Elderly subjects and college-age subjects were coMpared on the strategy used to answer a question... more Elderly subjects and college-age subjects were coMpared on the strategy used to answer a question based on information in memory. The two strategies studied were direct retrieval and plausibility. The first experiment tested the hypothesis that older subjects will rely on the plausibility strategy more than young subjects. A second experiment tested the_hpothesis that the different pattern of data is due to processing differences, not differences in the strength of episodic memory traces. Performance was slower in general for older subjects. However, older subjects also tended to modify their performance to minimize the detrimental effects of inferior retention of specifics. In some conditions, older subjects outperformed young subjects even in terms of response time. This resulted from their propensity_to use a strategy that depends less on exact memory and that can be more efficient in some circumstances. This strategy involved using consistency as opposed to a careful inspection of the nature of relationships found in memory. MB)
The size of fan effects is determined by processes at retrieval, not by whether or not informatio... more The size of fan effects is determined by processes at retrieval, not by whether or not information is represented as situations. Evidence contradicts Radvansky's (in press) claim that time to retrieve information from a situation does not depend on number of elements in a situation. Moreover, Radvansky's principles for ascribing situational models to experiments appear to be post hoc ways of redescribing the data. On the other hand, the evidence does support the ACT-R assumption that participants can adjust their attentional weightings and so produce differential fan effects. Moreover, the ACT-R theory of the fan effect is consistent with many other findings.
There is a frequent misperception that the move from behaviorism to cognitivism implies an abando... more There is a frequent misperception that the move from behaviorism to cognitivism implies an abandonment of the possibilities of decomposing knowledge into its elements for the purposes of study and decontextualizing these elements for instruction. Cognitivism does not imply outright rejection of decomposition and decontextualization. Two movements based in part on this rejection--situated learning and constructivism--were analyzed. These two schools of thought are not identical: situated learning emphasizes that knowledge is maintained in the external, social world; constructivism argues that knowledge resides in an individual's internal state, perhaps unknowable to anyone else. However, both schools share the general philosophical positions that knowledge cannot be decomposed or "decontextualized " for purposes of either research or instruction, and each group often appeals to the writings of the other for support. Since rejection of decomposition and decontextualizat...
We found an unexpected positive effect of target-to-distractor similarity (TD) in a visual search... more We found an unexpected positive effect of target-to-distractor similarity (TD) in a visual search task, despite overwhelming evidence in the literature that TD similarity hurts visual search performance. Participants with no prior knowledge of Chinese performed 12 hour-long sessions over 4 weeks, where they had to find a briefly presented target character among a set of distractors. At the beginning of the experiment, TD similarity hurt performance, but the effect reversed during the first session and remained positive throughout the remaining sessions. We present a simple connectionist model that accounts for that reversal of TD similarity effects on visual search and we discuss possible theoretical explanations.
Theoretical explanations of the testing effect (why people learn better from a test than a re-stu... more Theoretical explanations of the testing effect (why people learn better from a test than a re-study) have largely focused on either the benefit of attempting to retrieve the answer or on the benefit of re-encoding the queried information after a successful retrieval. While a less parsimonious account, prior neuroimaging evidence has led us to postulate that both of these processes contribute to the benefit of testing over re-study. To provide further empirical support for our position, we recorded ERPs while subjects attempted to recall the second word of a pair when cued with the first. These ERPs were analyzed based on the current response accuracy and as a function of accuracy on the subsequent test, yielding three groups: the first and second tests were correct, the first was correct and the second was not, both were incorrect. Mean amplitude waveforms during the first test showed different patterns depending on the outcome patterns: Between 400 and 700 ms the amplitudes were mo...
Page 1. Implicit . A. Memory and Metacognition Edited by Lynne M. Reder Page 2. Page 3. IMPLICIT ... more Page 1. Implicit . A. Memory and Metacognition Edited by Lynne M. Reder Page 2. Page 3. IMPLICIT MEMORY AND METACOGNITION Page 4. Carnegie Mellon Symposia on Cognition David Klahr, Series Editor Anderson: Cognitive ...
Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1983
Subjects read sentences that ended in an ambiguous noun that had been disambiguated by preceding ... more Subjects read sentences that ended in an ambiguous noun that had been disambiguated by preceding selection restrictions. Each sentence began with a subject noun and a relative clause that could either prime the selected meaning of the final word, the nonselected meaning, or neither. Three experiments used comprehension time and interpretation errors to determine how context integrates with selectional restrictions. There were effects of positive priming on comprehension time and effects of negative priming on interpretation errors. The effects of priming were additive. These results support a threshold model of concept activation.
APA PsycNET Our Apologies! - The following features are not available with your current Browser c... more APA PsycNET Our Apologies! - The following features are not available with your current Browser configuration. - alerts user that their session is about to expire - display, print, save, export, and email selected records - get My ...
