Content deleted Content added
→Sources: author-mask |
m Open access bot: hdl updated in citation with #oabot. |
||
| (25 intermediate revisions by 9 users not shown) | |||
Line 53:
Many scientists accept that possible contact between [[Polynesians]] and coastal peoples in South America around the year 1200 resulted in genetic similarities and the adoption by Polynesians of an American crop, the [[sweet potato]].<ref name="Reuters">{{cite news |last=Dunham |first=Will |title=Study shows ancient contact between Polynesian and South American peoples |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-science-polynesia/study-shows-ancient-contact-between-polynesian-and-south-american-peoples-idUSKBN2492EU |website=Reuters |date=July 8, 2020 |access-date=15 July 2021}}</ref> However, it was only with the first voyage of the Italian explorer [[Christopher Columbus]] and his crew to the Americas in [[Voyages of Christopher Columbus#First voyage|1492]] that the Columbian exchange began, resulting in major transformations in the cultures and livelihoods of the peoples in both hemispheres.<ref name="McNeill 2019">{{cite encyclopedia |last1=McNeill |first1=J. R. |author1-link=J. R. McNeill |last2=Sampaolo |first2=Marco |last3=Wallenfeldt |first3=Jeff |date=30 September 2019 |origyear=28 September 2019 |title=Columbian Exchange |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Columbian-exchange |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |location=[[Edinburgh]] |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200421055242/https://www.britannica.com/event/Columbian-exchange |archive-date=21 April 2020 |url-status=live |access-date=5 September 2021}}</ref>
==
=== Of plants ===
{{See also|New World crops|Agriculture in Mesoamerica}}
[[File:The Florentine Codex- Maize.tif|thumb|left|upright|The 16th century [[Florentine Codex]] by the Spanish friar [[Bernardino de Sahagún]] provided an early depiction of [[maize]], one of the plants the Spanish brought to the Old World.]]
[[File:Intikawan Amantani.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|[[Andén|Andenes]] terraces on [[Taquile]] are used to grow traditional [[Andes|Andean]] [[Staple food|staples]] such as [[quinoa]] and [[potato]]es, alongside [[wheat]]—a European introduction.]]▼
Because of the new trading resulting from the Columbian exchange, several plants native to the Americas spread around the world, including [[potato]]es, [[maize]], [[tomato]]es, and [[tobacco]].<ref name="ley196512">{{Cite magazine |last=Ley |first=Willy |date=December 1965 |title=The Healthfull Aromatick Herbe |department=For Your Information |magazine=Galaxy Science Fiction |pages=88–98}}</ref> Before 1500, potatoes were not grown outside of [[South America]]. By the 18th century, they were cultivated and consumed widely in Europe and had become important crops in both [[India]] and North America. Potatoes eventually became an important staple food in the diets of many Europeans, contributing to an estimated 12 to 25% of the population growth in Afro-Eurasia between 1700 and 1900.<ref name="Nunn Qian 2011">{{Cite journal |last1=Nunn |first1=Nathan |last2=Qian |first2=Nancy |date=2011 |title=The Potato's Contribution to Population and Urbanization: Evidence from a Historical Experiment |journal=[[Quarterly Journal of Economics]] |volume=126 |issue=2 |pages=593–650 |doi=10.1093/qje/qjr009 |pmid=22073408 |hdl=10.1093/qje/qjr009 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The introduction of the potato to the Old World accounts for 47 percent of the increase in urbanization between 1700 and 1900.<ref name="Nunn Qian 2010">{{harvnb|Nunn|Qian|2010}}</ref> [[
The discovery of the Americas provided the Old World with new arable landscapes suitable for growing [[sugarcane]] and [[coffee]].<ref name="Nunn Qian 2010"/> Coffee, introduced in the Americas circa 1720 from Africa and the Middle East, and sugarcane, introduced from the [[Indian subcontinent]] to the [[Spanish West Indies]], subsequently became the primary commodity crops and exported goods of extensive [[Latin America]]n
