Journal Articles, Peer-reviewed by Scott E Ingram
In the U.S. Southwest and Mexican Northwest region, arid-lands agriculturalists practiced sedenta... more In the U.S. Southwest and Mexican Northwest region, arid-lands agriculturalists practiced sedentary agriculture for at least four thousand years. People developed diverse lifeways and a repertoire of successful dryland strategies that resemble those of some small-scale agriculturalists today. A multi-millennial trajectory of variable population growth ended during the early 1300s CE and by the late 1400s population levels in the region declined by about one-half. Here we show, through a meta-analysis of sub-regional archaeological studies, the spatial distribution, intensity, and variation in social and environmental conditions throughout the region prior to depopulation. We also find that as these conditions, identified as human insecurities by the UN Development Programme, worsened, the speed of depopulation increased. Although these conditions have been documented within some sub-regions, the aggregate weight and distribution of these insecurities throughout the Southwest/Northwest region were previously unrecognized. Population decline was not the result of a single disturbance, such as drought, to the regional system; it was a spatially patterned, multi-generational decline in human security. Results support the UN's emphasis on increasing human security as a pathway toward sustainable development and lessening forced migration. Through these results and the approach demonstrated here, we aim to stimulate collaborations between archaeologists and others in service of modern sustainability planning.
Reviews in Colorado Archaeology, 2020
Historic telegraph and telephone material culture are frequently encountered but seldom different... more Historic telegraph and telephone material culture are frequently encountered but seldom differentiated during archaeological site and survey work in Colorado. The poles, wires, and insulators that comprise these cultural resources are often recorded simply as transmission lines. The research reported here is the first archaeologically focused comparative study of telegraph and telephone material culture designed to help archaeologists differentiate between the two communication systems. Differentiating and documenting these systems fills gaps in an inadequate historical record of their spatial and temporal evolution and contributes to site and survey area interpretations. We find substantial material culture similarities due to shared hardware and the temporal overlap of the introduction of these systems to Colorado. We also identify several material attributes to help differentiate the systems. Accurately identifying cultural resources is a mainstay of archaeological work and we make progress by understanding the possibilities and challenges of differentiating these poorly documented resources.
Journal of Archaeological Science, 2017
It is commonplace to assert causal relationships between episodes of extreme climate with dramati... more It is commonplace to assert causal relationships between episodes of extreme climate with dramatic cultural shifts. We explore the problem of statistically assessing the correspondence between episodes of extreme climate (such as droughts) and cultural events (such as depopulation) they are purported to explain. In order to do this: 1) We describe a method that permits the objective identification of climate extremes in a way that is independent of their supposed causal outcomes; 2)We discuss how we identify and date cultural transitions of interest; 3) We explore a variety of decision rules for determining whether or not there is a match between a given extreme climate interval and the interval during which a transition began; and 4) We propose an intuitive Monte Carlo approach to statistically assess the observed correspondence between the climate extremes and the cultural transitions. Our application does not indicate statistical support for a linkage between intervals of extreme climate and major transitions in any of the seven cultural traditions in the Southwest US that we examined.
Proceedings of the National Academies of Sciences, 2016
This paper identifies rare climate challenges in the long-term history of seven areas, three in t... more This paper identifies rare climate challenges in the long-term history of seven areas, three in the subpolar North Atlantic Islands and four in the arid-to-semiarid deserts of the US Southwest. For each case, the vulnerability to food shortage before the climate challenge is quantified based on eight variables encompassing both environmental and social domains. These data are used to evaluate the relationship between the "weight" of vulnerability before a climate challenge and the nature of social change and food security following a challenge. The outcome of this work is directly applicable to debates about disaster management policy.