Page 239. STRATEGIC CONTROL OF RETRIEVAL STRATEGIES Lynne M. Reder I. Introduction Virtually all ... more Page 239. STRATEGIC CONTROL OF RETRIEVAL STRATEGIES Lynne M. Reder I. Introduction Virtually all complex cognitive tasks can be accomplished using one of several different strategies. Not only do different people ...
Elderly subjects and college-age subjects were coMpared on the strategy used to answer a question... more Elderly subjects and college-age subjects were coMpared on the strategy used to answer a question based on information in memory. The two strategies studied were direct retrieval and plausibility. The first experiment tested the hypothesis that older subjects will rely on the plausibility strategy more than young subjects. A second experiment tested the_hpothesis that the different pattern of data is due to processing differences, not differences in the strength of episodic memory traces. Performance was slower in general for older subjects. However, older subjects also tended to modify their performance to minimize the detrimental effects of inferior retention of specifics. In some conditions, older subjects outperformed young subjects even in terms of response time. This resulted from their propensity_to use a strategy that depends less on exact memory and that can be more efficient in some circumstances. This strategy involved using consistency as opposed to a careful inspection of the nature of relationships found in memory. MB)
A review is given of recent research done in the area of prose comprehension, broadly defined. Re... more A review is given of recent research done in the area of prose comprehension, broadly defined. Research in the areas of educational psychology, psychology, and artificial intelligence is represented, although no pretense is made that this review is complete. This review discusses work concerned with factors that affect amount of recall, with representations of text structures, and with use of world knowledge to aid comprehension. The need for more information processing models of comprehension is stressed and an argument is made for the importance of elaboration to comprehension and retention.
Page 1. Psychological Review 1982, Vol. 89, No. 3, 250-280 Copyright 1982 by the American Psychol... more Page 1. Psychological Review 1982, Vol. 89, No. 3, 250-280 Copyright 1982 by the American Psychological Association, Inc. 0033-295X/82/8903-0250$00.75 Plausibility Judgments Versus Fact Retrieval: Alternative Strategies for Sentence Verification ...
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2004
The notion of multiple memory systems based on conscious accessibility has been supported largely... more The notion of multiple memory systems based on conscious accessibility has been supported largely by neuropsychological patient studies. Specifically, it was widely held that amnesic patients have impaired explicit memory performance but spared implicit memory performance. However, recent patient studies have called the implicit/explicit memory distinction into question. In this study, normal participants were tested on a visual search task, once after an injection of midazolam, an anesthetic that induces temporary amnesia, and once after an injection of saline. Under the influence of midazolam, participants did not show facilitation in search times for repeated configurations (contextual cuing), although there was a general speed-up in performance across blocks in both the midazolam and saline conditions. Neither the contextual-cuing effect nor the procedural-learning effect was available to subjective experience, yet only one of these was affected by midazolam-induced amnesia. The...
Prior research (Reder and Anderson 1980, 1982) has shown that acquisition of new information can ... more Prior research (Reder and Anderson 1980, 1982) has shown that acquisition of new information can be facilitated by a format that summarizes the important points as compared with a more traditional format, such as a textbook chapter. The previous results used recognition (true/ ...
The parity effect in arithmetic problem verification tasks refers to faster and more accurate jud... more The parity effect in arithmetic problem verification tasks refers to faster and more accurate judgments for false equations when the odd/even status of the proposed answer mismatches that of the correct answer. In two experiments, we examined whether the proportion of incorrect answers that violated parity or the number of even operands in the problem affected the magnitude of these effects. Experiment 1 showed larger parity effects for problems with two even operands and larger parity effects during the second half of the experiment. Experiment 2 replicated the results of Experiment 1 and varied the proportion of problems violating parity. Larger parity effects were obtained when more of the false problems violated parity. Moreover, all three effects combined to show the greatest parity effects in conditions with a high proportion of parity violations in problems containing two even operands that were solved during the second half of the experiment. Experiment 3 generalized the findings to the case of five rule (i.e., checking whether a false product ends in 5 or 0), another procedure for solving and verifying multiplication problems quickly. These results (1) delineate further constraints for inclusion in models of arithmetic processing when thinking about how people select among verification strategies, (2) show combined effects of variables that traditionally have been shown to have separate effects on people's strategy selection, and (3) are consistent with a view of strategy selection that suggests a bias either in the allocation of cognitive resources in the execution of strategies or in the order of execution of these strategies; they argue against a simple, unbiased competition among strategies. A very striking feature of human cognition is that people use multiple strategies to accomplish most cognitive tasks. In domains as diverse as arithmetic, serial recall, question answering, sentence verification, reading, and naive physics, people know and use multiple strategies (see, e.g.
