This article proposes a framework for bridging servant leadership with the positive psychology fi... more This article proposes a framework for bridging servant leadership with the positive psychology field. In the framework, servant leadership facilitates both micro-and macro-positive behaviors in individuals, groups/teams, and organizations. Hope and organizational virtuousness are used as examples of micro-and macro-positive behaviors that may be optimized by servant leadership. This article describes the framework and its constructs, develops testable propositions, and provides opportunities for research applications.
International Journal of Value-based Management, 1993
How have the servant-leader writings of Robert Greenleaf impacted upon society during the past tw... more How have the servant-leader writings of Robert Greenleaf impacted upon society during the past twenty years? What influence has Greenleaf had upon trustees and others? And, what are people sayingtoday about servant-leadership? While this paper seeks to provide a partial answer to these questions, its intent is to serve as an informative report on the ever-widening influence of the servant-as-leader idea—and as a resource guide for others who may wish to delve more deeply into the notion of trustees as servant-leaders. In 1974, Robert Greenleaf publishedTrustees as Servants, in which he expressed his own thoughts concerning the special role which trustees can and should play within an institution—but usually don't. His delineation of some of the barriers and solutions to effective trusteeship has since been read by over 400,000 people and has come to represent a core element of what is now generally called “trustee education.” The central definition of servant-leadership, as defined by Greenleaf inThe Servant as Leader, is as follows: It begins with the natural feeling that one wants to serve, to serve first. Then conscious choice brings one to aspire to lead. The difference manifests itself in the care taken by the servant—first to make sure that other people's highest priority needs are being served. The best test, and difficult to administer, is: do those served grow as persons; do they while being served, become healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous, more likely themselves to become servants? And, what is the effect on the least privileged in society; will they benefit, or at least, not be further deprived? The past two decades have witnessed the publication of a growing number of books and articles concerning servant-leadership and its applications in a number of key areas. This now includes its uses as: a working philosophy and model in both for-profit and not-for-profit institutions; the bringing together of servant-leadership and experiential education in the related area of “service-learning”; the use of servant-leadership within community leadership programs; its use in both formal management/leadership courses and by independent consultants working directly with institutions; as a core idea for several diverse areas of personal growth and personal transformation; and as the values base for trustee education. The attached bibliographies-in-progress are intended to provide suggested readings for those who are interested in finding out more about the role of trustees as servant-leaders.
This study examines the effects of customer orientation and servant leadership on frontline emplo... more This study examines the effects of customer orientation and servant leadership on frontline employees' burnout and, subsequently, on their turnover intentions. Also investigated in the study is the intervening role of person-job fit in the process. Data collected from 530 frontline bank employees in New Zealand serve as the study setting. Results show that both customer orientation and servant leadership significantly reduce burnout and ultimately turnover intentions. Results also show that person-job fit mediates the influences of customer orientation and servant leadership on burnout and turnover intentions. Implications of the results are discussed and future research avenues are offered.
During the past decade much research has been conducted in order to determine whether men and wom... more During the past decade much research has been conducted in order to determine whether men and women manage and lead in different ways within organisations. Very often such research has been conducted in Western business organisations, but an increasing amount is now ...
Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 2009
Purpose – This paper seeks to apply discriminate analysis to determine principal's leader... more Purpose – This paper seeks to apply discriminate analysis to determine principal's leadership styles differences between genders in USA Midwest public schools. A distinction is to be made between “servant” (seen as aligned with emotional intelligence) and “traditional” (or top-down) leadership. The debate between the traditional (or, top-down) leadership approach, versus the servant (which is seen as aligned with emotional
This study tests the influence of servant leadership on 2 group climates, employee attitudes, and... more This study tests the influence of servant leadership on 2 group climates, employee attitudes, and organizational citizenship behavior. Results from a sample of 815 employees and 123 immediate supervisors revealed that commitment to the supervisor, self-efficacy, procedural justice climate, and service climate partially mediated the relationship between servant leadership and organizational citizenship behavior. Cross-level interaction results revealed that procedural justice climate and positive service climate amplified the influence of commitment to the supervisor on organizational citizenship behavior. Implications of these results for theory and practice and directions for future research are discussed.
Page 1. Servant Leadership and the Effectiveness of Teams Submitted to Regent University School o... more Page 1. Servant Leadership and the Effectiveness of Teams Submitted to Regent University School of Leadership Studies ... Page 2. ii Page 3. iii Abstract The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between servant leadership and the effectiveness of teams. ...
International Journal of Human Resource Management, 2010
This study extends the GLOBE study of 62 societies by investigating an emerging model of servant ... more This study extends the GLOBE study of 62 societies by investigating an emerging model of servant leadership (SL) across cultures. SL is a holistic and altruistic approach of leadership that focuses on the commitment to serve other people. Adopting Implicit Leadership Theory's (ILT) premise that people hold cognitive categories to distinguish between prototypical leaders from non-leaders, we predicted that SL would exist in Australia and Indonesia, but its practice would be moderated by culture. Our predictions were supported, SL was perceived to be culturally universal in Australia and Indonesia. However, the different attributes perceived to make up SL were not all rated as equally important. We argued that individual self-construal, socialization and national context would explain how and why culture-specific perceptions of SL exist. The implications of our study on international management practice are discussed in the concluding section.