KIVA: Journal of Southwestern Anthropology and History , 2015
This article is an argument for and about the benefits of Southwestern archaeology beyond archaeo... more This article is an argument for and about the benefits of Southwestern archaeology beyond archaeology. Beyond archaeology are the consumers of Southwestern archaeological research: the scientific community, the general public, the legal system, the arts and liberal arts, descendant communities, and policy-makers. We identify some key historical contributions to these consumers and opportunities for continuing our engagement. This history provides numerous insights about the value, uses, and misuses of our work. Toward our goal of informing and energizing progress toward increasing benefits to consumers, we identify global-scale research domains (climate
change, food security, migration, etc.) where Southwestern archaeologists are uniquely prepared to extend the benefits of Southwestern archaeology beyond archaeology. Extending these benefits is both an opportunity and an emerging responsibility.
Kiva: The Journal of Southwestern Anthropology and History, 2014
In this paper we present an Akimel O’odham (Pima) food production calendar. The environmental and... more In this paper we present an Akimel O’odham (Pima) food production calendar. The environmental and biological data for the calendar derive in large part from information gathered in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries CE. The social and cultural data are derived from what we know of the Akimel O’odham (Pima) Indians, a Native American group that has lived along the Middle Gila River in southern Arizona. Plants considered include a Mesoamerican suite (maize, beans, cucurbits, cotton) as well as major local species (mesquite,
agave, saguaro, cholla). Animals considered include lagomorphs, rodents, and deer. The major changes in Akimel O’odham (Pima) agriculture after the Spanish entrada are evaluated. We argue that much of the production calendar can plausibly be retrodicted into prehistory, specifically to that archaeological culture called Hohokam.
Surviving Sudden Environmental Change, 2012
Ecology and Society, 2011
For at least the past 8000 years, small-scale farmers in semi-arid environments have had to mitig... more For at least the past 8000 years, small-scale farmers in semi-arid environments have had to mitigate shortfalls in crop production due to variation in precipitation and stream flow. To reduce their vulnerability to a shortfall in their food supply, small-scale farmers developed short-term strategies, including storage and community-scale sharing, to mitigate inter-annual variation in crop production, and long-term strategies, such as migration, to mitigate the effects of sustained droughts. We use the archaeological and paleoclimatic records from A.D. 900-1600 in two regions of the American Southwest to explore the nature of variation in the availability of water for crops, and the strategies that enhanced the resilience of prehistoric agricultural production to climatic variation. Drawing on information concerning contemporary small-scale farming in semi-arid environments, we then suggest that the risk coping and mitigation strategies that have endured for millennia are relevant to enhancing the resilience of contemporary farmers’ livelihoods to environmental and economic perturbations.
Journal of Arizona Archaeology, 2010
Floods, droughts, and periods of high streamflow variability continue to influence archaeological... more Floods, droughts, and periods of high streamflow variability continue to influence archaeological interpretations of Hohokam demographic and sociopolitical change. In most instances, extreme streamflow events have been linked to canal system failure and a decline in agricultural productivity. It has been further hypothesized that catastrophic floods and associated geomorphic channel changes contributed to settlement movement and population decline. Contrary to these expectations, a recent study of population change along Canal System 2 in the lower Salt River valley found that as flooding, drought, and streamflow variability increased, population growth rates also increased. We build on the Canal System 2 analysis in this paper by comparing changes in inferred population levels at the Grewe site to annual streamflow patterns along the middle Gila River. Extensive excavation data from Grewe
provide a unique opportunity to evaluate the long-term relationship between streamflow and population dynamics at the scale of an individual settlement. Although the Grewe results differ from those observed along Canal System 2, we attribute these differences primarily to scalar factors. We suggest that it is unreasonable to assume that one model or set of expectations regarding the relationship among streamflow, potential agricultural productivity, and human demographic behavior is adequate. Different scales of analysis should yield differences in results.
