Globalno zatopljenje

Prosječne temperature zraka od 2011. do 2021. u odnosu na prosjek od 1956. do 1976.

Promjena prosječne globalne temperature od predindustrijske ere. Ljudska aktivnost predstavlja glavni uzrok povećanju tokom industrijske ere. Prirodne sile dodaju relativno malo promjenjivosti.

Savremena upotreba pojma klimatske promjene podrazumijeva globalno zatopljenje koje je prouzrokovalo čovječanstvo i utjecaj tih promjena na vremenske prilike na Zemlji. Iako je bilo klimatskih promjena u prošlosti, trenutne su znatno brže od svih zabilježenih u historiji Zemlje. Glavni uzrok su emisije stakleničkih plinova, većinom ugljik-dioksida (CO
2) i metana, koje nastaju sagorijevanjem fosilnih goriva u energetske svrhe. Drugi uzročnici emisija jesu ratarstvo, proizvodnja čelika i cementa te gubitak šuma. Na rast temperature također utječu gubici snježnog pokrivača koji reflektira sunčevu svjetlost i otpuštanje ugljik-dioksida iz šuma pogođenih sušama. Sve ovo ubrzava proces globalnog zatopljenja.

Temperature na tlu porasle su dvostruko brže u odnosu na globalni prosjek. Pustinje se proširuju, dok su toplotni valovi i šumski požari sve češći. Povećano zagrijavanje na Arktiku doprinijelo je topljenju permafrosta, lednika i gubitku morskog leda. Povećane temperature također izazivaju snažnije oluje i druge ekstremne vremenske prilike. Zbog promjena okoliša, mnoge vrste primorane su se seliti iz svojih staništa – koralnih grebena, planina, Arktika i drugih sličnih mjesta – dok drugima prijeti opasnost od izumiranja. Ljudima prijeti nestašica hrane i vode, češće i snažnije poplave, toplotni valovi, bolesti i ekonomska šteta. Klimatske promjene također mogu postaći seobu ljudi. Svjetska zdravstvena organizacija smatra da su klimatske promjena najveća prijetnja globalnom zdravlju u 21. stoljeću. Čak i ako se uspije smanjiti buduće zatopljenje, pojedine posljedice – kao što su porast razine mora, zatopljenje i zakiseljenje okeana – potrajat će stoljećima.

Već su osjetne mnoge posljedice trenutne razine zatopljenja, koja je otprilike 1,2 °C. Međuvladin panel o klimatskim promjenama (IPCC) predviđa veće posljedice kad taj broj pređe 1,5 °C. Dodatno zatopljenje povećava rizik prekoračenja klimatskih kritičnih tačaka, od kojih je jedna otapanje Grenlandske ledene ploče. Rješenje problema klimatskih promjena podrazumijeva poduzimanje određenih radnji kojima bi se ograničila količina zatopljenja te prilagodilo trenutnim i predstojećim klimatskim promjenama. Buduće zatopljenje može se ublažiti smanjenjem emisija stakleničkih plinova i uklanjanjem ih iz atmosfere. Da bi se to ostvarilo, bit će potrebno preći s uglja na solarnu i energiju vjetra te povećati učinkovitost energije. Emisije će se dodatno smanjiti prelaskom na električna vozila i toplotne pumpe. Sprečavanje rašumljavanja te intenzivno pošumljavanje može pomoći apsorpciji CO
2. Pojedine zajednice mogu se prilagoditi klimatskim promjenama tako što će poboljšati zaštitu obala, bolje upravljati nepogodama i razviti otpornije usjeve. Rješenja sama po sebi ne mogu smanjiti rizik snažnih, opsežnih i trajnih posljedica.