Because crops traveled widely but at least initially their endemic fungi did not, for a limited time yields were somewhat higher in the new regions to which they were introduced, a form of [[ecological release]] or "{{visible anchor|yield honeymoon}}". However, the exchange of pathogens has continued alongside globalization, and crops have declined back toward their endemic yields.<ref name="Drenth Guest 2016">{{cite journal |last1=Drenth |first1=André |last2=Guest |first2=David I. |title=Fungal and Oomycete Diseases of Tropical Tree Fruit Crops |journal=[[Annual Review of Phytopathology]] |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |volume=54 |issue=1 |date=2016-08-04 |doi=10.1146/annurev-phyto-080615-095944 |pages=373–395|pmid=27491435 }}</ref>
▲[[File:Intikawan Amantani.jpg|thumb
The Spanish were the first Europeans to grow [[Theobroma cacao|cacao]], in 1590. Though cacao was usually consumed by European populations in the form of sweets and was at first treated as an expensive luxury item, [[chocolate]] helped with fatigue and provided energy. As for [[vanilla]], the pods of the plant after chemical treatment acquired an aroma, which was then used both in cooking and in perfumery.<ref name="Nunn Qian 2010"/>
Line 71 ⟶ 75:
[[Citrus fruit]]s and [[grape]]s were brought to the Americas from the Mediterranean. At first planters struggled to adapt these crops to New World climates, but by the late 19th century they were cultivated more consistently.<ref>{{cite web |last=McNeill |first=J.R. |title=The Columbian Exchange |url=https://www.ncpedia.org/anchor/columbian-exchange |website=[[NCpedia]] |publisher=[[State Library of North Carolina]] |access-date=23 October 2018}}</ref> [[Banana]]s were introduced into the Americas in the 16th century by Portuguese sailors, who brought them from West Africa. Despite this early introduction, they were little consumed in the Americas as late as the 1880s, until large plantations were established in the Caribbean.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Gibson |first1=Arthur |title=Bananas & Plantains |url=http://www.botgard.ucla.edu/html/botanytextbooks/economicbotany/Musa/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120614121141/http://www.botgard.ucla.edu/html/botanytextbooks/economicbotany/Musa/index.html |archive-date=June 14, 2012 |url-status=dead |publisher=[[University of California, Los Angeles]]}}</ref> The [[Manila galleon]] trading network introduced American plants such as [[chayote]] and [[papaya]] into Southeast Asia; these were incorporated into the cuisines there.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Amano |first1=Noel |last2=Bankoff |first2=Greg |last3=Findley |first3=David Max |last4=Barretto-Tesoro |first4=Grace |last5=Roberts |first5=Patrick |title=Archaeological and historical insights into the ecological impacts of pre-colonial and colonial introductions into the Philippine Archipelago |journal=The Holocene |date=February 2021 |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=313–330 |doi=10.1177/0959683620941152|bibcode=2021Holoc..31..313A }}</ref>
Long before the arrival of the Spaniards, wild [[tomato]]es came from Central America to South America,
{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto;"
Line 103 ⟶ 107:
* [[avocado]]<ref name="Crosby 2001">{{harvnb|Crosby|2001}}</ref>
* [[cassava]] (manioc, tapioca)<ref name="Crosby 2001"/>
* [[chili pepper]]<ref name="Collingham 2006"/>
* [[cocoa bean]] (cacao)<ref name="Mintz McNeil 2018 plants"/>
* [[cotton]]<ref name="Mintz McNeil 2018 plants"/> (long-staple species)
Line 119 ⟶ 124:
|}
===
Initially, the Columbian exchange of animals largely went in one direction, from Europe to the New World, as the Eurasian regions had domesticated many more animals. [[Horse]]s, [[donkeys]], [[mule]]s, [[pigs]], [[cattle]], [[sheep]], [[goats]], [[chickens]], [[dogs]], [[cats]], and [[bees]] were rapidly adopted by native peoples for transport, food, and other uses. The [[Plains Indians#Horses|Plains Indians]], for example, made extensive use of horses for hunting.<ref name="Francis 2006">{{cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Francis |editor-first=John Michael |encyclopedia=Iberia and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History: a Multidisciplinary Encyclopedia |title=Columbian Exchange—Livestock |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OMNoS-g1h8cC&pg=PA303 |year=2006 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-421-9 |pages=303–308}}</ref>
<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=
File:The Florentine Codex- The Conquest of Mexico.png|[[Spanish conquest of Mexico]], 1519–1521, with [[horse]]s, [[pig]]s, [[cattle]], and [[sheep]] being landed from ships. [[Florentine Codex]].
