Papers by Osman Gultekin
World Journal of Education and Humanities, 2021
International education and internationalization have gone through distinct phases throughout wor... more International education and internationalization have gone through distinct phases throughout world history and have become increasingly more complex and professional at each stage. Since Ancient Greece times, in different periods of history, international education included diverse student mobility patterns concentrating in particular regions of the world; and various stakeholders were involved in the international education processes with diversifying motivations. Currently, international education has become a very multi-faceted subject that falls into the fields of study of many disciplines such as educational sciences, economics, sociology, business administration, political science, public administration and international relations.In this paper, firstly, conceptual background for international education and internationalization has been provided. Secondly, for the main purpose of the paper, the changes and the progress that international education has witnessed throughout his...
Academia Letters, 2021
With the rise of non-Western regional educational hub countries and increasing South-South intern... more With the rise of non-Western regional educational hub countries and increasing South-South international student mobility, the soft power race over international education and international student mobility among major hosting countries have significant political implications in the international relations of the countries. It is very criticized that international education has been utilized as a tool for propaganda or exerting malicious foreign influence over the guest international students as "sharp powers" would do it, rather than being a pedagogical or cultural activity that promotes diplomatic and cultural relations among countries as Knight's concept of "knowledge diplomacy" assumes. Overall, the involvement of sharp powers in international education and international student mobility activities poses an interesting case to be explored as the "idealistic and normative" nature of education has been exploited and replaced with "realist and power competition" notions by some countries. This brief essay discusses that looking at the situation as another realm of power struggle would make more sense and be realistic for further analysis, rather than perceiving it in a more normative framework of "knowledge diplomacy".
Asian Journal of Social Science and Management Technology, 2021
The modernization movement through education in Turkish society dates back to the late Ottoman pe... more The modernization movement through education in Turkish society dates back to the late Ottoman period. The importance of education has continued in the early periods of the new Turkish Republic. Educational reforms in the second quarter of the 1900s and Dewey's visit paved the way for modernization, societal change, political socialization, and, hence, democratization in Turkey. This article exhibits the stages that Turkish society went through since the late Ottoman Empire period in the 18th century and touches upon how education transformed Turkey, especially in regards to political socialization and civic culture.
World Journal of Education and Humanities, 2021
International education and internationalization have gone through distinct phases throughout wor... more International education and internationalization have gone through distinct phases throughout world history and have become increasingly more complex and professional at each stage. Since Ancient Greece times, in different periods of history, international education included diverse student mobility patterns concentrating in particular regions of the world; and various stakeholders were involved in the international education processes with diversifying motivations. Currently, international education has become a very multi-faceted subject that falls into the fields of study of many disciplines such as educational sciences, economics, sociology, business administration, political science, public administration and international relations.
In this paper, firstly, conceptual background for international education and internationalization has been provided. Secondly, for the main purpose of the paper, the changes and the progress that international education has witnessed throughout history have been studied with a brief literature review. Findings and distinctive phases of international education are summarized within an informative and descriptive table. Remarks about the characteristics of the current situation and the prospects about the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on international education and internationalization have been added to the previous studies.
International Journal of Multidisciplinary Perspectives in Higher Education, 2020
The international higher education sector has been witnessing an economic and soft power competit... more The international higher education sector has been witnessing an economic and soft power competition by the nation-states and has become a part of global power competition. It is worth inquiring about the role of international education in future diplomacy after the Covid-19 pandemic outbreak as there are likely to be substantial changes in the forms of deliveries, operations and policies in international higher education activities and global politics. This essay highlights the possible effects of the Covid-19 pandemic on the relationship of international higher education with diplomacy and international relations. It provides food for thoughts for the researchers in the area.
Siyasi İlimler Türk Derneği - XIII. LİSANSÜSTÜ KONFERANSI, 2015
Uluslararası eğitim, uluslararası ilişkiler disiplininde daha fazla dikkat çekmesi gereken bir al... more Uluslararası eğitim, uluslararası ilişkiler disiplininde daha fazla dikkat çekmesi gereken bir alandır. Uluslararası eğitim, artan eğitim kurumları ile bir ticari ürün olmasının yanında, ülkelerin kullanabileceği en önemli kamu diplomasisi araçlarından biridir. Uluslararası eğitim ayrıca en esaslı yumuşak güç unsurlarından birisi olarak kullanabilme potansiyeli bulunmaktadır. Birçok değişik ülke bu alanda kurumsal yapılanmalar gerçekleştirmiş, Türkiye’nin de bu alanda kapsayıcı bir ‘policy making’ sürecine girmesi beklenmektedir. Bu siyaset yapımı, ülke içi güvenlik ve göçmenlik ile alakalı yasal düzenlemelerin değil, ayrıca Türk eğitim kurumlarının ve müfredatının uluslararasılaşması ve ‘Türk yüksek eğitimi’ ürününün geliştirilmesi, dış ülkelerde sunulması ve tanıtımını gerektirmektedir. Bu çalışmada, uluslararası eğitimin, siyaset yapımı, kamu diplomasisi, yumuşak güç unsuru, uluslararası ilişkiler ve dış siyaset belirlenmesi gibi yönleri incelenecektir.
ECPR General Conference, 2015
There are criticisms about Turkish foreign policy that Turkey has been moving from an activist 'z... more There are criticisms about Turkish foreign policy that Turkey has been moving from an activist 'zero problem' approach to 'precious loneliness'. This article aims to find the most relevant foreign policy or international relations theory to analyze the paradigm of recent Turkish foreign policy in the Middle East region specifically during the Justice and Development Party (herein it will be used as AKP). A constructivist 'ummah' identity approach serving for realist purposes is found to be the most accurate explaining theory for the transformation of the Turkish foreign policy. It will be examined if AKP followed a continuation of the 1990s' liberal activist foreign policies in its first two terms, however, a newly constructed "ummah image" in a pan-Islamist contextual framework in foreign relations has been in effect after 2002. It will be argued that how this constructivist approach is aligned with the 'strategic depth' doctrine of Ahmet Davutoğlu, who is assumed to be the main character in directing the Turkish foreign policy in the AKP governments. It will be inquired how the new agent-structure relation takes place, how newly constructed 'ummah' identity, its interests and norms are related to and came into the surface during the Arab uprisings. After the Arab Spring, the newly constructed positioning and its elements are shifted to realize more pragmatist realist purposes in the region.
Conference Presentations by Osman Gultekin
Society of Transnational Academic Researchers (STAR) 2021 Global Conference, 2021
This academic paper titled “Responses to the Limitations of Educational Soft Power Theory: Knowle... more This academic paper titled “Responses to the Limitations of Educational Soft Power Theory: Knowledge Diplomacy and Sharp Powers” was presented at the Society of Transnational Academic Researchers (STAR) 2021 Global Conference organized by O.P. Jindal Global University back in December 2021. In this presentation, the historical background for international education and student mobility, the evolution of the educational soft power model and responses to its limitations from two main schools of thought – liberalism and realism/critical theory: knowledge diplomacy and sharp Powers are informed. This topic is of great importance in the international higher education sector, as we started to see more incidents every day about malicious foreign influence, unhappy experiences of international students in top receiving countries, the political propaganda they receive in those hosting countries along with spy students that are sent by some home countries. So, all that suggest the genuine purpose of academic interchanges are replaced by some sharp power motivations. For sharp powers, cultural and exchange diplomacy became mere propaganda or fend-off method to block to the other major attractive cultures to make inroads their countries besides economic contribution.