American Antiquity , 2008
Ecology and Society, 2007
Scenario analysis is a useful tool for exploring key uncertainties that may shape the future of s... more Scenario analysis is a useful tool for exploring key uncertainties that may shape the future of social-ecological systems. This paper explores the methods, costs, and benefits of developing and linking scenarios of social-ecological systems across multiple spatial scales. Drawing largely on experiences in the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, we suggest that the desired degree of cross-scale linkage depends on the primary aim of the scenario exercise. Loosely linked multiscale scenarios appear more appropriate when the primary aim is to engage in exploratory dialog with stakeholders. Tightly coupled cross-scale scenarios seem to work best when the main objective is to further our understanding of cross-scale interactions or to assess trade-offs between scales. The main disadvantages of tightly coupled cross-scale scenarios are that their development requires substantial time and financial resources, and that they often suffer loss of credibility at one or more scales. The reasons for developing multiscale scenarios and the expectations associated with doing so therefore need to be carefully evaluated when choosing the desired degree of cross-scale linkage in a particular scenario exercise.
Journal of Field Archaeology, 2006
Settlement pattern data in the lower Salt River valley of central Arizona) near Phoenix)
have le... more Settlement pattern data in the lower Salt River valley of central Arizona) near Phoenix)
have led to different models of Hohokam political community or;ganization during the early Classic period (ca. A.D. 1150-1300). The "focal village" model posits political communities centered on a single large village with monumental architecture surrounded by smaller settlements. The "linear community" model envisions an elongated arrangement integrating populations distributed along the routes of irrigation canals. Each model has implications for the nature of cooperation within and between settlement clusters and the degree to which large-scale irrigation management influenced the development of Hohokam community organization. In this analysis, ceramic sourcing studies are used to outline networks of interaction to examine the different models. Our results provide some evidence for a crosscutting patchwork of geographically dispersed social groups which fits most comfortably within
the linear community model.
Book Chapter, Peer-Reviewed by Scott E Ingram
Water and Society from Ancient Times to the Present: Resilience, Decline, and Revival, 2018
Climate sensitivity assessment, the methodological approach introduced in this chapter, is new to... more Climate sensitivity assessment, the methodological approach introduced in this chapter, is new to archaeology inquiry. Sensitivity assessment is part of the worldwide effort to improve understanding of current climate change impacts, adaptation and vulnerability (e.g. McCarthy et al., 2001; IPCC, 2014). '[Climate change] Sensitivity is the degree to which a system is affected, either adversely or beneficially, by climate-related stimuli' (McCarthy et al., 2001: 21). Sensitivity studies 'attempt to identify climate-sensitive groups, activi ties and areas, linking them to the varied levels of climate extremes' (Kates, 1985: 16; see Maunder and Ausubel. 1985 and Warrick, 1980 for examples). The multidisciplinary study of human sensitivity to climate extremes contrib utes to climate impact assessments (e.g. Kates, 1985) and is integral to local to global-scale efforts to prepare for the projected effects of global warming (IPCC, 2014). The goal of this chapter is to share with archaeologists and those interested in climatic influences on human behaviour a method of assessing human sensi tivity to climate extremes (e.g. droughts, pluvials, warm and cool periods). The method is appropriate for any region with long-term archaeological settlement data and high-resolution palaeoclimatic data. ft is my hope that archaeologists will conduct similar analyses in their region of interest and communicate the results to policy makers and investigators of human vulnerability and resilience to climate extremes. Archaeologists investigate the long-term dynamics and drivers of change and stability in human-environment interactions and social and ecological (or 'natural') systems (Fisher and Feinman, 2005; van der Leeuw and Redman, 2002; Nelson et al., 2012). Contemporary climate impact stud ies that do not consider the long-term may have practical consequences for policy makers and the public, such as the failure to direct adaptation and miti gation resources to people and places with long-term vulnerability to climate extremes. Likewise, the knowledge that can be gained from identifying long term human resilience to climate extremes can be lost if this resilience is not identified and investigated. Policy makers and planners preparing adaptation and mitigation strategies for a warming world and archaeologists investigating historical trajectories may rely on 'common sense' assumptions that lack empirical support (Ingram, 2010).
