As a corpus linguist I am particularly interested in the language and discourse of early Quakerism. My most recent research subfield is that of historical minute writing.
The emergence of the early Quaker movement in England has been well documented. This paper focuse... more The emergence of the early Quaker movement in England has been well documented. This paper focuses on one aspect: that of their confrontation with the establishment and with both Christian mainstream writers and other dissenting Christians. My discourse-analytic case study makes use of corpus-based techniques to uncover how Quakers and their adversaries spoke and wrote about themselves in relation to the other. I draw on theoretical studies within the field of pragmatics to show how these two groups unconsciously used markers of clusivity and stance. My data derive from two contrasting corpora of seventeenth-century dispute texts. The clusivity data indicate a strong sense of Quaker separateness within seventeenth-century society, in spite of their fervent wish to bring others to their viewpoint. Interpretation of Quaker and anti-Quaker stance-marking is less clear-cut but brings out an aspect of the Quakers' distinctive approach to argumentation as well as a sense of legitimised power by those who they saw as their adversaries.
has been editor of this journal for the volumes covering the years 1997 to 2014, a period in real... more has been editor of this journal for the volumes covering the years 1997 to 2014, a period in real terms of nearly twenty years. During that time he has maintained a high standard of content and has undertaken his task with diligence and rigour. I would like to thank him for all that he has done and hope that I can continue his work in my own way. Although this volume has been delayed I hope to produce another before the end of 2017 and that by the end of 2018 we will be back on track. Betty Hagglund's Presidential Address gives a vivid picture of the treatment of 'enemy aliens' during World War I, of the setting up of detention centres such as Knockaloe on the Isle of Man and of how Quakers got involved in relief work with those detained and their families. Peter Smith looks at three pamphlets by the Peningtons, father and son, and examines their involvement in the English Civil War, mainly before Isaac junior became a Quaker. Oliver Pickering uses minutes and a hitherto unpublished document to give us a detailed account of the building of Settle meeting house, a useful addition both to local and to building history. Judith Roads takes a different view of two doctrinal dispute tracts from the 1670s, analysing the language used in them. The Reviews Editor, Chris Skidmore, has again brought together an interesting range of book reviews.
This empirical case study provides a new approach to the understanding of discursively constructe... more This empirical case study provides a new approach to the understanding of discursively constructed Quaker identity in the seventeenth century, from the point of view of those opposed to the dissenting Christian movement. This article asks how others may have viewed adherents to the Quaker communities in England. The findings illustrate a range of negative and denigrating discourses that go beyond abstract religious controversy to sow manufactured fear of the Quaker community. Overt and covert linguistic mechanisms used by anti-Quaker writers reveal expressions of emerging moral panic underlying unsubstantiated accusations attacking the minority Quaker community.
This study ascertains what is recognisably distinctive about seventeenth-century Quaker prose com... more This study ascertains what is recognisably distinctive about seventeenth-century Quaker prose compared to other contemporary varieties of prose, and identifies characteristic features of that style. By compiling and investigating through corpus analysis techniques a collection of texts from a wide range of authors, I reveal key elements of the language through quantitative methods not previously applied to this subject. The study is not genre-based nor is it a literary investigation of a single author. The corpus is unusual in comprising texts by many different people within the same community of practice, demonstrating a remarkable uniformity of style and discourse. Typical stylistic features include a speech-like informal register, idiosyncratic syntax and sentence length, and I suggest reasons why Quakers developed this sociolect. In key Quaker lexis I found unexpected frequencies and usage, including findings that differ from assertions in the critical literature. Corpus analysi...
This article investigates two variants of early Quaker written style that have been noted in the ... more This article investigates two variants of early Quaker written style that have been noted in the literature: the ‘incantational’ style, so termed by Cope (1956), and the ‘catechetical’ style as def...
Persuasion (convincement) is described as ‘linguistic choices that aim at affecting or changing t... more Persuasion (convincement) is described as ‘linguistic choices that aim at affecting or changing the behaviours of others, or strengthening existing beliefs and behaviours of those who already agree’ (Halmari and Virtanen 2005). Many Quaker writers used their pamphleteering to promote a range of politico-religious demands: liberty of conscience, rejection of a separated priesthood and tithe-paying, and so on. This paper explores Friends’ varied approaches to persuasion and identifies a number of Aristotelian strategies observed in a corpus of early Quaker writings. Rhetorical power is generated by the interactions between the writer/speaker and the reader/listener, and Friends were enthusiastic in their attempts to influence the behaviour of their fellow creatures. A 1668 tract by Stephen Crisp is analysed in some detail to illustrate his gentle yet effective approach to promoting the Quaker way.