CUDES 2021 (12. International Congress on Current Debates in Social Sciences) Abstracts & Proceedings, 2021
There are a number of previous works on showing the fact that education can affect economic growt... more There are a number of previous works on showing the fact that education can affect economic growth and development of countries by various means. In the relationship between national education and economic growth and development, human capital theory occupies a very central role. The role of education in economic growth of countries can be demonstrated with and could analytically be derived from supply-side production functions related to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of countries. The enhancement of human capital and technology not only facilitate the growth of countries but also their economic development. This article demonstrates how human capital plays a critical role in the economic growth of countries and how it is derived from the supply-side Cobb-Douglas production function related to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of countries. This article also investigates the situation in the case of Turkey and explores how increases in educational attainment play a very important role in the country’s economic growth and development.
Keywords: National education, human capital, economic growth, Turkish development, Turkish economy
Turkish Political Science Association - 13th Graduate Conference, 2015
International education and student mobility with incoming and outgoing students have a remarkabl... more International education and student mobility with incoming and outgoing students have a remarkable and cost-effective role in one country's
- Public Diplomacy (Cultural and Exchange Diplomacy)
- Soft Power
- Foreign Policymaking
Drafts by Osman Gultekin
IPSA Conference 2016 Istanbul (cancelled), 2016
With the neoliberal trends in commodification of education, not only international education has ... more With the neoliberal trends in commodification of education, not only international education has accessed millions of individuals, but also it became a crucial instrument in public diplomacy and a soft power tool in international relations discipline along with its economic growth and political socialization contributions. This paper strives to reveal the pertinence and implications of international education in a global context and focus on the Turkish case by analyzing the current developments and the vision that is planned to accomplish. A comparative method is utilized to identify the common characteristics of the major countries' policies on international education. It is found that, in the Turkish case, a massive legislation undertaking is required in the areas of immigration/visa policies, conditions of the universities and integrated marketing promotion of Turkish education in overseas to catch up with the progress that the Western countries strive in international education and internationalization of higher education for many decades.
Thesis Chapters by Osman Gultekin
International Education and Soft Power: the Case of Turkey, 2019
This study examines the relationship between education and soft power within domestic and interna... more This study examines the relationship between education and soft power within domestic and international dimensions as well as on the levels of both the state and the individual. While national education systems impact the foundations of the soft power of states within a domestic dimension, international higher education contributes to the soft power of the states in terms of international relations and foreign policy. State-level soft power influence, which can be demonstrated in global soft power indices, affects prospective international students in their decision-making process, during the pre-departure period. On the individual level, the perceptions of international students regarding the satisfaction of their international higher education experience in the host country during the post-departure period are essential to evaluate a state’s soft power influence.
The general hypothesis that international education has a positive impact on the soft power of countries is tested in this study. Specifically, this research aims to answer the question, “How does the satisfaction of international students regarding their higher education experiences influence their perceptions of the hosting country’s soft power?” This question is answered, and the influence of international higher education on soft power is tested in the case of Turkey. In the Turkish case, despite the increasing number of international students and universities, only a small portion of students’ perceptions about the elements of Turkey's soft power increased positively. In the survey and focus group studies, it was found that language barriers faced by international students, communication problems with local people and students and perceptions of racial discrimination have had adverse effects on Turkey's soft power. The reasons for this can be attributed to the unpreparedness of Turkish universities and the Turkish higher education system in terms of hosting international students and due to holding incorrect assumptions related to the internationalization of higher education.
International Education and Soft Power: the Case of Turkey, 2019
This study explores the role of education within the disciplines of Political Science and Interna... more This study explores the role of education within the disciplines of Political Science and International Relations by analyzing the influence of international education on soft power at both the individual and state level whilst specifically focusing on the Turkish case. The relationship between education and power is presented in three gradual steps. First, it is shown that education contributes significantly towards the domestic production of soft power within any given country. Furthermore, education has a natural cross-border and international character. Thirdly, international education also works to disseminate, enhance, and multiply the soft power of a state overseas. After exploring the relationship between education and soft power, this research aims to answer the question, “How does the satisfaction of international students regarding their higher education experiences influence their perceptions of the hosting country’s soft power?” This question is answered, and the influence of international higher education on soft power is tested in the case of Turkey. Turkey has been selected specifically for its geopolitical importance, ongoing educational reforms for development purposes, its transformation from being a sender country to currently being one of the major receiving countries, and because this topic has not been broached upon in detail previously.
International Education and Soft Power: the Case of Turkey, 2019
In the previous chapters, the contribution of education towards a state’s soft power was presente... more In the previous chapters, the contribution of education towards a state’s soft power was presented in various ways. In the case of international education, two essential points are very critical to hint on in terms of the effects of international education on soft power. The first point is related to the internationalization outlook of countries’ national higher education systems. The second point is with regard to experiences that international students have whilst studying in another country. Both items determine the satisfaction level of international students regarding their international education experience, and both also impact the countries’ soft power. Productive outcomes for a country’s foreign policy and soft power are only possible if their system is truly internationalized, and if incoming international students have a quality international higher education with a genuine cultural and educational experience in the country.
The number of incoming international students in one country indicates directly how much this country is involved in the international education business, but this does not mean that their intended foreign policy goals and that soft power enhancement are achieved, automatically. Student-centered, comprehensive, and genuine internationalization is essential for converting soft power assets into desired soft power outcomes. The outcome of international education activities, as a soft power instrument, can be best evaluated by assessing the perceptions of international students.
International Education and Soft Power: the Case of Turkey, 2019
This chapter provides the contextual basis regarding the contribution of national education towar... more This chapter provides the contextual basis regarding the contribution of national education towards the foundations of soft power in Turkey as well as the global outlook of international student mobility and international higher education in Turkey. In addition, global soft power indices, Turkey’s position in those indices, actors in Turkish public diplomacy, characteristics of Turkish soft power and the issues and prospects of Turkish soft power are analyzed.
In the Turkish case, with regards to the foundations of its soft power, modern education among the nation-building Turkish elite has had a vital influence in the governmental transition from Ottoman Empire to the Turkish Republic. Increasing literacy rate due to nationwide education reform in the early years of the republic had a very significant role in the Turkish nation’s modernization and democratization process. Political development brought about political socialization and economic wealth to the country. The effects that education has had on technology and human capital, contributed to the economic growth and development of the country.