File:George Catlin - Buffalo hunt.jpg|Native Americans learned to use horses to chase [[American bison|bison]], dramatically expanding their hunting range.<ref name="Francis 2006"/> [[George Catlin]], 1844
Line 155 ⟶ 160:
|}
===
{{further|Native American disease and epidemics|Influx of disease in the Caribbean|Virgin soil epidemic|Cocoliztli epidemics}}
[[File:
The first manifestation of the Columbian exchange may have been the spread of [[syphilis]] from the native people of the [[Caribbean Sea]] to Europe. The [[history of syphilis]] has been well-studied, but the origin of the disease remains a subject of debate.<ref name=Kent08>{{cite journal |last1=Kent |first1=M.E. |last2=Romanelli |first2=F. |title=Reexamining syphilis: an update on epidemiology, clinical manifestations, and management |journal=Annals of Pharmacotherapy |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=226–236 |date=February 2008 |pmid=18212261 |doi=10.1345/aph.1K086 |s2cid=23899851 }}</ref> There are two primary hypotheses: one proposes that syphilis was carried to Europe from the [[Americas]] by the crew of Christopher Columbus in the early 1490s, while the other proposes that syphilis previously existed in Europe but went unrecognized.<ref name=Orgin10>{{cite journal |last1=Farhi |first1=D. |last2=Dupin |first2=N. |title=Origins of syphilis and management in the immunocompetent patient: facts and controversies |journal=Clinics in Dermatology |date=Sep–Oct 2010 |volume=28 |issue=5 |pages=533–558 |pmid=20797514 |doi=10.1016/j.clindermatol.2010.03.011}}</ref> The first written descriptions of syphilis in the Old World came in 1493.<ref name="quartz">{{cite news |last=Smith |first=Tara C. |title=Thanks Columbus! The true story of how syphilis spread to Europe |quote=The first cases of the disease in the Old World were described in 1493. |url=http://qz.com/580139/thanks-columbus-the-true-story-of-how-syphilis-spread-to-europe/ |access-date=1 September 2016 |work=Quartz |date=December 23, 2015}}</ref> The first large outbreak of syphilis in Europe occurred in 1494–1495 among the army of [[Charles VIII of France|Charles VIII]] during its [[Italian War of 1494–1495|invasion of Naples]].<ref name="Orgin10"/><ref name=Music08>{{cite journal |last=Franzen |first=C. |title=Syphilis in composers and musicians—Mozart, Beethoven, Paganini, Schubert, Schumann, Smetana |journal=[[European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases]] |date=December 2008 |volume=27 |issue=12 |pages=1151–1157 |pmid=18592279 |doi=10.1007/s10096-008-0571-x |s2cid=947291 }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Romm |first=Cari |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2016/02/the-neverending-story-of-the-origins-of-syphilis/463401/ |title=A New Skeleton and an Old Debate About Syphilis |magazine=[[The Atlantic]] |date=February 18, 2016}}</ref><ref name="sciame">{{cite magazine |last=Choi |first=Charles Q.| title=Case Closed? Columbus Introduced Syphilis to Europe |url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/case-closed-columbus/ |access-date=1 September 2016 |magazine=[[Scientific American]] |date=December 27, 2011}}</ref> Many of the crew members who had served with Columbus had joined this army. After the victory, Charles's largely mercenary army returned to their respective homes,
The Columbian exchange of diseases in the other direction was by far deadlier. The peoples of the Americas previously had no exposure to European and African diseases and little or no immunity.{{sfn|Nunn|Qian|2010|page=165}} An epidemic of [[swine influenza]] beginning in 1493 killed many of the [[Taino]] people inhabiting [[Caribbean Sea|Caribbean]] islands. The pre-contact population of the island of [[Hispaniola]] was probably at least 500,000, but by 1526, fewer than 500 were still alive. Spanish exploitation was part of the cause of the near-extinction of the native people.{{sfn|Mann|2011|pages=11-12, 414}}
[[File:Aztec smallpox victims.jpg|thumb|Sixteenth-century [[Aztec]] drawings of victims of [[smallpox]]. [[Florentine Codex]] ]]
In 1518, [[smallpox]] was first recorded in the Americas and became the deadliest imported Old World disease. Forty percent of the 200,000 people living in the [[Aztec]] capital of [[Tenochtitlan]], later [[Mexico City]], are estimated to have died of smallpox in 1520 during the war of the Aztecs with conquistador [[Hernán Cortés]].<ref name="Gunderman">{{cite web |last=Gunderman |first=Richard |title=How smallpox devastated the Aztecs -- and helped Spain conquer an American civilization 500 years ago |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/science/how-smallpox-devastated-the-aztecs-and-helped-spain-conquer-an-american-civilization-500-years-ago |website=PBS |date=February 23, 2019 |access-date=15 July 2021}}</ref> Epidemics, possibly of smallpox and spread from [[Central America]], devastated the population of the [[Inca Empire]] a few years before the arrival of the Spanish.<ref name="D'Altroy">{{cite book |last=D'Altroy |first=Terence N. |title=The Incas |date=2003 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |location=Malden, Massachusetts |isbn=9780631176770 |page=76}}</ref> [[Native American disease and epidemics|The ravages of Old World diseases]] and Spanish exploitation reduced the [[Mexican people|Mexican]] population from an estimated 20 million to barely more than a million in the 16th century.<ref name="Library of Congress">{{cite book |last1=Merrill |first1=Tim L. |last2=Miro |first2=Ramon |title=Mexico: A Country Study |date=1996 |publisher=Library of Congress |location=Washington, D.C. |url=http://countrystudies.us/mexico/53.htm}}</ref> ▼