Shoreline picture of New Jersey after Hurricane Sandy went through the day before

Primjeri posljedica klimatskih promjena, odozgo nadolje u smjeru kazaljke na satu: Šumski požar nastao zbog toplote i suše, izbijeljeni korali zbog zagrijavanja i zakiseljavanja okeana, suša koja utječe na nestašicu vode i poplave obala prouzrokovane olujama i porastom razine mora

Zemlje potpisnice Pariskog sporazuma 2015. dogovorile su se da će, poduzimanjem raznih mjera ublažavanja, zadržati razinu zatopljenja "ispod 2 °C". Međutim, i kad se uzmu u obzir obaveze propisane sporazumom, temperatura bi se do kraja stoljeća mogla povisiti do otprilike 2,7 °C. Da bi se porast temperature zaustavio na 1,5 °C bit će potrebno prepoloviti emisije do 2030. te doseći nulte neto stope do 2050.

Uzroci

Klimatske promjene na Zemlji su odgovor na vanjske utjecaje, uključujući one vezane za stakleničke gasove i varijacije u kretanju Zemlje u orbiti oko Sunca, promjene u sunčevoj aktivnosti i vulkanske erupcije. Učinak nijednog od navedenih faktora nije trenutan. Termalna inertnost okeana na Zemlji i spori odgovori ostalih posrednih učinaka znači da Zemljina trenutna klima nije u ravnoteži. Pojedine studije pokazuju da čak i ako bi se staklenički gasovi stabilizirali na nivoima iz 2000 godine, i dalje bi se nastavilo zagrijavanje za otprilike 0,5 °C. Globalno zamračenje, odnosno postepeno smanjenje intenziteta direktnog Sunčevog sjaja na površinu Zemlje, moglo bi djelimično ublažiti globalno zagrijavanje od kraja 20. vijeka. Naučnici su procijenili s pouzdanošću od 66-90% da su efekti izazvane aerosolima, uz vulkansku aktivnost, usporili globalno zatopljenje, kao i da bi staklenički gasovi prouzrokovali dosta veće zatopljenje.

Efekat staklenika

Količina ugljik dioksida izmjerena u intervalu od 1960-2009 na vulkanu Mauna Loa, Havaji, SAD

Postoji naučni konsenzus da je porast atmosferskih stakleničkih gasova uzrokovan ljudskim djelovanjem i da je izazvao veći dio zatopljenja posmatrano od početka industrijske ere do danas, pri čemu ovo zatopljenje ne može biti zadovoljavajuće objašnjeno samo prirodnim uzrocima. Ovi uzroci bi trebali biti najjasniji za period od posljednjih 50 godina, pošto je to razdoblje industrijskog procvata kada se desilo najveće povećanje koncentracije stakleničkih gasova i za koje postoje najpotpunija mjerenja.

Efekt staklenika je otkrio Joseph Fourier 1824, a prvi ga je kvantitativno istražio Svante Arrhenius 1896 godine. To je proces putem kog se, emisijom i apsorpcijom infracrvenih zraka i atmosferskih gasova, zagrijava donji dio atmosfere i površine planete.

Tako IPCC smatra da prirodni staklenički gasovi imaju značajan efekat zagrijavanja od oko 33 °C, bez kojih bi Zemlja bila nenastanjiva. Glavni staklenički gasovi su vodena para, koja uzrokuje oko 36-70% od stakleničkog efekta (ne uključujući oblake), ugljik dioksid (CO₂), koji uzrokuje 9-26% efekta, metan (CH₄), koji uzrokuje 4-9%; te ozon, koji uzrokuje 3-7% ukupnog efekta staklenika. Čovjekova aktivnost od industrijske revolucije do danas je povećala količinu stakleničkih gasova u atmosferi, te dovela do povećanja klimatskih utjecaja zbog CO₂, metana, troposferskog ozona, CFCa i dušik suboksida. Koncentracije CO₂ i metana su povećane od sredine 18. vijeka za 50% odnosno 250% respektivno. Ovi nivoi su znatno veći nego u bilo koje vrijeme tokom posljednjih 650.000 godina kao razdoblju za koje postoje pouzdaniji podaci dobiveni iz jezgri taloga leda. Manje direktni geološki dokazi pokazuju da su ovako visoke koncentracije CO₂ posljednji put bile prije otprilike 20 miliona godina. Budući da je život na Zemlji nastao prije više od 3,5 milijardi godina, to znači da je život na Zemlji vjerovatno u stanju adaptirati se na povećane nivoe ugljik dioksida. Izgaranjem fosilnih goriva proizvedeno je oko tri četvrtine povećanja CO₂ iz ljudske aktivnosti tokom proteklih 20 godina. Ostatak je većinom usljed promjena u korištenju zemljišta, naročito zbog krčenja šuma.