With the increased trend of “commodification” and the increased efforts of Turkey regarding international education promotion efforts abroad- espoused with the Turkish government’s incentives, the number of international students in Turkey has increased dramatically over the years and Turkey has become one of the major receiver countries in the world. On a global scale, Turkey is a part of the new student mobility patterns as an emergent regional higher education hub. This trend has had a substantial effect on the international dimension of Turkish soft power.
There are a number of actors involved in Turkish public diplomacy working towards the enhancement of Turkish soft power, however, current figures from global soft power indices reflect that there are some issues related to Turkish soft power. Whereas Turkey’s soft power credentials at the state level, as shown in global soft power indices, are essential in international students’ decision to choose Turkey as an educational destination in their pre-departure period, perceptions of international students studying in Turkey are influential in assessing Turkish soft power on the individual level in the post-departure period.
International Education and Soft Power: the Case of Turkey, 2019
Soft power embodies the attractiveness of a country’s capabilities, values, and culture. The poli... more Soft power embodies the attractiveness of a country’s capabilities, values, and culture. The political and economic development of a country as a source of attraction provides a strong foundation for the elements of its soft power. Education has a vital role in democratization, political and social development, economic growth, and technology. The structural implications of education within countries generate resources for soft power domestically. This foundational part of soft power has a robust cross-national attraction over other countries’ nationals. On the other hand, international education affects the diffusion of soft power within the international arena. Hence, education influences soft power in two ways: i) as a foundational and structural generator source of soft power domestically, ii) as an enhancer and disseminator element for soft power within the foreign policy and public diplomacy space, internationally.
Education’s contributions to development are also significant in the developed states’ involvement in international development policies regarding reconstruction and state-building, especially in post-conflict periods of less-developed or developing countries. Education takes in a cross-border and transnational character as the international community utilizes educational development for local societies. Multicultural pedagogical aspects of education, especially in international development, are studied in the “comparative and international education” discipline, in which scholars analyze and assess the needs of conflict-torn societies and immigrants, search for successful and comparable examples in other regions to try and adapt, and advise on the best curriculum and teaching designs in order to address the urgent educational needs of societies in challenging environments.
Education has an international dimension and therefore it has an impact on the soft power of countries internationally. With the increasing pace of globalization, international education has become much more accessible to a greater number of people in the world. Provided that national education has a positive impact on states’ power- in all relevant aspects and in the broadest sense- then international education has a greater impact since it presumably involves a higher level of quality education, more qualifications, foreign language acquisition, multicultural competence and professional skills in the individual level. Thus, international education multiplies the states’ soft power resources.
Furthermore, with the controversial trend of the commodification of education, international education contributes to states’ economies as a source of income resulting from the incoming students’ spending in the receiver countries. The market for international education is worth hundreds of billions of United States dollars (USD). Not only can international higher education be considered the export of a national ‘commodity of education’ but also as an export of the states’ culture abroad through its cultural diplomacy and nation branding aspects. International education has also increasingly become a crucial tool in public diplomacy. International students as citizens of other countries can be natural and voluntary representatives of their countries and culture whilst they are abroad. In addition, those students can also experience cultural immersion and exposure in the host country where they study. This first-hand cultural orientation is very valuable to nations when it comes to considering soft power and public diplomacy, as it creates a direct and automatic soft power influence.
International Education and Soft Power: the Case of Turkey, 2019
This study examines the relationship between education and soft power within domestic and interna... more This study examines the relationship between education and soft power within domestic and international dimensions as well as on the levels of both the state and the individual. While national education systems impact the foundations of the soft power of states within a domestic dimension, international higher education contributes to the soft power of the states in terms of international relations and foreign policy. State-level soft power influence, which can be demonstrated in global soft power indices, affects prospective international students in their decision-making process, during the pre-departure period. On the individual level, the perceptions of international students regarding the satisfaction of their international higher education experience in the host country during the post-departure period are essential in order to evaluate a state's soft power influence. The general hypothesis that international education has a positive impact on the soft power of countries is tested in this study. Specifically, this research aims to answer the question, "How does the satisfaction of international students regarding their higher education experiences influence their perceptions of the hosting country's soft power?" This question is answered, and the influence of international higher education on soft power is tested in the case of Turkey. In the Turkish case, despite the increasing number of international students and universities, only a small portion of students' perceptions about the elements of Turkey's soft power increased positively. In the survey and focus group studies, it was found that language barriers faced by international students, communication problems with local people and students and perceptions of racial discrimination have had adverse effects on Turkey's soft power. The reasons for this can be attributed to the unpreparedness of Turkish universities and the Turkish higher education system in terms of hosting international students and furthermore due to holding incorrect assumptions related to the internationalization of higher education.
Books by Osman Gultekin
International Education and Soft Power: the Case of Turkey - Education and Power book series – 3, 2022
International education and education diplomacy, which is a sub-branch of public diplomacy, stand... more International education and education diplomacy, which is a sub-branch of public diplomacy, stand out as concepts that have begun to attract more attention in the foreign policies and international relations of states. The international dimension of education is now considered not only as a pedagogical approach, but also as a concept that has an essential place in world politics and international relations. This aspect of education is becoming more and more important in academic circles and bureaucratic structures of states.
Concepts such as soft power, public diplomacy, education diplomacy, sharp power and soft power indices are explained and these concepts are examined based on theory in this book called "International Education and Soft Power". This is the third book of the "Education and Power" series. Turkey's soft power and specifically educational soft power are also explained in detail. In this way, a multidisciplinary study has been put forward, including the fields of Educational Sciences, Political Science and, of course, International Relations.
In this study, which examines the relationship between international education and soft power, the author has benefited from his personal and professional experiences as well as his academic curiosity. In addition to the abroad programs and European student activities he attended during his university years, he has been continuously and actively involved in the practice of international education. During this experience, he observed how the study abroad programs provide a great economic benefit to the host countries, as well as an important benefit in terms of cultural and political influence. Education is no longer a pedagogical phenomenon solely, yet, has turned into a concept with international political outcomes and effects on a global scale. At this point, while the importance of international education in international relations and influencing foreign public opinion and its versatility with many components of this effect are of great importance, the issue of explaining the nature and mechanism of the relationship between international education and soft power from an academic and theoretical point of view has not been fully addressed. This fact has encouraged the author to do more research on this subject.
The cover image of this book features a photograph of Toronto, Canada. Canada is one of the countries that the author visited many times and has experience professionally. Canada, as a country, offers one of the best examples of the relationship between international education and soft power. It has become a center of attraction in terms of soft power and international education in the world with its economy, democracy, multiculturalism, environmental awareness, strong educational infrastructure and institutions that offer quality education. Canada has taken its place after the USA and the UK as one of the most preferred countries by international students in recent years, with the opportunity to provide education-based immigration path. The Canadian government encourages all Canadian education institutions to bring students from all over the world.
When the author first visited Toronto, Canada, in the summer of 2008, he loved the simple and liveable style of the city. From this year to the present, he has observed how the city has grown and how the international education operation within the city has developed. While he was the Turkey representative of some educational institutions in the city of Toronto, he witnessed the development of the city and its emergence as a great metropolitan every year. There is no doubt that such a country and city, which has a special place in the author's life, has a remarkable aspect in terms of the relationship between soft power and international education.