This study explores what happens to the radical aspects of the Quaker movement from the restorati... more This study explores what happens to the radical aspects of the Quaker movement from the restoration of the Monarchy in 1660 to 1700. How much of a change or indeed continuity was there in Quaker practices and missionary activity? Using several machine-readable corpora, eschatological prophecy material is interrogated to uncover potential changes of focus and rhetoric. Findings from exhortatory discursive discourses in the 1650s and 1660s are compared to a range of Quaker texts published in the later years of the century, specifically through the lens of “repent” language and other speech acts of warning and persuading. Diachronic comparisons of key lexis are analysed to uncover elements of change and continuity. The article concludes that after the 1660s, far from withering away, Quaker writing continued to include eschatological tracts and pamphlets, but these genre types sit alongside both the burgeoning collection of fierce doctrinal dispute material and more restrained treatises...
– This paper presents findings from a pragmatic investigation into the historical practice of adm... more – This paper presents findings from a pragmatic investigation into the historical practice of administrative minute-writing as a text-type developed by the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) over three centuries. Why and how have Quakers developed (and still rely on) their unusual decision-recording practice, based as it is on its theological underpinning? Quantitative and qualitative findings are compared with datasets from the historical minute books of some non-Quaker historical institutions. It is evident from this investigation how present-day Quaker minute-writing methods still evince the linguistic usages first developed in the late seventeenth century, notably commissive and directive speech acts, tense usage, and realized with many rich but formulaic expressions. This contrasts with a restricted, narrative discourse favored by the more conventional style found in contemporary organizations of past eras.
This paper explores three themes: (i) a short, empirical research account of the linguistic reali... more This paper explores three themes: (i) a short, empirical research account of the linguistic realization of seventeenth-century Quaker prophecy using digital corpus-based tools; (ii) a practical description of how those tools can be used in interdisciplinary research such as the prophecy study; and (iii) a reflective section that considers the advantages, potential richness but also challenges of embarking on an integrated piece of research that straddles established academic disciplines. The ‘prophecy’ analysis comments on the nature of prophecy from a linguistic perspective. It includes positive and negative connotations observed in the data contrasted with non-Quaker texts (including the Bible), and also how Quaker prophetic style changed during the second half of the seventeenth century. The secondary purpose of the paper is to demonstrate the value of departing from traditional, well-established approaches in a discipline such as religion. Quaker studies scholars are familiar wi...
This paper tests a proto-model of historical religious polemic discourse through a case study of ... more This paper tests a proto-model of historical religious polemic discourse through a case study of a 1690s dispute between the schismatic former Quaker George Keith and Thomas Ellwood, a prominent Quaker representing the Quaker movement in England at that time. Thomas Gloning, Gerd Fritz, and others, suggest certain rhetorical strategies underlie functional and evaluative argumentation language typically employed. Findings contrast discourse elements common to the Keithian texts that do match some traditional characteristics, despite a superficial impression indicating otherwise, but show too where the model fails. An additional approach, not part of the traditional model, touches on linguistic politeness theory.
This paper explores three themes: (i) a short, empirical research account of the linguistic reali... more This paper explores three themes: (i) a short, empirical research account of the linguistic realization of seventeenth-century Quaker prophecy using digital corpus-based tools; (ii) a practical description of how those tools can be used in interdisciplinary research such as the prophecy study; and (iii) a reflective section that considers the advantages, potential richness but also challenges of embarking on an integrated piece of research that straddles established academic disciplines. The ‘prophecy’ analysis comments on the nature of prophecy from a linguistic perspective. It includes positive and negative connotations observed in the data contrasted with non-Quaker texts (including the Bible), and also how Quaker prophetic style changed during the second half of the seventeenth century. The secondary purpose of the paper is to demonstrate the value of departing from traditional, well-established approaches in a discipline such as religion. Quaker studies scholars are familiar wi...
The emergence of the early Quaker movement in England has been well documented. This paper focuse... more The emergence of the early Quaker movement in England has been well documented. This paper focuses on Quakers' confrontation with the establishment and with both Christian mainstream writers and other dissenting Christians. My discourse-analytic case study makes use of corpus-based techniques to uncover how Quakers and their adversaries spoke and wrote about themselves in relation to the other. I draw on theoretical studies within the field of pragmatics to show how these two groups unconsciously used markers of clusivity and stance. Results indicate a strong sense of Quaker separateness within seventeenth-century society, with implications for religious minorities today.