Koncentracija CO₂ i dalje raste zbog izgaranja fosilnih goriva i promjena korištenja zemljišta. Budućnost stope porasta zavisit će o neizvjesnom ekonomskom, sociološkom, tehnološkom i prirodnom razvoju. Posebni izvještaj IPCCa o scenarijima emisije pruža široki spektar budućih CO₂ scenarija, u rasponu od 541 do 970 ppm do 2100 godine.

Aerosoli

Globalno zamračenje, postupno smanjenje u jačini globalnog direktnog zračenja na površinu Zemlje, moglo bi imati djelimično međudjelovanje sa globalnim zagrijavanjem tokom perioda od 1960-1990 godine. Naučnici su utvrdili sa 66-90% sigurnosti da su efekti izazvani ljudskim aerosolima, pored vulkanske aktivnosti, donekle smanjili neke od efekata zagrijavanja koji su nastali zbog stakleničkih gasova. Antropogene emisije drugih onečišćujućih supstanci, posebno sulfatnih aerosola, mogu davati rashladne efekte povećanjem reflektiranja sunčevog zračenja. Ovo se naročito odnosi na hlađenje koje je zabilježeno sredinom dvadesetog vijeka, iako je hlađenje moglo nastupiti većim ili manjim dijelom i zbog prirodnih varijabilnosti.

Ozon

Ozonske rupe, odnosno stalni pad u ukupnoj količini ozona u Zemljinoj stratosferi, ponekad se uzimaju kao pojava povezana sa globalnim zatopljenjem. Iako postoji nekoliko zajedničkih područja, između ove dvije pojave nema puno povezanosti. Smanjenje stratosferskog ozona utječe na zahlađivanje, ali se značajnije smanjenje količine ozona nije desilo sve do kasnih 1970tih. Ozon u troposferi ima suprotan utjecaj i doprinosi zagrijavanju površine.

Porast temperature

Članak iz novozelandskih novina (objavljen 14. avgusta 1912.) koji opisuje principe globalnog zagrijavanja

Procjenjuje se da je globalna temperatura na površini Zemlje porasla za 0,75 °C u odnosu na period 1860-1900, u skladu sa mjerenjima ali uz ogradu da mjerenja sve do 1950-tih nisu bila preciznija od 1 °C pa je riječ o nepouzdanoj procjeni. Tako se procjenjuje i da je efekat urbanih "toplinskih ostrva" na globalno zatopljenje oko 0,02 °C u periodu od 1900 godine. Od 1979 godine temperature zemljišta su se povećavale oko dva puta brže nego temperature okeana (0,25 °C na deceniju u odnosu na 0,13 °C po deceniji zagrijavanja okeana). Temperature u donjem dijelu troposfere su porasle između 0,12 i 0,22 °C po desetljeću od 1979 godine, prema satelitskim mjerenjima temperature. Na osnovu procjene NASA-e, godina 2005 bila je najtoplija godina otkako postoje pouzdanija instrumentalna mjerenja od kraja 19. vijeka, a toplija je u odnosu na prethodni rekord postavljen 1998 godine za nekoliko stotih dijelova stepena., što je praktično zanemarljivo. Smatra se da su 1998 godine temperature bile neuobičajeno visoke, zbog najjačeg El-Niño efekta u posljednjih 100 godina.