Elderly subjects and college-age subjects were coMpared on the strategy used to answer a question... more Elderly subjects and college-age subjects were coMpared on the strategy used to answer a question based on information in memory. The two strategies studied were direct retrieval and plausibility. The first experiment tested the hypothesis that older subjects will rely on the plausibility strategy more than young subjects. A second experiment tested the_hpothesis that the different pattern of data is due to processing differences, not differences in the strength of episodic memory traces. Performance was slower in general for older subjects. However, older subjects also tended to modify their performance to minimize the detrimental effects of inferior retention of specifics. In some conditions, older subjects outperformed young subjects even in terms of response time. This resulted from their propensity_to use a strategy that depends less on exact memory and that can be more efficient in some circumstances. This strategy involved using consistency as opposed to a careful inspection of the nature of relationships found in memory. MB)
The size of fan effects is determined by processes at retrieval, not by whether or not informatio... more The size of fan effects is determined by processes at retrieval, not by whether or not information is represented as situations. Evidence contradicts Radvansky's (in press) claim that time to retrieve information from a situation does not depend on number of elements in a situation. Moreover, Radvansky's principles for ascribing situational models to experiments appear to be post hoc ways of redescribing the data. On the other hand, the evidence does support the ACT-R assumption that participants can adjust their attentional weightings and so produce differential fan effects. Moreover, the ACT-R theory of the fan effect is consistent with many other findings.
There is a frequent misperception that the move from behaviorism to cognitivism implies an abando... more There is a frequent misperception that the move from behaviorism to cognitivism implies an abandonment of the possibilities of decomposing knowledge into its elements for the purposes of study and decontextualizing these elements for instruction. Cognitivism does not imply outright rejection of decomposition and decontextualization. Two movements based in part on this rejection--situated learning and constructivism--were analyzed. These two schools of thought are not identical: situated learning emphasizes that knowledge is maintained in the external, social world; constructivism argues that knowledge resides in an individual's internal state, perhaps unknowable to anyone else. However, both schools share the general philosophical positions that knowledge cannot be decomposed or "decontextualized " for purposes of either research or instruction, and each group often appeals to the writings of the other for support. Since rejection of decomposition and decontextualizat...
We found an unexpected positive effect of target-to-distractor similarity (TD) in a visual search... more We found an unexpected positive effect of target-to-distractor similarity (TD) in a visual search task, despite overwhelming evidence in the literature that TD similarity hurts visual search performance. Participants with no prior knowledge of Chinese performed 12 hour-long sessions over 4 weeks, where they had to find a briefly presented target character among a set of distractors. At the beginning of the experiment, TD similarity hurt performance, but the effect reversed during the first session and remained positive throughout the remaining sessions. We present a simple connectionist model that accounts for that reversal of TD similarity effects on visual search and we discuss possible theoretical explanations.
Theoretical explanations of the testing effect (why people learn better from a test than a re-stu... more Theoretical explanations of the testing effect (why people learn better from a test than a re-study) have largely focused on either the benefit of attempting to retrieve the answer or on the benefit of re-encoding the queried information after a successful retrieval. While a less parsimonious account, prior neuroimaging evidence has led us to postulate that both of these processes contribute to the benefit of testing over re-study. To provide further empirical support for our position, we recorded ERPs while subjects attempted to recall the second word of a pair when cued with the first. These ERPs were analyzed based on the current response accuracy and as a function of accuracy on the subsequent test, yielding three groups: the first and second tests were correct, the first was correct and the second was not, both were incorrect. Mean amplitude waveforms during the first test showed different patterns depending on the outcome patterns: Between 400 and 700 ms the amplitudes were mo...
Page 1. Implicit . A. Memory and Metacognition Edited by Lynne M. Reder Page 2. Page 3. IMPLICIT ... more Page 1. Implicit . A. Memory and Metacognition Edited by Lynne M. Reder Page 2. Page 3. IMPLICIT MEMORY AND METACOGNITION Page 4. Carnegie Mellon Symposia on Cognition David Klahr, Series Editor Anderson: Cognitive ...
Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1983
Subjects read sentences that ended in an ambiguous noun that had been disambiguated by preceding ... more Subjects read sentences that ended in an ambiguous noun that had been disambiguated by preceding selection restrictions. Each sentence began with a subject noun and a relative clause that could either prime the selected meaning of the final word, the nonselected meaning, or neither. Three experiments used comprehension time and interpretation errors to determine how context integrates with selectional restrictions. There were effects of positive priming on comprehension time and effects of negative priming on interpretation errors. The effects of priming were additive. These results support a threshold model of concept activation.
APA PsycNET Our Apologies! - The following features are not available with your current Browser c... more APA PsycNET Our Apologies! - The following features are not available with your current Browser configuration. - alerts user that their session is about to expire - display, print, save, export, and email selected records - get My ...