▲In 1518, [[smallpox]] was first recorded in the Americas and became the deadliest imported Old World disease. Forty percent of the 200,000 people living in the [[Aztec]] capital of [[Tenochtitlan]], later [[Mexico City]], are estimated to have died of smallpox in 1520 during the war of the Aztecs with conquistador [[Hernán Cortés]].<ref name="Gunderman">{{cite web |last=Gunderman |first=Richard |title=How smallpox devastated the Aztecs -- and helped Spain conquer an American civilization 500 years ago |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/science/how-smallpox-devastated-the-aztecs-and-helped-spain-conquer-an-american-civilization-500-years-ago |website=PBS |date=February 23, 2019 |access-date=15 July 2021}}</ref> Epidemics, possibly of smallpox
The indigenous population of [[Peru]] decreased from about 9 million in the pre-Columbian era, to 600,000 in 1620.<ref name="Denevan">{{cite journal |last=Denevan |first=William M. |title=Demographic Collapse: Indian Peru, 1520-1630 by Noble David Cook |journal=The Americas |date=October 1983 |volume=40 |issue=2 |pages=281–284 |doi=10.2307/980770 |jstor=980770 |s2cid=148174483 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/980770 |access-date=28 May 2021}}</ref> An estimated 80–95 percent of the Native American population died in epidemics within the first 100–150 years following 1492. Nunn and Qian also refer to the calculations of the scientist David Cook, in which in some cases no one survived due to diseases. The deadliest Old World diseases in the Americas were smallpox, [[measles]], [[whooping cough]], [[chicken pox]], [[bubonic plague]], [[typhus]], and [[malaria]].{{sfn|Nunn|Qian|2010|pages=164-165}} [[Yellow fever]] was brought to the Americas from Africa, probably by the slave trade. Many people in Africa had acquired immunity. Europeans suffered higher rates of death than did people of African
On the other hand, European exploration of tropical areas was aided by the New World discovery of [[quinine]], the first effective treatment for [[malaria]]. [[Cinchona]] trees from the Andes were processed and [[quinine]] was obtained from their bark.<ref name = "Nunn Qian 2010"/> Europeans suffered from this disease, but some indigenous populations had developed at least partial resistance to it. In Africa, resistance to malaria has been associated with other genetic changes among sub-Saharan Africans and their descendants, which can cause [[sickle-cell disease]].{{sfn|Nunn|Qian|2010|page=164}} The resistance of sub-Saharan Africans to malaria in the southern United States and the Caribbean contributed greatly to the specific character of the Africa-sourced slavery in those regions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Esposito |first=Elena |date=Summer 2015 |title=Side Effects of Immunities: the African Slave Trade |url=http://eh.net/eha/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Esposito.pdf |journal=[[European University Institute]] |access-date=October 30, 2018|archive-date=November 12, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112014228/https://eh.net/eha/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Esposito.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref>
Line 195 ⟶ 202:
|}
==
=== Clash of cultures ===
[[File:Evangelización por la Orden Franciscana.jpg|thumb|upright=1.
The movement of people between New and Old Worlds caused cultural exchanges, extending to what Pieter Emmer has called "a clash of cultures".<ref>Emmer, Pieter. "The Myth of Early Globalization: The Atlantic Economy, 1500–1800". ''European Review'' 11, no. 1. Feb. 2003. p. 45–46</ref> This involved the transfer of European values to indigenous cultures, such as the concept of [[private property]] in regions where property was often viewed as communal, universal [[monogamy]] (though many indigenous peoples were already monogamous), the role of women and children in the social system, and different concepts of labor, including slavery.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Emmer |first=Pieter |title=The Myth of Early Globalization: The Atlantic Economy, 1500–1800 |journal=European Review |volume=11 |issue=1 |date=February 2003 |page=46|doi=10.1017/S106279870300005X }}</ref> Christianity was brought to the indigenous peoples by priests and monks from Europe.<ref name="Christensen 2024">{{cite web |last1=Christensen |first1=Mark |title=Columbian Exchange |url=https://billofrightsinstitute.org/essays/columbian-exchange |publisher=[[Bill of Rights Institute]] |access-date=3 October 2024}}</ref> [[Tobacco]] was used in the Old World as medicine and currency,<ref name="Nunn Qian 2010"/> while in the New World, it was the subject of religious customs.<ref name="Nunn Qian 2010"/> Some
=== Atlantic slave trade ===
Line 207 ⟶ 214:
{{further|Atlantic slave trade}}
[[File:1670 virginia tobacco slaves.jpg|thumb|upright=1.