Ekonomska i politička debata

Sve veća prisutnost naučnih spoznaja o globalnom zatopljenju u javnosti je rezultirala mnogim političkim i ekonomskim raspravama i debatama. Siromašne regije, posebno u Africi, izložene su najvećem riziku od očekivanih efekata globalnog zatopljenja, a njihove emisije stakleničkih gasova su izrazito malehne u odnosu na razvijeni svijet. Pitanje klimatskih promjena je potaklo raspravu o koristima ograničavanja industrijske emisije stakleničkih gasova s obzirom na troškove koje bi takve promjene donijele. Bilo je rasprava u nekoliko zemalja o troškovima i prednostima pronalaženja i korištenja alternativnih izvora energije u cilju smanjenja emisije ugljika. Neki ekonomisti su pokušali procijeniti ukupne neto ekonomske troškove šteta od klimatskih promjena širom svijeta. Takve procjene su do sada bile bez konačnih zaključaka, neke procjene vrijednosti su se kretale od -10 US$ po toni ugljika (tC) (-3 US$ po toni ugljik dioksida) do 350 US$/tC (95 US$ po toni ugljik dioksida), dok prosjek iznosi 43 US$ po toni ugljika (12 US$ po toni CO₂). Novije studije pokazale su da "zeleni" pristupi energiji, poput biogoriva (npr. kukuruz-etanola), također rezultiraju u ispuštanju CO₂ u atmosferu. Istovremeno, podaci Svjetske Banke govore da je promjena namjene za zemljišta koja su do sada korištena za proizvodnju hrane, u proizvodnju biogoriva, udvostručilo cijenu hrane u svijetu od 2005-2008, povećavajući glad naročito u najsiromašnijim dijelovima svijeta.

Naučni konsenzus i društvo

Naučni konsenzus

Akademske studije naučne saglasnosti o tome je li globalno zagrijavanje uzrokovano ljudskim aktivnostima među klimatskih stručnjacima pokazuje gotovo jednoglasan konsenzus. Studije također pokazuju da je stepen konsenzusa u uzajamnoj vezi s ekspertizom u klimatologiji.

Postoji gotovo jednoglasan naučni konsenzus da se klima zagrijava i da je to uzrokovano ljudskim djelatnostima. Saglasnost je u novijoj literaturi dostigla više od 99%. Starija istraživanja pokazala su da se od 90% do 100% klimatologa slaže oko toga da čovječanstvo igra ulogu u uzrokovanju klimatskih promjena. Podaci tih istraživanja prikupljeni su na osnovu konkretnog pitanja i odgovora. Sva naučna tijela nacionalnog ili međunarodnog položaja slažu se s onim mišljenjem. Dostignut je i konsenzus da treba preduzeti odgovarajuće mjere da bi se ljudi zaštitili od uticaja klimatskih promjena. Nacionalne akademije nauka pozvale su svjetske lidere da smanje ispuštanje štetnih gasova.

Naučna rasprava se odvija u člancima iz časopisa koji se stručno recenziraju. Naučnici ih procjenjuju svakih nekoliko godina u izvještajima Međuvladinog panela o klimatskim promjenama. Izvještaj panela o procjeni za 2021. navodi da ljudi "nedvosmisleno uzrokuju klimatske promjene".

Poricanje i dezinformacije

Dodatne informacije: Poricanje klimatskih promjena

Podaci su pažljivo izabrani i izdvojeni iz kratkih razdoblja kako bi se lažno tvrdilo da se globalna temperatura ne povisuje. Plave linije trenda pokazuju kratka razdoblja koja se upotrebljavaju za prikrivanje dugoročnih trendova zagrijavanja (crvene linije). Plave tačke predstavljaju pauzu globalnog zatopljenja.