There is also a visual from Fenerbahçe on the cover of this book. As a world-renowned Turkish sports brand, it can be easily said that Fenerbahçe is one of the most influential communities in the world. Fenerbahce has a special place for the author as it is a family legacy. During his secondary school years, he remembered the adventures and excitement of the football team at the season openings and going to the night games at İnönü Stadium.
In addition to the author's personal affiliation to Fenerbahçe, the author thinks that Fenerbahçe brand has a unique place in Turkish public diplomacy and its effect will increase with Fenerbahçe University. First of all, Fenerbahçe Sports Club teams, especially football, basketball and volleyball teams, and through their achievements in amateur branches such as athletics, boxing, esports, rowing, table tennis, sailing and swimming, successfully represent Turkey in international platforms and contribute to Turkish sports diplomacy. It has risen as a globally known and respected Turkish brand in the sports industry.
In addition to Fenerbahçe Sports Club's place in Turkish sports diplomacy, Fenerbahçe University, where the author serves as an assisstant professor and international relations director, presents a unique example of great importance in terms of Turkish sports diplomacy and educational diplomacy. The author has personally experienced this privileged situation when he worked at the university. The presence of students who come to the stands with Fenerbahçe jerseys at promotional events in Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia, the Far East and many countries in Europe shows the fact that these students already know the Fenerbahçe brand and even support the Fenerbahçe team. In this way, the author has seen that the soft power of Fenerbahçe as a Turkish brand has exceeded the country’s borders and now the impact of this brand as a higher education institution will increase even more. Even because of this effect, Fenerbahçe University, which was established in 2016 but started education in 2019, has not experienced much disadvantage in terms of promotion and awareness, although it is a new educational institution. Some foreign public already has a familiarity with the brand. It can be said that, as a Turkish brand, Fenerbahçe has now taken its place in Turkish public diplomacy in the field of education, after the field of sports.
In line with these experiences and academic studies, the third work of the "Education and Power" series, the book "International Education and Soft Power", is presented to your attention and benefit as a result of many years of research and effort.
International Education and Student Mobility: the Case of Turkey, 2021
Education, especially higher education, has inevitably had an international dimension due to the ... more Education, especially higher education, has inevitably had an international dimension due to the fact that the academic and innovative knowledge produced along with the knowledgeable people could easily move around the world and spread globally without respecting any jurisdictional borders. Education, which has to be on the agenda of states and national institutions within the borders of the countries, has started to take an important place in world politics and relations among countries with its international dimension, which has finally started to attract more attention in political science and international relations academic discipline as well.
In this research titled "International Education and Student Mobility", which is the second book of the "Education and Power" study series, the concepts of international education and related terms, internationalization, commercialization of higher education and international student mobility are explained and examined. In this way, a multidisciplinary study has been put forward, including the fields of educational sciences, international business, sociology, political science and, of course, international relations.
Apart from his academic curiosity, the personal experiences of the author also had a great impact on the selection of such a topic, which includes the examination of the relationship between international education and international relations. In the early 2000s, during his university years, the author thought about the cultural, economic and political benefits of these programs to the countries hosting the students with the foreign cultural exchange programs, he participated in also, and by working in a business field that allows thousands of students to participate in the abroad education experience. He was able to observe first-hand what experiences and what psychological and cognitive stages the students went through in the processes of those cultural and educational exchanges. During this time, his curiosity about the political outcomes of national and international educational activities increased, also. However, while the gigantic size of the issue of the impact of international education on international relations remains in one corner, the versatility and theoretical explanations of this issue have not been addressed academically. This prompted the author to do in-depth research on this topic.
The city of Sitka in the state of Alaska in the United States of America (USA) in the image on the cover of the book also has an important place in the life of the author. The author calls this small city "my far-away second home". Indeed, Alaska is the first foreign land where the author stepped out of the airport and set foot on the ground. As part of the Summer Work Travel cultural exchange program he attended with his university friends, he first arrived in Anchorage, Alaska, USA, in June 2002, and then went to the town called Naknek, where the population is only 60 in winter and where the ocean tides are common. He worked in the dining hall (galley) of a salmon processing plant. Having gained experience in American culture, cuisine and working life in this job, where an average of 16 hours of work per day and over 100 hours of work is carried out in some weeks, the author later moved to another beautiful city Cordova in the same state. After being there for two weeks, he went to Sitka to work in another salmon processing plant. He spent the rest of the summer working in the salmon caviar section of the plant he went to.
Sitka is a beautiful city with a long coastline where steep mountains with green slopes meet the harsh cold dark blue waters of the ocean, as well as having a cultural and historical heritage as the capital of the Alaska region (old Russian capital) when Alaska was Russian territory. With the acquisition of Alaska by the USA, it continued to be the center of the Alaska region until the beginning of the 20th century. Sitka, a simple, quaint and clean city in the south of Alaska, actually has an interesting aspect such as being the largest city in the country in terms of city limits in the USA.
Maybe, as the first Turkish people to go to that city, because of the camel picture on the package of a cigarette brand next to the Turkish tobacco inscription, he encountered questions many times such as "You Turks ride camels in your country, right?". Although he was greeted with those questions, his friendships with people of different nationalities and American university students in Sitka continued over the years. The cultural experience in Sitka has had a decisive influence on the author's life. He both formed the basis of his own work experience and gained an unforgettable life experience.
When the author returned to Turkey after his Alaskan experience in the summer of 2002, he went to work in Sitka in the summer of the following two years. This time, many of his high school friends joined the cultural exchange program and accompanied him. While making this organization, he became the campus representative and program coordinator of an institution, and within a few years, he became a partner in this institution with a friend from high school. He started to work in this line of business during his university years. In the following years, he founded his own overseas education consultancy company with another friend from high school. During this period, he provided consultancy services for thousands of Turkish students to participate in foreign education and cultural exchange programs.
In short, the experience of Sitka helped him establish a full working life. After this experience, his academic interest has led him to focus on international student experiences, the causes of international student mobility, and how countries use their international education activities.
In the light of this personal experience and academic interests, the second book of the "Education and Power" study series, "International Education and Student Mobility: the Case of Turkey", is presented to your attention and benefit as the result of a long study and effort spanning over many years...
IJOPEC Publication, 2021
There are a number of previous works showing the fact that education can affect the economic grow... more There are a number of previous works showing the fact that education can affect the economic growth and development of countries by various means. In the relationship between national education and economic growth and development, human capital theory occupies a very central role. The role of education in the economic growth of countries can be demonstrated with and could analytically be derived from supply-side production functions related to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of countries. The enhancement of human capital and technology not only facilitates the growth of countries but also their economic development. This article demonstrates how human capital plays a critical role in the economic growth of countries and how it is derived from the supply-side Cobb-Douglas production function. It also investigates the situation in the case of Turkey and explores how increases in educational attainment play a very important role in the country’s economic growth and development.