This paper investigates two variants of early Quaker written stle that have been noted in the lit... more This paper investigates two variants of early Quaker written stle that have been noted in the literature: the 'incantational' style, so termed by Cope (1956), and the 'catechetical' style as defined by Bauman (1998). Both styles are present in a number of the texts in my digital Quaker corpus, and from that evidence it is clear that writers chose in their persuasive discourse to employ features from these two distinctive styles throughout the second half of the seventeenth century. The incantational style is less in evidence by the end of the century and the article puts forward reasons why that might be so.
ABSTRACT
A small electronic corpus of seventeenth-century Quaker texts in prose broadside format... more ABSTRACT
A small electronic corpus of seventeenth-century Quaker texts in prose broadside format, published between 1658-1675 was subjected to linguistic analysis. Comparisons are made with similar non-Quaker broadside texts as well as wider Quaker writings looking into the pragmatic function and organisation of the Quaker broadsides as well as certain surface linguistic structures. Evidence is thus provided for aspects of the Quaker writers’ message. This was an expression of urgency and prophetic warnings of the danger of not turning to the Truth as the Quakers experienced it. The texts are shown to have been written in a strikingly direct personal communicative style, more evident in the broadsides than in the Quaker texts found in a wider electronic corpus.
The emergence of the early Quaker movement in England has been well documented. This paper focuse... more The emergence of the early Quaker movement in England has been well documented. This paper focuses on Quakers' confrontation with the establishment and with both Christian mainstream writers and other dissenting Christians. My discourse-analytic case study makes use of corpus-based techniques to uncover how Quakers and their adversaries spoke and wrote about themselves in relation to the other. I draw on theoretical studies within the field of pragmatics to show how these two groups unconsciously used markers of clusivity and stance. Results indicate a strong sense of Quaker separateness within seventeenth-century society, with implications for religious minorities today.
The emergence of the early Quaker movement in England has been well documented. This paper focuse... more The emergence of the early Quaker movement in England has been well documented. This paper focuses on one aspect: that of their confrontation with the establishment and with both Christian mainstream writers and other dissenting Christians. My discourse-analytic case study makes use of corpus-based techniques to uncover how Quakers and their adversaries spoke and wrote about themselves in relation to the other. I draw on theoretical studies within the field of pragmatics to show how these two groups unconsciously used markers of clusivity and stance. My data derive from two contrasting corpora of seventeenth-century dispute texts. The clusivity data indicate a strong sense of Quaker separateness within seventeenth-century society, in spite of their fervent wish to bring others to their viewpoint. Interpretation of Quaker and anti-Quaker stance-marking is less clear-cut but brings out an aspect of the Quakers' distinctive approach to argumentation as well as a sense of legitimised power by those who they saw as their adversaries.
has been editor of this journal for the volumes covering the years 1997 to 2014, a period in real... more has been editor of this journal for the volumes covering the years 1997 to 2014, a period in real terms of nearly twenty years. During that time he has maintained a high standard of content and has undertaken his task with diligence and rigour. I would like to thank him for all that he has done and hope that I can continue his work in my own way. Although this volume has been delayed I hope to produce another before the end of 2017 and that by the end of 2018 we will be back on track. Betty Hagglund's Presidential Address gives a vivid picture of the treatment of 'enemy aliens' during World War I, of the setting up of detention centres such as Knockaloe on the Isle of Man and of how Quakers got involved in relief work with those detained and their families. Peter Smith looks at three pamphlets by the Peningtons, father and son, and examines their involvement in the English Civil War, mainly before Isaac junior became a Quaker. Oliver Pickering uses minutes and a hitherto unpublished document to give us a detailed account of the building of Settle meeting house, a useful addition both to local and to building history. Judith Roads takes a different view of two doctrinal dispute tracts from the 1670s, analysing the language used in them. The Reviews Editor, Chris Skidmore, has again brought together an interesting range of book reviews.
This empirical case study provides a new approach to the understanding of discursively constructe... more This empirical case study provides a new approach to the understanding of discursively constructed Quaker identity in the seventeenth century, from the point of view of those opposed to the dissenting Christian movement. This article asks how others may have viewed adherents to the Quaker communities in England. The findings illustrate a range of negative and denigrating discourses that go beyond abstract religious controversy to sow manufactured fear of the Quaker community. Overt and covert linguistic mechanisms used by anti-Quaker writers reveal expressions of emerging moral panic underlying unsubstantiated accusations attacking the minority Quaker community.