Na javnu raspravu o klimatskim promjenama snažno su uticali njihovo poricanje i dezinformacije. Nastali su u Sjedinjenim Američkim Državama i otad su se proširili na druge zemlje, naročito na Kanadu i Australiju. Akteri koji stoje iza poricanja klimatskih promjena oblikuju dobro finansiranu i relativno usklađenu koaliciju kompanija za fosilna goriva, industrijskih grupa, konzervativnih analitičkih centara i disidentskih naučnika. Kao i prethodno kod duhanske industrije, glavna strategija tih grupa bila je stvaranje sumnje u naučne podatke i rezultate. Mnogi koji poriču, odbacuju ili drže neopravdanu sumnju u naučni konsenzus o antropogenim klimatskim promjenama označeni su kao "skeptici u pogledu klimatskih promjena". Nekoliko naučnika primijetilo je da je to pogrešan naziv.

Postoje različite varijante poricanja: neki poriču da se zagrijavanje uopšte događa; neki priznaju zagrijavanje, ali ga pripisuju prirodnim činiocima; neki umanjuju negativne uticaje klimatskih promjena. Proizvodnja nesigurnosti u vezi s naukom kasnije je dovela do proizvedene kontroverze – stvaranja uvjerenja da postoji značajna nesigurnost u vezi s klimatskim promjenama u naučnoj zajednici da bi se odgodile promjene politike. Strategije za promoviranje tih zamisli jesu prigovaranje naučnim institucijama i preispitivanje pobuda pojedinačnih naučnika. Nerazumijevanje klimatskih promjena dodatno je podstakla eho-komora blogova i medija koji ih poriču.

Javna svijest i mišljenje

Klimatske promjene privukle su pažnju međunarodne javnosti krajem osamdesetih godina 20. stoljeća. Zbog zbunjujućeg medijskog izvještavanja početkom devedesetih, ljudi su često miješali klimatske promjene s drugim ekološkim problemima, poput oštećenja ozonskog omotača. U popularnoj kulturi, prvi film koji je dospio do masovne javnosti o ovoj temi bio je Dan poslije sutra 2004, a poslije nekoliko godina premijerno je prikazan dokumentarni film Neprijatna istina Ala Gorea. Knjige, priče i filmovi o klimatskim promjenama pripadaju žanru klimatske fantastike.

Postoje značajna regionalna, spolna, starosna i politička razilaženja kako u zabrinutosti javnosti za klimatske promjene, tako i u njihovom shvatanju. Obrazovanije osobe, a u nekim zemljama žene i mlađe osobe, češće vide klimatske promjene kao ozbiljnu prijetnju. Postoji i jaz među pobornicima u mnogim zemljama, a države s visokim emisijama ugljik-dioksida (CO
2) obično su manje zabrinute. Stavovi o uzrocima klimatskih promjena uveliko se razlikuju među zemljama. S vremenom je zabrinutost porasla do tačke u kojoj većina građana u mnogim zemljama sad izražava visok nivo zabrinutosti zbog klimatskih promjena ili ih posmatra kao globalno vanredno stanje. Viši stepen zabrinutosti povezan je sa snažnijom javnom podrškom politikama koje se bave klimatskim promjenama.

Protesti i tužbe

Protesti djece u Torontu (Kanada) protiv globalnog zatopljenja

Popularnost klimatskih protesta porasla je desetih godina 21. stoljeća. Demonstranti zahtijevaju od političkih vođa da preduzmu mjere za sprečavanje klimatskih promjena. Protesti mogu biti u obliku javnih demonstracija, divesticije fosilnih goriva, tužbi i drugih aktivnosti. U značajne demonstracije spada Školski štrajk za klimu. U toj inicijativi, mladi ljudi širom svijeta protestuju od 2018. tako što petkom izostaju iz škole, nadahnuti švedskom tinejdžerkom Gretom Thunberg. Masovne akcije građanske neposlušnosti grupa poput Pobune protiv istrebljenja protestovale su ometanjem saobraćaja i javnog prevoza. Parnice se sve više upotrebljavaju kao sredstvo za jačanje klimatskih akcija javnih ustanova i kompanija. Aktivisti pokreću i tužbe koje ciljaju na vlade i zahtijevaju od njih da preduzmu ambiciozne mjere ili sprovode postojeće zakone o klimatskim promjenama. Tužbe protiv kompanija koje sagorijevaju fosilna goriva uglavnom traže nadoknadu za gubitak i štetu.