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Papers by Osman Gultekin
In this paper, firstly, conceptual background for international education and internationalization has been provided. Secondly, for the main purpose of the paper, the changes and the progress that international education has witnessed throughout history have been studied with a brief literature review. Findings and distinctive phases of international education are summarized within an informative and descriptive table. Remarks about the characteristics of the current situation and the prospects about the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on international education and internationalization have been added to the previous studies.
Conference Presentations by Osman Gultekin
Keywords: National education, human capital, economic growth, Turkish development, Turkish economy
- Public Diplomacy (Cultural and Exchange Diplomacy)
- Soft Power
- Foreign Policymaking
Drafts by Osman Gultekin
Thesis Chapters by Osman Gultekin
The general hypothesis that international education has a positive impact on the soft power of countries is tested in this study. Specifically, this research aims to answer the question, “How does the satisfaction of international students regarding their higher education experiences influence their perceptions of the hosting country’s soft power?” This question is answered, and the influence of international higher education on soft power is tested in the case of Turkey. In the Turkish case, despite the increasing number of international students and universities, only a small portion of students’ perceptions about the elements of Turkey's soft power increased positively. In the survey and focus group studies, it was found that language barriers faced by international students, communication problems with local people and students and perceptions of racial discrimination have had adverse effects on Turkey's soft power. The reasons for this can be attributed to the unpreparedness of Turkish universities and the Turkish higher education system in terms of hosting international students and due to holding incorrect assumptions related to the internationalization of higher education.
The number of incoming international students in one country indicates directly how much this country is involved in the international education business, but this does not mean that their intended foreign policy goals and that soft power enhancement are achieved, automatically. Student-centered, comprehensive, and genuine internationalization is essential for converting soft power assets into desired soft power outcomes. The outcome of international education activities, as a soft power instrument, can be best evaluated by assessing the perceptions of international students.
In the Turkish case, with regards to the foundations of its soft power, modern education among the nation-building Turkish elite has had a vital influence in the governmental transition from Ottoman Empire to the Turkish Republic. Increasing literacy rate due to nationwide education reform in the early years of the republic had a very significant role in the Turkish nation’s modernization and democratization process. Political development brought about political socialization and economic wealth to the country. The effects that education has had on technology and human capital, contributed to the economic growth and development of the country.
With the increased trend of “commodification” and the increased efforts of Turkey regarding international education promotion efforts abroad- espoused with the Turkish government’s incentives, the number of international students in Turkey has increased dramatically over the years and Turkey has become one of the major receiver countries in the world. On a global scale, Turkey is a part of the new student mobility patterns as an emergent regional higher education hub. This trend has had a substantial effect on the international dimension of Turkish soft power.
There are a number of actors involved in Turkish public diplomacy working towards the enhancement of Turkish soft power, however, current figures from global soft power indices reflect that there are some issues related to Turkish soft power. Whereas Turkey’s soft power credentials at the state level, as shown in global soft power indices, are essential in international students’ decision to choose Turkey as an educational destination in their pre-departure period, perceptions of international students studying in Turkey are influential in assessing Turkish soft power on the individual level in the post-departure period.
Education’s contributions to development are also significant in the developed states’ involvement in international development policies regarding reconstruction and state-building, especially in post-conflict periods of less-developed or developing countries. Education takes in a cross-border and transnational character as the international community utilizes educational development for local societies. Multicultural pedagogical aspects of education, especially in international development, are studied in the “comparative and international education” discipline, in which scholars analyze and assess the needs of conflict-torn societies and immigrants, search for successful and comparable examples in other regions to try and adapt, and advise on the best curriculum and teaching designs in order to address the urgent educational needs of societies in challenging environments.
Education has an international dimension and therefore it has an impact on the soft power of countries internationally. With the increasing pace of globalization, international education has become much more accessible to a greater number of people in the world. Provided that national education has a positive impact on states’ power- in all relevant aspects and in the broadest sense- then international education has a greater impact since it presumably involves a higher level of quality education, more qualifications, foreign language acquisition, multicultural competence and professional skills in the individual level. Thus, international education multiplies the states’ soft power resources.
Furthermore, with the controversial trend of the commodification of education, international education contributes to states’ economies as a source of income resulting from the incoming students’ spending in the receiver countries. The market for international education is worth hundreds of billions of United States dollars (USD). Not only can international higher education be considered the export of a national ‘commodity of education’ but also as an export of the states’ culture abroad through its cultural diplomacy and nation branding aspects. International education has also increasingly become a crucial tool in public diplomacy. International students as citizens of other countries can be natural and voluntary representatives of their countries and culture whilst they are abroad. In addition, those students can also experience cultural immersion and exposure in the host country where they study. This first-hand cultural orientation is very valuable to nations when it comes to considering soft power and public diplomacy, as it creates a direct and automatic soft power influence.
Books by Osman Gultekin
Concepts such as soft power, public diplomacy, education diplomacy, sharp power and soft power indices are explained and these concepts are examined based on theory in this book called "International Education and Soft Power". This is the third book of the "Education and Power" series. Turkey's soft power and specifically educational soft power are also explained in detail. In this way, a multidisciplinary study has been put forward, including the fields of Educational Sciences, Political Science and, of course, International Relations.
In this study, which examines the relationship between international education and soft power, the author has benefited from his personal and professional experiences as well as his academic curiosity. In addition to the abroad programs and European student activities he attended during his university years, he has been continuously and actively involved in the practice of international education. During this experience, he observed how the study abroad programs provide a great economic benefit to the host countries, as well as an important benefit in terms of cultural and political influence. Education is no longer a pedagogical phenomenon solely, yet, has turned into a concept with international political outcomes and effects on a global scale. At this point, while the importance of international education in international relations and influencing foreign public opinion and its versatility with many components of this effect are of great importance, the issue of explaining the nature and mechanism of the relationship between international education and soft power from an academic and theoretical point of view has not been fully addressed. This fact has encouraged the author to do more research on this subject.
The cover image of this book features a photograph of Toronto, Canada. Canada is one of the countries that the author visited many times and has experience professionally. Canada, as a country, offers one of the best examples of the relationship between international education and soft power. It has become a center of attraction in terms of soft power and international education in the world with its economy, democracy, multiculturalism, environmental awareness, strong educational infrastructure and institutions that offer quality education. Canada has taken its place after the USA and the UK as one of the most preferred countries by international students in recent years, with the opportunity to provide education-based immigration path. The Canadian government encourages all Canadian education institutions to bring students from all over the world.
When the author first visited Toronto, Canada, in the summer of 2008, he loved the simple and liveable style of the city. From this year to the present, he has observed how the city has grown and how the international education operation within the city has developed. While he was the Turkey representative of some educational institutions in the city of Toronto, he witnessed the development of the city and its emergence as a great metropolitan every year. There is no doubt that such a country and city, which has a special place in the author's life, has a remarkable aspect in terms of the relationship between soft power and international education.