The Atlantic slave trade consisted of the involuntary immigration of 11.7 million Africans, primarily from West Africa, to the Americas between the 16th and 19th centuries, far outnumbering the about 3.4 million Europeans who migrated, most voluntarily, to the New World between 1492 and 1840.{{sfn|Mann|2011|page=286}} The prevalence of African slaves in the New World was related to the demographic decline of New World peoples and the need of European colonists for labor. Another reason for the demand for slaves was the cultivation of crops such as sugar cane suitable for the climatic conditions of the new lands.{{sfn|Nunn|Qian|2010|page=181}} The Africans were less likely to die, too, from those diseases that had been brought to the New World.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Gates |first1=Louis |title=100 Amazing Facts About the Negro |url=http://www.pbs.org/wnet/african-americans-many-rivers-to-cross/history/how-many-slaves-landed-in-the-us/ |website=PBS |date=January 2, 2013 |publisher=WNET |access-date=25 October 2018}}</ref> Enslaved Africans helped shape an emerging African-American culture in the New World. They participated in both skilled and unskilled labor. For example, according to the work of [[James L. Watson (anthropologist)|James L. Watson]], slaves were involved in handicraft production. They could also work as ordinary workers, and as managers of small enterprises in the commercial or industrial sphere.<ref>{{cite book |last=Watson |first=James L. |author1-link=James L. Watson (anthropologist) |title=Asian and African Systems of Slavery |year=1980 |publisher= Basil Blackwell |location=University of California Press Berkeley and Los Angeles, California |pages=34}}</ref> Their descendants gradually developed an ethnicity that drew from the numerous African tribes as well as European nationalities.<ref name="Carney">{{cite book |last1=Carney |first1=Judith |title=Black Rice |url=https://archive.org/details/blackriceafrican00carn |url-access=registration |date=2001 |publisher=Harvard University Press |pages= [https://archive.org/details/blackriceafrican00carn/page/2 2–8]}}</ref>{{sfn|Nunn|Qian|2010|page=181}} The descendants of African slaves make up a majority of the population in some Caribbean countries, notably [[Haiti]] and [[Jamaica]], and a sizeable minority in most American countries.{{sfn|Nunn|Qian|2010|page=183}}
Line 228 ⟶ 235:
* {{cite book |last=Crosby |first=Alfred W. |author-link=Alfred W. Crosby |title=The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492 |year=1972 |publisher=[[Greenwood Press]] |isbn=978-0-8371-5821-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/columbianexchang00cros }}
* {{cite web |last=Crosby |first=Alfred W. |author-mask=————— |title=The Columbian Exchange: Plants, Animals, and Disease between the Old and New Worlds |publisher=[[National Humanities Center]] |date=December 2001 |url=https://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/tserve/nattrans/ntecoindian/essays/columbianb.htm}}
* {{cite book |last=Crosby |first=Alfred W. |author-mask=————— |title=[[Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900-1900]] |publisher=Cambridge University Press |publication-place=Cambridge ; New York |date=2004 |isbn=978-0-521-83732-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Mann |first=Charles C. |author-link=Charles C. Mann |title=[[1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created]] |date=2011 |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |location=New York |isbn=9780307265722}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Nunn |first1=Nathan |last2=Qian |first2=Nancy |year=2010 |title=The Columbian Exchange: A History of Disease, Food, and Ideas |journal=[[Journal of Economic Perspectives]] |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=163–188 |jstor=25703506 |doi=10.1257/jep.24.2.163 |citeseerx=10.1.1.232.9242 |url=http://www.econ.yale.edu/~nq3/NANCYS_Yale_Website/resources/papers/NunnQianJEP.pdf |access-date=May 24, 2018 |archive-date=August 11, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170811035828/http://www.econ.yale.edu/~nq3/NANCYS_Yale_Website/resources/papers/NunnQianJEP.pdf |url-status=dead }}
== Further reading ==
| |||