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  • Masson-Delmotte, V.; Schulz, M.; Abe-Ouchi, A.; Beer, J.; et al. (2013). "Chapter 5: Information from Paleoclimate Archives" (PDF). IPCC AR5 WG1 2013. str. 383–464.
  • Bindoff, N. L.; Stott, P. A.; AchutaRao, K. M.; Allen, M. R.; et al. (2013). "Chapter 10: Detection and Attribution of Climate Change: from Global to Regional" (PDF). IPCC AR5 WG1 2013. str. 867–952.
  • Collins, M.; Knutti, R.; Arblaster, J. M.; Dufresne, J.-L.; et al. (2013). "Chapter 12: Long-term Climate Change: Projections, Commitments and Irreversibility" (PDF). IPCC AR5 WG1 2013. str. 1029–1136.

Drugi izvještaj radne grupe AR5

• IPCC (2014). Field, C. B.; Barros, V. R.; Dokken, D. J.; Mach, K. J.; et al. (ured.). Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-05807-1.. Chapters 1–20, SPM, and Technical Summary.
  • Jiménez Cisneros, B. E.; Oki, T.; Arnell, N. W.; Benito, G.; et al. (2014). "Chapter 3: Freshwater Resources" (PDF). IPCC AR5 WG2 A 2014. str. 229–269.
  • Porter, J. R.; Xie, L.; Challinor, A. J.; Cochrane, K.; et al. (2014). "Chapter 7: Food Security and Food Production Systems" (PDF). IPCC AR5 WG2 A 2014. str. 485–533.
  • Smith, K. R.; Woodward, A.; Campbell-Lendrum, D.; Chadee, D. D.; et al. (2014). "Chapter 11: Human Health: Impacts, Adaptation, and Co-Benefits" (PDF). In IPCC AR5 WG2 A 2014. str. 709–754.
  • Olsson, L.; Opondo, M.; Tschakert, P.; Agrawal, A.; et al. (2014). "Chapter 13: Livelihoods and Poverty" (PDF). IPCC AR5 WG2 A 2014. str. 793–832.
  • Cramer, W.; Yohe, G. W.; Auffhammer, M.; Huggel, C.; et al. (2014). "Chapter 18: Detection and Attribution of Observed Impacts" (PDF). IPCC AR5 WG2 A 2014. str. 979–1037.
  • Oppenheimer, M.; Campos, M.; Warren, R.; Birkmann, J.; et al. (2014). "Chapter 19: Emergent Risks and Key Vulnerabilities" (PDF). IPCC AR5 WG2 A 2014. str. 1039–1099.
• IPCC (2014). Barros, V. R.; Field, C. B.; Dokken, D. J.; Mach, K. J.; et al. (ured.). Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part B: Regional Aspects (PDF). Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK & New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-05816-3.. Chapters 21–30, Annexes, and Index.
  • Larsen, J. N.; Anisimov, O. A.; Constable, A.; Hollowed, A. B.; et al. (2014). "Chapter 28: Polar Regions" (PDF). IPCC AR5 WG2 B 2014. str. 1567–1612.

Treći izvještaj radne grupe AR5

• IPCC (2014). Edenhofer, O.; Pichs-Madruga, R.; Sokona, Y.; Farahani, E.; et al. (ured.). Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK & New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-05821-7.
  • Blanco, G.; Gerlagh, R.; Suh, S.; Barrett, J.; et al. (2014). "Chapter 5: Drivers, Trends and Mitigation" (PDF). IPCC AR5 WG3 2014. str. 351–411.
  • Lucon, O.; Ürge-Vorsatz, D.; Ahmed, A.; Akbari, H.; et al. (2014). "Chapter 9: Buildings" (PDF). IPCC AR5 WG3 2014.