There is also a visual from Fenerbahçe on the cover of this book. As a world-renowned Turkish sports brand, it can be easily said that Fenerbahçe is one of the most influential communities in the world. Fenerbahce has a special place for the author as it is a family legacy. During his secondary school years, he remembered the adventures and excitement of the football team at the season openings and going to the night games at İnönü Stadium.
In addition to the author's personal affiliation to Fenerbahçe, the author thinks that Fenerbahçe brand has a unique place in Turkish public diplomacy and its effect will increase with Fenerbahçe University. First of all, Fenerbahçe Sports Club teams, especially football, basketball and volleyball teams, and through their achievements in amateur branches such as athletics, boxing, esports, rowing, table tennis, sailing and swimming, successfully represent Turkey in international platforms and contribute to Turkish sports diplomacy. It has risen as a globally known and respected Turkish brand in the sports industry.
In addition to Fenerbahçe Sports Club's place in Turkish sports diplomacy, Fenerbahçe University, where the author serves as an assisstant professor and international relations director, presents a unique example of great importance in terms of Turkish sports diplomacy and educational diplomacy. The author has personally experienced this privileged situation when he worked at the university. The presence of students who come to the stands with Fenerbahçe jerseys at promotional events in Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia, the Far East and many countries in Europe shows the fact that these students already know the Fenerbahçe brand and even support the Fenerbahçe team. In this way, the author has seen that the soft power of Fenerbahçe as a Turkish brand has exceeded the country’s borders and now the impact of this brand as a higher education institution will increase even more. Even because of this effect, Fenerbahçe University, which was established in 2016 but started education in 2019, has not experienced much disadvantage in terms of promotion and awareness, although it is a new educational institution. Some foreign public already has a familiarity with the brand. It can be said that, as a Turkish brand, Fenerbahçe has now taken its place in Turkish public diplomacy in the field of education, after the field of sports.
In line with these experiences and academic studies, the third work of the "Education and Power" series, the book "International Education and Soft Power", is presented to your attention and benefit as a result of many years of research and effort.
In this research titled "International Education and Student Mobility", which is the second book of the "Education and Power" study series, the concepts of international education and related terms, internationalization, commercialization of higher education and international student mobility are explained and examined. In this way, a multidisciplinary study has been put forward, including the fields of educational sciences, international business, sociology, political science and, of course, international relations.
Apart from his academic curiosity, the personal experiences of the author also had a great impact on the selection of such a topic, which includes the examination of the relationship between international education and international relations. In the early 2000s, during his university years, the author thought about the cultural, economic and political benefits of these programs to the countries hosting the students with the foreign cultural exchange programs, he participated in also, and by working in a business field that allows thousands of students to participate in the abroad education experience. He was able to observe first-hand what experiences and what psychological and cognitive stages the students went through in the processes of those cultural and educational exchanges. During this time, his curiosity about the political outcomes of national and international educational activities increased, also. However, while the gigantic size of the issue of the impact of international education on international relations remains in one corner, the versatility and theoretical explanations of this issue have not been addressed academically. This prompted the author to do in-depth research on this topic.
The city of Sitka in the state of Alaska in the United States of America (USA) in the image on the cover of the book also has an important place in the life of the author. The author calls this small city "my far-away second home". Indeed, Alaska is the first foreign land where the author stepped out of the airport and set foot on the ground. As part of the Summer Work Travel cultural exchange program he attended with his university friends, he first arrived in Anchorage, Alaska, USA, in June 2002, and then went to the town called Naknek, where the population is only 60 in winter and where the ocean tides are common. He worked in the dining hall (galley) of a salmon processing plant. Having gained experience in American culture, cuisine and working life in this job, where an average of 16 hours of work per day and over 100 hours of work is carried out in some weeks, the author later moved to another beautiful city Cordova in the same state. After being there for two weeks, he went to Sitka to work in another salmon processing plant. He spent the rest of the summer working in the salmon caviar section of the plant he went to.
Sitka is a beautiful city with a long coastline where steep mountains with green slopes meet the harsh cold dark blue waters of the ocean, as well as having a cultural and historical heritage as the capital of the Alaska region (old Russian capital) when Alaska was Russian territory. With the acquisition of Alaska by the USA, it continued to be the center of the Alaska region until the beginning of the 20th century. Sitka, a simple, quaint and clean city in the south of Alaska, actually has an interesting aspect such as being the largest city in the country in terms of city limits in the USA.
Maybe, as the first Turkish people to go to that city, because of the camel picture on the package of a cigarette brand next to the Turkish tobacco inscription, he encountered questions many times such as "You Turks ride camels in your country, right?". Although he was greeted with those questions, his friendships with people of different nationalities and American university students in Sitka continued over the years. The cultural experience in Sitka has had a decisive influence on the author's life. He both formed the basis of his own work experience and gained an unforgettable life experience.
When the author returned to Turkey after his Alaskan experience in the summer of 2002, he went to work in Sitka in the summer of the following two years. This time, many of his high school friends joined the cultural exchange program and accompanied him. While making this organization, he became the campus representative and program coordinator of an institution, and within a few years, he became a partner in this institution with a friend from high school. He started to work in this line of business during his university years. In the following years, he founded his own overseas education consultancy company with another friend from high school. During this period, he provided consultancy services for thousands of Turkish students to participate in foreign education and cultural exchange programs.
In short, the experience of Sitka helped him establish a full working life. After this experience, his academic interest has led him to focus on international student experiences, the causes of international student mobility, and how countries use their international education activities.
In the light of this personal experience and academic interests, the second book of the "Education and Power" study series, "International Education and Student Mobility: the Case of Turkey", is presented to your attention and benefit as the result of a long study and effort spanning over many years...
In this paper, firstly, conceptual background for international education and internationalization has been provided. Secondly, for the main purpose of the paper, the changes and the progress that international education has witnessed throughout history have been studied with a brief literature review. Findings and distinctive phases of international education are summarized within an informative and descriptive table. Remarks about the characteristics of the current situation and the prospects about the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on international education and internationalization have been added to the previous studies.
Keywords: National education, human capital, economic growth, Turkish development, Turkish economy
- Public Diplomacy (Cultural and Exchange Diplomacy)
- Soft Power
- Foreign Policymaking
The general hypothesis that international education has a positive impact on the soft power of countries is tested in this study. Specifically, this research aims to answer the question, “How does the satisfaction of international students regarding their higher education experiences influence their perceptions of the hosting country’s soft power?” This question is answered, and the influence of international higher education on soft power is tested in the case of Turkey. In the Turkish case, despite the increasing number of international students and universities, only a small portion of students’ perceptions about the elements of Turkey's soft power increased positively. In the survey and focus group studies, it was found that language barriers faced by international students, communication problems with local people and students and perceptions of racial discrimination have had adverse effects on Turkey's soft power. The reasons for this can be attributed to the unpreparedness of Turkish universities and the Turkish higher education system in terms of hosting international students and due to holding incorrect assumptions related to the internationalization of higher education.
The number of incoming international students in one country indicates directly how much this country is involved in the international education business, but this does not mean that their intended foreign policy goals and that soft power enhancement are achieved, automatically. Student-centered, comprehensive, and genuine internationalization is essential for converting soft power assets into desired soft power outcomes. The outcome of international education activities, as a soft power instrument, can be best evaluated by assessing the perceptions of international students.