Page 239. STRATEGIC CONTROL OF RETRIEVAL STRATEGIES Lynne M. Reder I. Introduction Virtually all ... more Page 239. STRATEGIC CONTROL OF RETRIEVAL STRATEGIES Lynne M. Reder I. Introduction Virtually all complex cognitive tasks can be accomplished using one of several different strategies. Not only do different people ...
Elderly subjects and college-age subjects were coMpared on the strategy used to answer a question... more Elderly subjects and college-age subjects were coMpared on the strategy used to answer a question based on information in memory. The two strategies studied were direct retrieval and plausibility. The first experiment tested the hypothesis that older subjects will rely on the plausibility strategy more than young subjects. A second experiment tested the_hpothesis that the different pattern of data is due to processing differences, not differences in the strength of episodic memory traces. Performance was slower in general for older subjects. However, older subjects also tended to modify their performance to minimize the detrimental effects of inferior retention of specifics. In some conditions, older subjects outperformed young subjects even in terms of response time. This resulted from their propensity_to use a strategy that depends less on exact memory and that can be more efficient in some circumstances. This strategy involved using consistency as opposed to a careful inspection of the nature of relationships found in memory. MB)
A review is given of recent research done in the area of prose comprehension, broadly defined. Re... more A review is given of recent research done in the area of prose comprehension, broadly defined. Research in the areas of educational psychology, psychology, and artificial intelligence is represented, although no pretense is made that this review is complete. This review discusses work concerned with factors that affect amount of recall, with representations of text structures, and with use of world knowledge to aid comprehension. The need for more information processing models of comprehension is stressed and an argument is made for the importance of elaboration to comprehension and retention.
Page 1. Psychological Review 1982, Vol. 89, No. 3, 250-280 Copyright 1982 by the American Psychol... more Page 1. Psychological Review 1982, Vol. 89, No. 3, 250-280 Copyright 1982 by the American Psychological Association, Inc. 0033-295X/82/8903-0250$00.75 Plausibility Judgments Versus Fact Retrieval: Alternative Strategies for Sentence Verification ...
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2004
The notion of multiple memory systems based on conscious accessibility has been supported largely... more The notion of multiple memory systems based on conscious accessibility has been supported largely by neuropsychological patient studies. Specifically, it was widely held that amnesic patients have impaired explicit memory performance but spared implicit memory performance. However, recent patient studies have called the implicit/explicit memory distinction into question. In this study, normal participants were tested on a visual search task, once after an injection of midazolam, an anesthetic that induces temporary amnesia, and once after an injection of saline. Under the influence of midazolam, participants did not show facilitation in search times for repeated configurations (contextual cuing), although there was a general speed-up in performance across blocks in both the midazolam and saline conditions. Neither the contextual-cuing effect nor the procedural-learning effect was available to subjective experience, yet only one of these was affected by midazolam-induced amnesia. The...
Prior research (Reder and Anderson 1980, 1982) has shown that acquisition of new information can ... more Prior research (Reder and Anderson 1980, 1982) has shown that acquisition of new information can be facilitated by a format that summarizes the important points as compared with a more traditional format, such as a textbook chapter. The previous results used recognition (true/ ...
The parity effect in arithmetic problem verification tasks refers to faster and more accurate jud... more The parity effect in arithmetic problem verification tasks refers to faster and more accurate judgments for false equations when the odd/even status of the proposed answer mismatches that of the correct answer. In two experiments, we examined whether the proportion of incorrect answers that violated parity or the number of even operands in the problem affected the magnitude of these effects. Experiment 1 showed larger parity effects for problems with two even operands and larger parity effects during the second half of the experiment. Experiment 2 replicated the results of Experiment 1 and varied the proportion of problems violating parity. Larger parity effects were obtained when more of the false problems violated parity. Moreover, all three effects combined to show the greatest parity effects in conditions with a high proportion of parity violations in problems containing two even operands that were solved during the second half of the experiment. Experiment 3 generalized the findings to the case of five rule (i.e., checking whether a false product ends in 5 or 0), another procedure for solving and verifying multiplication problems quickly. These results (1) delineate further constraints for inclusion in models of arithmetic processing when thinking about how people select among verification strategies, (2) show combined effects of variables that traditionally have been shown to have separate effects on people's strategy selection, and (3) are consistent with a view of strategy selection that suggests a bias either in the allocation of cognitive resources in the execution of strategies or in the order of execution of these strategies; they argue against a simple, unbiased competition among strategies. A very striking feature of human cognition is that people use multiple strategies to accomplish most cognitive tasks. In domains as diverse as arithmetic, serial recall, question answering, sentence verification, reading, and naive physics, people know and use multiple strategies (see, e.g.
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