This study ascertains what is recognisably distinctive about seventeenth-century Quaker prose com... more This study ascertains what is recognisably distinctive about seventeenth-century Quaker prose compared to other contemporary varieties of prose, and identifies characteristic features of that style. By compiling and investigating through corpus analysis techniques a collection of texts from a wide range of authors, I reveal key elements of the language through quantitative methods not previously applied to this subject. The study is not genre-based nor is it a literary investigation of a single author. The corpus is unusual in comprising texts by many different people within the same community of practice, demonstrating a remarkable uniformity of style and discourse. Typical stylistic features include a speech-like informal register, idiosyncratic syntax and sentence length, and I suggest reasons why Quakers developed this sociolect. In key Quaker lexis I found unexpected frequencies and usage, including findings that differ from assertions in the critical literature. Corpus analysi...
This article investigates two variants of early Quaker written style that have been noted in the ... more This article investigates two variants of early Quaker written style that have been noted in the literature: the ‘incantational’ style, so termed by Cope (1956), and the ‘catechetical’ style as def...
Persuasion (convincement) is described as ‘linguistic choices that aim at affecting or changing t... more Persuasion (convincement) is described as ‘linguistic choices that aim at affecting or changing the behaviours of others, or strengthening existing beliefs and behaviours of those who already agree’ (Halmari and Virtanen 2005). Many Quaker writers used their pamphleteering to promote a range of politico-religious demands: liberty of conscience, rejection of a separated priesthood and tithe-paying, and so on. This paper explores Friends’ varied approaches to persuasion and identifies a number of Aristotelian strategies observed in a corpus of early Quaker writings. Rhetorical power is generated by the interactions between the writer/speaker and the reader/listener, and Friends were enthusiastic in their attempts to influence the behaviour of their fellow creatures. A 1668 tract by Stephen Crisp is analysed in some detail to illustrate his gentle yet effective approach to promoting the Quaker way.
This study explores what happens to the radical aspects of the Quaker movement from the restorati... more This study explores what happens to the radical aspects of the Quaker movement from the restoration of the Monarchy in 1660 to 1700. How much of a change or indeed continuity was there in Quaker practices and missionary activity? Using several machine-readable corpora, eschatological prophecy material is interrogated to uncover potential changes of focus and rhetoric. Findings from exhortatory discursive discourses in the 1650s and 1660s are compared to a range of Quaker texts published in the later years of the century, specifically through the lens of “repent” language and other speech acts of warning and persuading. Diachronic comparisons of key lexis are analysed to uncover elements of change and continuity. The article concludes that after the 1660s, far from withering away, Quaker writing continued to include eschatological tracts and pamphlets, but these genre types sit alongside both the burgeoning collection of fierce doctrinal dispute material and more restrained treatises...
– This paper presents findings from a pragmatic investigation into the historical practice of adm... more – This paper presents findings from a pragmatic investigation into the historical practice of administrative minute-writing as a text-type developed by the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) over three centuries. Why and how have Quakers developed (and still rely on) their unusual decision-recording practice, based as it is on its theological underpinning? Quantitative and qualitative findings are compared with datasets from the historical minute books of some non-Quaker historical institutions. It is evident from this investigation how present-day Quaker minute-writing methods still evince the linguistic usages first developed in the late seventeenth century, notably commissive and directive speech acts, tense usage, and realized with many rich but formulaic expressions. This contrasts with a restricted, narrative discourse favored by the more conventional style found in contemporary organizations of past eras.
This paper explores three themes: (i) a short, empirical research account of the linguistic reali... more This paper explores three themes: (i) a short, empirical research account of the linguistic realization of seventeenth-century Quaker prophecy using digital corpus-based tools; (ii) a practical description of how those tools can be used in interdisciplinary research such as the prophecy study; and (iii) a reflective section that considers the advantages, potential richness but also challenges of embarking on an integrated piece of research that straddles established academic disciplines. The ‘prophecy’ analysis comments on the nature of prophecy from a linguistic perspective. It includes positive and negative connotations observed in the data contrasted with non-Quaker texts (including the Bible), and also how Quaker prophetic style changed during the second half of the seventeenth century. The secondary purpose of the paper is to demonstrate the value of departing from traditional, well-established approaches in a discipline such as religion. Quaker studies scholars are familiar wi...
This paper tests a proto-model of historical religious polemic discourse through a case study of ... more This paper tests a proto-model of historical religious polemic discourse through a case study of a 1690s dispute between the schismatic former Quaker George Keith and Thomas Ellwood, a prominent Quaker representing the Quaker movement in England at that time. Thomas Gloning, Gerd Fritz, and others, suggest certain rhetorical strategies underlie functional and evaluative argumentation language typically employed. Findings contrast discourse elements common to the Keithian texts that do match some traditional characteristics, despite a superficial impression indicating otherwise, but show too where the model fails. An additional approach, not part of the traditional model, touches on linguistic politeness theory.