In the Turkish case, with regards to the foundations of its soft power, modern education among the nation-building Turkish elite has had a vital influence in the governmental transition from Ottoman Empire to the Turkish Republic. Increasing literacy rate due to nationwide education reform in the early years of the republic had a very significant role in the Turkish nation’s modernization and democratization process. Political development brought about political socialization and economic wealth to the country. The effects that education has had on technology and human capital, contributed to the economic growth and development of the country.
With the increased trend of “commodification” and the increased efforts of Turkey regarding international education promotion efforts abroad- espoused with the Turkish government’s incentives, the number of international students in Turkey has increased dramatically over the years and Turkey has become one of the major receiver countries in the world. On a global scale, Turkey is a part of the new student mobility patterns as an emergent regional higher education hub. This trend has had a substantial effect on the international dimension of Turkish soft power.
There are a number of actors involved in Turkish public diplomacy working towards the enhancement of Turkish soft power, however, current figures from global soft power indices reflect that there are some issues related to Turkish soft power. Whereas Turkey’s soft power credentials at the state level, as shown in global soft power indices, are essential in international students’ decision to choose Turkey as an educational destination in their pre-departure period, perceptions of international students studying in Turkey are influential in assessing Turkish soft power on the individual level in the post-departure period.
Education’s contributions to development are also significant in the developed states’ involvement in international development policies regarding reconstruction and state-building, especially in post-conflict periods of less-developed or developing countries. Education takes in a cross-border and transnational character as the international community utilizes educational development for local societies. Multicultural pedagogical aspects of education, especially in international development, are studied in the “comparative and international education” discipline, in which scholars analyze and assess the needs of conflict-torn societies and immigrants, search for successful and comparable examples in other regions to try and adapt, and advise on the best curriculum and teaching designs in order to address the urgent educational needs of societies in challenging environments.
Education has an international dimension and therefore it has an impact on the soft power of countries internationally. With the increasing pace of globalization, international education has become much more accessible to a greater number of people in the world. Provided that national education has a positive impact on states’ power- in all relevant aspects and in the broadest sense- then international education has a greater impact since it presumably involves a higher level of quality education, more qualifications, foreign language acquisition, multicultural competence and professional skills in the individual level. Thus, international education multiplies the states’ soft power resources.
Furthermore, with the controversial trend of the commodification of education, international education contributes to states’ economies as a source of income resulting from the incoming students’ spending in the receiver countries. The market for international education is worth hundreds of billions of United States dollars (USD). Not only can international higher education be considered the export of a national ‘commodity of education’ but also as an export of the states’ culture abroad through its cultural diplomacy and nation branding aspects. International education has also increasingly become a crucial tool in public diplomacy. International students as citizens of other countries can be natural and voluntary representatives of their countries and culture whilst they are abroad. In addition, those students can also experience cultural immersion and exposure in the host country where they study. This first-hand cultural orientation is very valuable to nations when it comes to considering soft power and public diplomacy, as it creates a direct and automatic soft power influence.
Concepts such as soft power, public diplomacy, education diplomacy, sharp power and soft power indices are explained and these concepts are examined based on theory in this book called "International Education and Soft Power". This is the third book of the "Education and Power" series. Turkey's soft power and specifically educational soft power are also explained in detail. In this way, a multidisciplinary study has been put forward, including the fields of Educational Sciences, Political Science and, of course, International Relations.
In this study, which examines the relationship between international education and soft power, the author has benefited from his personal and professional experiences as well as his academic curiosity. In addition to the abroad programs and European student activities he attended during his university years, he has been continuously and actively involved in the practice of international education. During this experience, he observed how the study abroad programs provide a great economic benefit to the host countries, as well as an important benefit in terms of cultural and political influence. Education is no longer a pedagogical phenomenon solely, yet, has turned into a concept with international political outcomes and effects on a global scale. At this point, while the importance of international education in international relations and influencing foreign public opinion and its versatility with many components of this effect are of great importance, the issue of explaining the nature and mechanism of the relationship between international education and soft power from an academic and theoretical point of view has not been fully addressed. This fact has encouraged the author to do more research on this subject.
The cover image of this book features a photograph of Toronto, Canada. Canada is one of the countries that the author visited many times and has experience professionally. Canada, as a country, offers one of the best examples of the relationship between international education and soft power. It has become a center of attraction in terms of soft power and international education in the world with its economy, democracy, multiculturalism, environmental awareness, strong educational infrastructure and institutions that offer quality education. Canada has taken its place after the USA and the UK as one of the most preferred countries by international students in recent years, with the opportunity to provide education-based immigration path. The Canadian government encourages all Canadian education institutions to bring students from all over the world.
When the author first visited Toronto, Canada, in the summer of 2008, he loved the simple and liveable style of the city. From this year to the present, he has observed how the city has grown and how the international education operation within the city has developed. While he was the Turkey representative of some educational institutions in the city of Toronto, he witnessed the development of the city and its emergence as a great metropolitan every year. There is no doubt that such a country and city, which has a special place in the author's life, has a remarkable aspect in terms of the relationship between soft power and international education.
There is also a visual from Fenerbahçe on the cover of this book. As a world-renowned Turkish sports brand, it can be easily said that Fenerbahçe is one of the most influential communities in the world. Fenerbahce has a special place for the author as it is a family legacy. During his secondary school years, he remembered the adventures and excitement of the football team at the season openings and going to the night games at İnönü Stadium.
In addition to the author's personal affiliation to Fenerbahçe, the author thinks that Fenerbahçe brand has a unique place in Turkish public diplomacy and its effect will increase with Fenerbahçe University. First of all, Fenerbahçe Sports Club teams, especially football, basketball and volleyball teams, and through their achievements in amateur branches such as athletics, boxing, esports, rowing, table tennis, sailing and swimming, successfully represent Turkey in international platforms and contribute to Turkish sports diplomacy. It has risen as a globally known and respected Turkish brand in the sports industry.
In addition to Fenerbahçe Sports Club's place in Turkish sports diplomacy, Fenerbahçe University, where the author serves as an assisstant professor and international relations director, presents a unique example of great importance in terms of Turkish sports diplomacy and educational diplomacy. The author has personally experienced this privileged situation when he worked at the university. The presence of students who come to the stands with Fenerbahçe jerseys at promotional events in Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia, the Far East and many countries in Europe shows the fact that these students already know the Fenerbahçe brand and even support the Fenerbahçe team. In this way, the author has seen that the soft power of Fenerbahçe as a Turkish brand has exceeded the country’s borders and now the impact of this brand as a higher education institution will increase even more. Even because of this effect, Fenerbahçe University, which was established in 2016 but started education in 2019, has not experienced much disadvantage in terms of promotion and awareness, although it is a new educational institution. Some foreign public already has a familiarity with the brand. It can be said that, as a Turkish brand, Fenerbahçe has now taken its place in Turkish public diplomacy in the field of education, after the field of sports.