Settlement Ecology of the Ancient Americas, 2017
The Give and Take of Sustainability: Archaeological and Anthropological Perspectives on Tradeoffs, 2017
Traditional Arid Lands Agriculture Understanding the Past for the Future, 2015
Traditional Arid Lands Agriculture: Understanding the Past for the Future, 2015
The purpose of this book is to stimulate research and advance understanding of traditional agricu... more The purpose of this book is to stimulate research and advance understanding of traditional agriculture in arid lands, past and present. Each chapter focuses on what is not known or well understood about specific aspects of traditional agriculture (nonindustrial plant cultivation for human use). What is known is discussed to provide context and explanation for what is unknown. Each chapter addresses four questions: What do we not know about a specific topic related to traditional agriculture? 1 Why do we need to know more? How can we know more? What research questions can we pursue to know more? These questions were developed by us (Ingram and Hunt) to achieve our goal of stimulating future research. With answers to each of these questions, paths to create new knowledge and understanding are revealed. In brief, the book is about known unknowns in traditional arid lands agriculture. The book was developed for students, practitioners, and scholars of traditional agriculture from many disciplines, professions, and regions. For students, each chapter identifies research questions and projects to advance understanding of traditional agriculture, now and in the past. Herein lies stimulus for papers, theses, dissertations, and careers. For practitioners concerned with influencing the way agriculture is conducted
Alliance and Landscape on Perry Mesa in the Fourteenth Century, 2014
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Book, Peer-reviewed by Scott E Ingram
University of Arizona Press, 2015
Traditional Arid Lands Agriculture is the first of its kind. Each chapter considers four question... more Traditional Arid Lands Agriculture is the first of its kind. Each chapter considers four questions: what we don’t know about specific aspects of traditional agriculture, why we need to know more, how we can know more, and what research questions can be pursued to know more. What is known is presented to provide context for what is unknown.
Traditional agriculture, nonindustrial plant cultivation for human use, is practiced worldwide by millions of smallholder farmers in arid lands. Advancing an understanding of traditional agriculture can improve its practice and contribute to understanding the past. Traditional agriculture has been practiced in the U.S. Southwest and northwest Mexico for at least four thousand years and intensely studied for at least one hundred years. What is not known or well-understood about traditional arid lands agriculture in this region has broad application for research, policy, and agricultural practices in arid lands worldwide.
The authors represent the disciplines of archaeology, anthropology, agronomy, art, botany, geomorphology, paleoclimatology, and pedology. This multidisciplinary book will engage students, practitioners, scholars, and any interested in understanding and advancing traditional agriculture.
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Journal Articles, Peer-reviewed by Scott E Ingram
change, food security, migration, etc.) where Southwestern archaeologists are uniquely prepared to extend the benefits of Southwestern archaeology beyond archaeology. Extending these benefits is both an opportunity and an emerging responsibility.
agave, saguaro, cholla). Animals considered include lagomorphs, rodents, and deer. The major changes in Akimel O’odham (Pima) agriculture after the Spanish entrada are evaluated. We argue that much of the production calendar can plausibly be retrodicted into prehistory, specifically to that archaeological culture called Hohokam.
provide a unique opportunity to evaluate the long-term relationship between streamflow and population dynamics at the scale of an individual settlement. Although the Grewe results differ from those observed along Canal System 2, we attribute these differences primarily to scalar factors. We suggest that it is unreasonable to assume that one model or set of expectations regarding the relationship among streamflow, potential agricultural productivity, and human demographic behavior is adequate. Different scales of analysis should yield differences in results.
have led to different models of Hohokam political community or;ganization during the early Classic period (ca. A.D. 1150-1300). The "focal village" model posits political communities centered on a single large village with monumental architecture surrounded by smaller settlements. The "linear community" model envisions an elongated arrangement integrating populations distributed along the routes of irrigation canals. Each model has implications for the nature of cooperation within and between settlement clusters and the degree to which large-scale irrigation management influenced the development of Hohokam community organization. In this analysis, ceramic sourcing studies are used to outline networks of interaction to examine the different models. Our results provide some evidence for a crosscutting patchwork of geographically dispersed social groups which fits most comfortably within
the linear community model.