This paper explores three themes: (i) a short, empirical research account of the linguistic reali... more This paper explores three themes: (i) a short, empirical research account of the linguistic realization of seventeenth-century Quaker prophecy using digital corpus-based tools; (ii) a practical description of how those tools can be used in interdisciplinary research such as the prophecy study; and (iii) a reflective section that considers the advantages, potential richness but also challenges of embarking on an integrated piece of research that straddles established academic disciplines. The ‘prophecy’ analysis comments on the nature of prophecy from a linguistic perspective. It includes positive and negative connotations observed in the data contrasted with non-Quaker texts (including the Bible), and also how Quaker prophetic style changed during the second half of the seventeenth century. The secondary purpose of the paper is to demonstrate the value of departing from traditional, well-established approaches in a discipline such as religion. Quaker studies scholars are familiar wi...
The emergence of the early Quaker movement in England has been well documented. This paper focuse... more The emergence of the early Quaker movement in England has been well documented. This paper focuses on Quakers' confrontation with the establishment and with both Christian mainstream writers and other dissenting Christians. My discourse-analytic case study makes use of corpus-based techniques to uncover how Quakers and their adversaries spoke and wrote about themselves in relation to the other. I draw on theoretical studies within the field of pragmatics to show how these two groups unconsciously used markers of clusivity and stance. Results indicate a strong sense of Quaker separateness within seventeenth-century society, with implications for religious minorities today.
This paper investigates two variants of early Quaker written stle that have been noted in the lit... more This paper investigates two variants of early Quaker written stle that have been noted in the literature: the 'incantational' style, so termed by Cope (1956), and the 'catechetical' style as defined by Bauman (1998). Both styles are present in a number of the texts in my digital Quaker corpus, and from that evidence it is clear that writers chose in their persuasive discourse to employ features from these two distinctive styles throughout the second half of the seventeenth century. The incantational style is less in evidence by the end of the century and the article puts forward reasons why that might be so.
ABSTRACT
A small electronic corpus of seventeenth-century Quaker texts in prose broadside format... more ABSTRACT
A small electronic corpus of seventeenth-century Quaker texts in prose broadside format, published between 1658-1675 was subjected to linguistic analysis. Comparisons are made with similar non-Quaker broadside texts as well as wider Quaker writings looking into the pragmatic function and organisation of the Quaker broadsides as well as certain surface linguistic structures. Evidence is thus provided for aspects of the Quaker writers’ message. This was an expression of urgency and prophetic warnings of the danger of not turning to the Truth as the Quakers experienced it. The texts are shown to have been written in a strikingly direct personal communicative style, more evident in the broadsides than in the Quaker texts found in a wider electronic corpus.
The emergence of the early Quaker movement in England has been well documented. This paper focuse... more The emergence of the early Quaker movement in England has been well documented. This paper focuses on Quakers' confrontation with the establishment and with both Christian mainstream writers and other dissenting Christians. My discourse-analytic case study makes use of corpus-based techniques to uncover how Quakers and their adversaries spoke and wrote about themselves in relation to the other. I draw on theoretical studies within the field of pragmatics to show how these two groups unconsciously used markers of clusivity and stance. Results indicate a strong sense of Quaker separateness within seventeenth-century society, with implications for religious minorities today.
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Papers by Judith Roads
A small electronic corpus of seventeenth-century Quaker texts in prose broadside format, published between 1658-1675 was subjected to linguistic analysis. Comparisons are made with similar non-Quaker broadside texts as well as wider Quaker writings looking into the pragmatic function and organisation of the Quaker broadsides as well as certain surface linguistic structures. Evidence is thus provided for aspects of the Quaker writers’ message. This was an expression of urgency and prophetic warnings of the danger of not turning to the Truth as the Quakers experienced it. The texts are shown to have been written in a strikingly direct personal communicative style, more evident in the broadsides than in the Quaker texts found in a wider electronic corpus.
Drafts by Judith Roads
A small electronic corpus of seventeenth-century Quaker texts in prose broadside format, published between 1658-1675 was subjected to linguistic analysis. Comparisons are made with similar non-Quaker broadside texts as well as wider Quaker writings looking into the pragmatic function and organisation of the Quaker broadsides as well as certain surface linguistic structures. Evidence is thus provided for aspects of the Quaker writers’ message. This was an expression of urgency and prophetic warnings of the danger of not turning to the Truth as the Quakers experienced it. The texts are shown to have been written in a strikingly direct personal communicative style, more evident in the broadsides than in the Quaker texts found in a wider electronic corpus.