In line with these experiences and academic studies, the third work of the "Education and Power" series, the book "International Education and Soft Power", is presented to your attention and benefit as a result of many years of research and effort.
In this research titled "International Education and Student Mobility", which is the second book of the "Education and Power" study series, the concepts of international education and related terms, internationalization, commercialization of higher education and international student mobility are explained and examined. In this way, a multidisciplinary study has been put forward, including the fields of educational sciences, international business, sociology, political science and, of course, international relations.
Apart from his academic curiosity, the personal experiences of the author also had a great impact on the selection of such a topic, which includes the examination of the relationship between international education and international relations. In the early 2000s, during his university years, the author thought about the cultural, economic and political benefits of these programs to the countries hosting the students with the foreign cultural exchange programs, he participated in also, and by working in a business field that allows thousands of students to participate in the abroad education experience. He was able to observe first-hand what experiences and what psychological and cognitive stages the students went through in the processes of those cultural and educational exchanges. During this time, his curiosity about the political outcomes of national and international educational activities increased, also. However, while the gigantic size of the issue of the impact of international education on international relations remains in one corner, the versatility and theoretical explanations of this issue have not been addressed academically. This prompted the author to do in-depth research on this topic.
The city of Sitka in the state of Alaska in the United States of America (USA) in the image on the cover of the book also has an important place in the life of the author. The author calls this small city "my far-away second home". Indeed, Alaska is the first foreign land where the author stepped out of the airport and set foot on the ground. As part of the Summer Work Travel cultural exchange program he attended with his university friends, he first arrived in Anchorage, Alaska, USA, in June 2002, and then went to the town called Naknek, where the population is only 60 in winter and where the ocean tides are common. He worked in the dining hall (galley) of a salmon processing plant. Having gained experience in American culture, cuisine and working life in this job, where an average of 16 hours of work per day and over 100 hours of work is carried out in some weeks, the author later moved to another beautiful city Cordova in the same state. After being there for two weeks, he went to Sitka to work in another salmon processing plant. He spent the rest of the summer working in the salmon caviar section of the plant he went to.
Sitka is a beautiful city with a long coastline where steep mountains with green slopes meet the harsh cold dark blue waters of the ocean, as well as having a cultural and historical heritage as the capital of the Alaska region (old Russian capital) when Alaska was Russian territory. With the acquisition of Alaska by the USA, it continued to be the center of the Alaska region until the beginning of the 20th century. Sitka, a simple, quaint and clean city in the south of Alaska, actually has an interesting aspect such as being the largest city in the country in terms of city limits in the USA.
Maybe, as the first Turkish people to go to that city, because of the camel picture on the package of a cigarette brand next to the Turkish tobacco inscription, he encountered questions many times such as "You Turks ride camels in your country, right?". Although he was greeted with those questions, his friendships with people of different nationalities and American university students in Sitka continued over the years. The cultural experience in Sitka has had a decisive influence on the author's life. He both formed the basis of his own work experience and gained an unforgettable life experience.
When the author returned to Turkey after his Alaskan experience in the summer of 2002, he went to work in Sitka in the summer of the following two years. This time, many of his high school friends joined the cultural exchange program and accompanied him. While making this organization, he became the campus representative and program coordinator of an institution, and within a few years, he became a partner in this institution with a friend from high school. He started to work in this line of business during his university years. In the following years, he founded his own overseas education consultancy company with another friend from high school. During this period, he provided consultancy services for thousands of Turkish students to participate in foreign education and cultural exchange programs.
In short, the experience of Sitka helped him establish a full working life. After this experience, his academic interest has led him to focus on international student experiences, the causes of international student mobility, and how countries use their international education activities.
In the light of this personal experience and academic interests, the second book of the "Education and Power" study series, "International Education and Student Mobility: the Case of Turkey", is presented to your attention and benefit as the result of a long study and effort spanning over many years...
The change that education and training systems have undergone in the last decades attracts everyone's attention. Each stakeholder observes and is affected by this change according to their own position and perspective. In the last century, while education has been seen as a necessity for the development of individuals and the development of states, it has turned into a sector with a huge economic size with the privatization trend at all levels from pre-school education to higher education with the neoliberal effect. The private education sector, which has the feature of responding to already existing demand due to the increasing population and relative prosperity in developing countries, has now entered the foreign policy agenda of the states after the commercialization and commodification processes it has gone through in the countries.
The first book of the series "Education and Power", "National Education and Construction of Power" includes many concepts and theories from different academic disciplines that are relevant to national education and the theories are examined in the context of Turkey. A multidisciplinary study has been presented that includes the fields of economics, business, sociology, education science and of course international relations, political science and public administration. It is detailed how national education contributes to the power of a country in terms of modernization, social change, political participation, democratization, economic growth, human capital, development, peace-building and state-building. In addition, criticisms about the global education understanding prevailing in the world were also listed.
Apart from the academic interest and curiosity, the personal experiences of the author have a great influence on the selection of such a topic, which includes the examination of the relationship between education and political science and international relations. The author, in the 1990s, while commercialization trends in education in Turkey were increasing, was studying in one of Turkey's deep-rooted public educational institutions Pertevniyal High School and he believes this school environment insulated him from the negative consequences with the help and influence of his high school teachers. While studying at a state university in the 2000s, he had the chance to observe how commercialization in education had spread even to state universities, the destruction caused by this situation in education and social class distinctions. With the foreign cultural exchange programs he participated in during his university years, he thought about the great cultural, economic and political return of these programs to the countries that host students, and by working in a business field that enables thousands of students to participate in the study abroad experience, he experienced the psychological stages students go through during these processes. During this period, his interest in the political outcomes of national and international educational activities has gradually increased. Ultimately, while the enormous magnitude of this topic remains in a corner, its versatility and theoretical explanations have not been addressed; it prompted the author to do in-depth research on this topic. In the light of these academic interests and personal experiences, it can be said that the first book of the "Education and Power" series, "National Education and Construction of Power", contains the beginning of the unique experience of the concept of education at the individual level, towards the state and international system level.
During this research, some negative and critical conclusions about the transformation of education have been reached. The promise of education that is about to disappear for individuals, cartelization of education as a sector as in any industry or business line occurs, and the recognition and appreciation of marketable knowledge, not scientific, in higher education, actually have a toxic effect on the entire education world and its stakeholders. It is evident that the predominant aspect of economic factors and commercial purposes in the world of education is that school administrators and owners reduce the sincerity in their relationships with the labor teachers they "employ" and the "client" students they enroll. This distortion is becoming widespread and normalizing. But even more thought-provoking, education is increasingly instrumentalized for economic and political gain in the hands of not only educational sector stakeholders and entrepreneurs, but also national governments.
This research, which is the result of a long study and effort spread over years, is presented to your academic and intellectual interest and benefit ...
Osman Gultekin
November 2020
Istanbul
Keywords: National Education, Political Science and Public Administration, International Relations, Comparative and International Education, Education and Development