Objedinjeni izvještaj AR5

• IPCC AR5 SYR (2014). The Core Writing Team; Pachauri, R. K.; Meyer, L. A. (ured.). Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Geneva, Switzerland: IPCC.
  • IPCC (2014). "Summary for Policymakers" (PDF). IPCC AR5 SYR 2014.
  • IPCC (2014). "Annex II: Glossary" (PDF). IPCC AR5 SYR 2014.

Poseban izvještaj: Globalno zatopljenje od 1,5 °C

• IPCC (2018). Masson-Delmotte, V.; Zhai, P.; Pörtner, H.-O.; Roberts, D.; et al. (ured.). Global Warming of 1.5°C. An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty (PDF). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Global Warming of 1.5 ºC —.
  • IPCC (2018). "Summary for Policymakers" (PDF). IPCC SR15 2018. str. 3–24.
  • Allen, M. R.; Dube, O. P.; Solecki, W.; Aragón-Durand, F.; et al. (2018). "Chapter 1: Framing and Context" (PDF). IPCC SR15 2018. str. 49–91.
  • Rogelj, J.; Shindell, D.; Jiang, K.; Fifta, S.; et al. (2018). "Chapter 2: Mitigation Pathways Compatible with 1.5°C in the Context of Sustainable Development" (PDF). IPCC SR15 2018. str. 93–174.
  • Hoegh-Guldberg, O.; Jacob, D.; Taylor, M.; Bindi, M.; et al. (2018). "Chapter 3: Impacts of 1.5ºC Global Warming on Natural and Human Systems" (PDF). IPCC SR15 2018. str. 175–311.
  • de Coninck, H.; Revi, A.; Babiker, M.; Bertoldi, P.; et al. (2018). "Chapter 4: Strengthening and Implementing the Global Response" (PDF). IPCC SR15 2018. str. 313–443.
  • Roy, J.; Tschakert, P.; Waisman, H.; Abdul Halim, S.; et al. (2018). "Chapter 5: Sustainable Development, Poverty Eradication and Reducing Inequalities" (PDF). IPCC SR15 2018. str. 445–538.

Poseban izvještaj: Klimatske promjene i tlo

• IPCC (2019). Shukla, P. R.; Skea, J.; Calvo Buendia, E.; Masson-Delmotte, V.; et al. (ured.). IPCC Special Report on Climate Change, Desertification, Land Degradation, Sustainable Land Management, Food Security, and Greenhouse gas fluxes in Terrestrial Ecosystems (PDF). In press.
  • IPCC (2019). "Summary for Policymakers" (PDF). IPCC SRCCL 2019. str. 3–34.
  • Jia, G.; Shevliakova, E.; Artaxo, P. E.; De Noblet-Ducoudré, N.; et al. (2019). "Chapter 2: Land-Climate Interactions" (PDF). IPCC SRCCL 2019. str. 131–247.
  • Mbow, C.; Rosenzweig, C.; Barioni, L. G.; Benton, T.; et al. (2019). "Chapter 5: Food Security" (PDF). IPCC SRCCL 2019. str. 437–550.

Poseban izvještaj: Okean i kritosfera u doba klimatskih promjena

• IPCC (2019). Pörtner, H.-O.; Roberts, D. C.; Masson-Delmotte, V.; Zhai, P.; et al. (ured.). IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate (PDF). In press.
  • IPCC (2019). "Summary for Policymakers" (PDF). IPCC SROCC 2019. str. 3–35.
  • Meredith, M.; Sommerkorn, M.; Cassotta, S.; Derksen, C.; et al. (2019). "Chapter 3: Polar Regions" (PDF). IPCC SROCC 2019. str. 203–320.
  • Oppenheimer, M.; Glavovic, B.; Hinkel, J.; van de Wal, R.; et al. (2019). "Chapter 4: Sea Level Rise and Implications for Low Lying Islands, Coasts and Communities" (PDF). IPCC SROCC 2019. str. 321–445.
  • Bindoff, N. L.; Cheung, W. W. L.; Kairo, J. G.; Arístegui, J.; et al. (2019). "Chapter 5: Changing Ocean, Marine Ecosystems, and Dependent Communities" (PDF). IPCC SROCC 2019. str. 447–587.