Book Chapter, Peer-Reviewed by Scott E Ingram
Book, Peer-reviewed by Scott E Ingram
Traditional agriculture, nonindustrial plant cultivation for human use, is practiced worldwide by millions of smallholder farmers in arid lands. Advancing an understanding of traditional agriculture can improve its practice and contribute to understanding the past. Traditional agriculture has been practiced in the U.S. Southwest and northwest Mexico for at least four thousand years and intensely studied for at least one hundred years. What is not known or well-understood about traditional arid lands agriculture in this region has broad application for research, policy, and agricultural practices in arid lands worldwide.
The authors represent the disciplines of archaeology, anthropology, agronomy, art, botany, geomorphology, paleoclimatology, and pedology. This multidisciplinary book will engage students, practitioners, scholars, and any interested in understanding and advancing traditional agriculture.
change, food security, migration, etc.) where Southwestern archaeologists are uniquely prepared to extend the benefits of Southwestern archaeology beyond archaeology. Extending these benefits is both an opportunity and an emerging responsibility.
agave, saguaro, cholla). Animals considered include lagomorphs, rodents, and deer. The major changes in Akimel O’odham (Pima) agriculture after the Spanish entrada are evaluated. We argue that much of the production calendar can plausibly be retrodicted into prehistory, specifically to that archaeological culture called Hohokam.
provide a unique opportunity to evaluate the long-term relationship between streamflow and population dynamics at the scale of an individual settlement. Although the Grewe results differ from those observed along Canal System 2, we attribute these differences primarily to scalar factors. We suggest that it is unreasonable to assume that one model or set of expectations regarding the relationship among streamflow, potential agricultural productivity, and human demographic behavior is adequate. Different scales of analysis should yield differences in results.
have led to different models of Hohokam political community or;ganization during the early Classic period (ca. A.D. 1150-1300). The "focal village" model posits political communities centered on a single large village with monumental architecture surrounded by smaller settlements. The "linear community" model envisions an elongated arrangement integrating populations distributed along the routes of irrigation canals. Each model has implications for the nature of cooperation within and between settlement clusters and the degree to which large-scale irrigation management influenced the development of Hohokam community organization. In this analysis, ceramic sourcing studies are used to outline networks of interaction to examine the different models. Our results provide some evidence for a crosscutting patchwork of geographically dispersed social groups which fits most comfortably within
the linear community model.
Traditional agriculture, nonindustrial plant cultivation for human use, is practiced worldwide by millions of smallholder farmers in arid lands. Advancing an understanding of traditional agriculture can improve its practice and contribute to understanding the past. Traditional agriculture has been practiced in the U.S. Southwest and northwest Mexico for at least four thousand years and intensely studied for at least one hundred years. What is not known or well-understood about traditional arid lands agriculture in this region has broad application for research, policy, and agricultural practices in arid lands worldwide.
The authors represent the disciplines of archaeology, anthropology, agronomy, art, botany, geomorphology, paleoclimatology, and pedology. This multidisciplinary book will engage students, practitioners, scholars, and any interested in understanding and advancing traditional agriculture.
Results of this study support conceptual models that emphasize the contribution of high watershed population density and watershed-scale population-resource imbalances to relatively high vulnerability to dry periods. Models that emphasize the contribution of: (1) settlement population levels, (2) settlement locations distant from perennial rivers, (3) settlement locations in areas of low average annual precipitation; and (4) settlement-scale population-resource imbalances to relatively high vulnerability to dry periods are, however, not supported. Results also suggest that people living in watersheds with the greatest access to and availability of water were the most vulnerable to dry periods, or at least most likely to move when confronted with dry conditions. Thus, commonly held assumptions of differences in vulnerability due to settlement population levels and inherently water poor conditions are not supported. The assumption of regional-scale resource marginality and widespread vulnerability to dry periods in this region of the U.S. Southwest is also not consistently supported throughout the study area.