineering<ref>[{{Cite web |url=https://ncees.org/engineering/pe/electrical-computer/ |title=PE Electrical and Computer exam, [&#91;NCEES]&#93; ]|access-date=December 13, 2019 |archive-date=September 18, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200918203855/https://ncees.org/engineering/pe/electrical-computer/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> in 2003.

[[Processor (computing)|Processor]] design process involves choosing an [[Instruction set architecture|instruction set]] and a certain execution paradigm (e.g. [[VLIW]] or [[RISC]]) and results in a [[microarchitecture]], which might be described in e.g. [[VHDL]] or [[Verilog]]. [[Central processing unit|CPU]] design is divided into design of the following components: [[Datapath|datapaths]] (such as [[Arithmetic logic unit|ALUs]] and [[Pipeline (computing)|pipelines]]), control unit: logic which controls the datapaths, [[Computer memory|memory]] components such as [[Register file|register files]], [[Cache (computing)|caches]], clock circuitry such as clock drivers, PLLs, clock distribution networks, pad transceiver circuitry, logic gate cell library which is used to implement the logic.

[[File:VisualStudioCodeHTMLSource code in C.png|thumb|Computer[[Source code]] written in the [[C (programming. language)|C]] programming language]]

Computer engineers work in coding, applied cryptography, and information protection to develop new methods for protecting various information, such as [[Digital image|digital images]] and [[Digital Music|music]], fragmentation, [[copyright infringement]] and other forms of tampering. Examples include work on wireless communicationsby, multi-antennafor systemsexample, optical transmission, and [[digital watermarking]].<ref name="SCCC">{{cite web |title=Computer Engineering Overview |url=http://www.careercornerstone.org/pdf/compeng/compeng.pdf |publisher=Sloan Career Cornerstone Center |access-date=July 20, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120916035940/http://www.careercornerstone.org/pdf/compeng/compeng.pdf |archive-date=September 16, 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

[[File:Windows10abstract.png|thumb|Windows 10, an example of an [[operating system]].]]

This specialty focuses on [[compilerscompiler]]s and [[operating systemssystem]]s design and development. Engineers in this field develop new operating system architecture, program analysis techniques, and new techniques to assure quality. Examples of work in this field include post-link-time code transformation [[algorithm]] development and new operating system development.<ref name="SCCC" />

Computational science and engineering is a relatively new discipline. According to the Sloan Career Cornerstone Center, individuals working in this area, "''computational methods are applied to formulate and solve complex mathematical problems in engineering and the physical and the social sciences. Examples include aircraft design, the plasma processing of nanometer features on semiconductor wafers, [[VLSI]] circuit design, radar detection systems, ion transport through biological channels, and much more''".<ref name="SCCC" />

{{Main article|Computer network| Mobile computing| Distributed computing}}

In this specialty, engineers build integrated environments for computing, communications, and [[information access]]. Examples include shared-channel wireless networks, [[Adaptive Managementmanagement|adaptive resource management]] in various systems, and improving the quality of service in [[Mobile technology|mobile]] and ATM environments. Some other examples include work on [[Wireless network|wireless network systems]] and fast [[Ethernet]] cluster wired systems.<ref name="SCCC" />

[[File:Intel 80486DX2 bottom.jpg|thumb|An example of a computer CPU.]]

Engineers working in computer systems work on research projects that allow for reliable, secure, and high-performance computer systems. Projects such as designing processors for multi-threading[[Multithreading (computer architecture)|multithreading]] and [[Parallel processing (computing)|parallel processing]] are included in this field. Other examples of work in this field include the development of new theories, [[Algorithm|algorithms]], and other tools that add [[Computer performance|performance]] to computer systems.<ref name="SCCC" />

Computer architecture includes [[CPU design]], [[cache hierarchy]] layout, [[memory organization]], and [[Load balancing (computing)|load balancing]].

[[File:Humanoid Robot (1) ITB 2017.JPG|thumb|An example of a [[humanoid]] robot.]]

[[File: Oxygen devices.svg|thumb|Examples of devices that use embedded systems.|alt=]]

{{Main article|Embedded system{{!}}Embedded systems}}

Individuals working in this area design technology for enhancing the speed, reliability, and performance of systems. [[Embedded system|Embedded systems]] are found in many devices from a small [[FM radio]] to the space shuttle. According to the Sloan Cornerstone Career Center, ongoing developments in embedded systems include "''automated vehicles and equipment to conduct search and rescue, automated transportation systems, and human-robot coordination to repair equipment in space.''"<ref name="SCCC" /> {{As of|2018}}, computer embedded computer engineeringsystems specializations include [[System on a chip|system-on-chip]] design, the architecture of [[edge computing]] and the [[Internet of things]].

{{Main article| Signal processing|Digital Imageimage processing| Speech processing}}

Computer engineers in this area develop improvements in human-computerhuman–computer interaction, including [[speech recognition]] and synthesis, medical and scientific imaging, or communications systems. Other work in this area includes computer vision development such as [[face recognition|recognition of human facial features]].<ref name="SCCC" />