Prvi izvještaj radne grupe AR6

• IPCC (2021). Masson-Delmotte, V.; Zhai, P.; Pirani, A.; Connors, S. L.; et al. (ured.). Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis (PDF). Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press (In Press).
  • IPCC (2021). "Summary for Policymakers" (PDF). IPCC AR6 WG1 2021.
  • Arias, Paola A.; Bellouin, Nicolas; Coppola, Erika; Jones, Richard G.; et al. (2021). "Technical Summary" (PDF). IPCC AR6 WG1 2021.

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Netehnički izvori

• American Institute of Physics
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• Associated Press
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• Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
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• Carbon Brief
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• Deutsche Welle
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• EPA
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• EUobserver
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• European Parliament
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• The Guardian
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• NASA
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• National Conference of State Legislators
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• National Science Digital Library
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• Natural Resources Defense Council
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• Nature
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• The New York Times
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• NOAA
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• Our World in Data
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• Oxford Languages
  • "Word of the Year 2019". Oxford Languages (Press release). Oxford University Press. 21. 11. 2019. Pristupljeno 1. 11. 2021.
• Pew Research Center
  • Pew Research Center (16. 10. 2020). "Many globally are as concerned about climate change as about the spread of infectious diseases". Pristupljeno 19. 8. 2021.
• Politico
  • Tamma, Paola; Schaart, Eline; Gurzu, Anca (11. 12. 2019). "Europe's Green Deal plan unveiled". Politico. Pristupljeno 29. 12. 2019.
• RIVM
  • Documentary Sea Blind (Dutch Television) (jezik: nizozemski). RIVM: Netherlands National Institute for Public Health and the Environment. 11. 10. 2016. Arhivirano s originala, 17. 8. 2018. Pristupljeno 26. 2. 2019.
• Salon
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• ScienceBlogs
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• Scientific American
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• Smithsonian
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• The Sustainability Consortium
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• UN Environment
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• UNFCCC
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• Union of Concerned Scientists
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• USA Today
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• Vice
  • Segalov, Michael (2. 5. 2019). "The UK Has Declared a Climate Emergency: What Now?". Vice. Pristupljeno 30. 6. 2019.
• The Verge
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• Vox
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• World Health Organization
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• World Resources Institute
  • Butler, Rhett A. (31. 3. 2021). "Global forest loss increases in 2020". Mongabay. Arhivirano s originala, 1. 4. 2021. ● Mongabay graphing WRI data from "Forest Loss / How much tree cover is lost globally each year?". research.WRI.org. World Resources Institute — Global Forest Review. januar 2021. Arhivirano s originala, 10. 3. 2021.
  • Levin, Kelly (8. 8. 2019). "How Effective Is Land At Removing Carbon Pollution? The IPCC Weighs In". World Resources institute. Pristupljeno 15. 5. 2020.
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• Yale Climate Connections
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Vanjski linkovi

• Klimatski vodič Met Offica – Hidrometeorološki zavod Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva
• Indikatori klimatskih promjena na globalnom nivou Arhivirano 14. 12. 2021. na Wayback Machine – NOAA
• Ishod potpunog topljenja svjetskih polarnih regija – National Geographic
• Procjena globalnog zatopljenja koje je uzrokovalo čovječanstvo od druge polovine 19. stoljeća do danas Arhivirano 28. 12. 2021. na Wayback Machine – Univerzitet u Oxfordu