Leadership theories have evolved from a focus on traits, to behaviors, to contingency theories, t... more Leadership theories have evolved from a focus on traits, to behaviors, to contingency theories, to more contemporary approaches including servant leadership theory. This paper provides an overview of the principles of servant leadership and identifies characteristics displayed by servant leaders in the workplace, with special emphasis on the importance of empowerment in defining a servant-leader. It also addresses the application of servant leadership in a cross-cultural context utilizing Hofstede's five cultural dimensions as a framework. This paper concludes that servant leadership is best applied in a culture with low power distance, low to moderate individualism, low to moderate masculinity, low uncertainty avoidance and a moderate to high long-term orientation.
The paper describes an opponent-process model, which helps explain the beliefbehaviour gap of Chr... more The paper describes an opponent-process model, which helps explain the beliefbehaviour gap of Christian leaders, who claim to be servant leaders, but practice autocratic leadership. The paper also presents a typology of four leadership styles: autocratic, paternalistic, Laissez-faire, and servant leadership. Of these four leadership styles, only servant leadership commands the necessary flexibility and the range of skills to be effective in different situations. Finally, the paper discusses the practical and research implications of the opponent-process model and the typology of leadership styles.
This article introduces a new scale to measure executive servant leadership, situating the need f... more This article introduces a new scale to measure executive servant leadership, situating the need for this scale within the context of ethical leadership and its impacts on followers, organizations and the greater society. The literature on servant leadership is reviewed and servant leadership is compared to other concepts that share dimensions of ethical leadership (e.g., transformational, authentic, and spiritual leadership). Next, the Executive Servant Leadership Scale (ESLS) is introduced, and its contributions and limitations discussed. We conclude with an agenda for future research, describing ways the measure can be used to test hypotheses about organizational moral climate, ethical organizational culture, corporate responsibility, and institutional theory.
European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 2011
Servant leadership is widely believed to be a multidimensional construct. However, existing measu... more Servant leadership is widely believed to be a multidimensional construct. However, existing measures of servant leadership typically suffer from highly correlated dimensions, raising concerns over discriminant validity. We set out in this study to examine the dimensionality of the hypothesized six-factor Servant Leadership Behaviour Scale (SLBS) and validate a hierarchical model of servant leadership. Using structural equation modelling, convergent and
Journal of Personal Selling and Sales Management, 2009
Management views sales force retention as a critical organi-zational objective (Deeter-Schmelz, G... more Management views sales force retention as a critical organi-zational objective (Deeter-Schmelz, Goebel, and Kennedy 2008). Voluntary turnover is one aspect of retention that has a pervasive effect on the organization because it disrupts the ability to sustain ...
International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching, 2008
... Micah Rieke, Jon Hammermeister and Matthew Chase Eastern Washington University, Department of... more ... Micah Rieke, Jon Hammermeister and Matthew Chase Eastern Washington University, Department of PEHR, PEB 200, Eastern Washington University, Cheney, WA ... The perceived coaching profile segment consists of 22 items measured on a 7-point-Likert scale ranging from ...
Leadership makes a difference and Arizona's construction executives are practicing servant leader... more Leadership makes a difference and Arizona's construction executives are practicing servant leadership as defined by Robert Greenleaf and measured by the researchers' servant leader index (SLI). The researchers hypothesized that servant leadership could be measured and the feeling and intuition preferences would help define servant leaders. The researchers' SNTFeeling Assessment represented an abridged Myers-Briggs Indicator concentrating heavily on the thinking/feeling and sensing/intuition preferences. Eighteen construction executives participated. The feeling preference was closely correlated with the executives' servant leader index scores, but the intuition preference while positive was not strongly related to the SLI. The Leadership Practices Inventory was also used to determine servant leader relationships. Sensing-thinking (ST) personalities viewed as detailed oriented are common among contractors, but the researchers contend servant leaders and intuitive-feelers (NF) enjoyed greater profitability by utilizing their complementary abilities to be champions of change. Servant leaders displaying the out-of-thenorm Myers-Briggs types also enjoyed greater profitability on average.
... Authentic Leadership: Origins, Development and Effects. Monographs in Leadership and manageme... more ... Authentic Leadership: Origins, Development and Effects. Monographs in Leadership and management. ... 247260. Michie, S. & Gooty, J. (2005). Values, emotions, and authenticity: Will the real leader please stand up? The Leadership Quarterly, 16(3). ...
Purpose The purpose of this paper is to describe the development and validation of a multi-dimens... more Purpose The purpose of this paper is to describe the development and validation of a multi-dimensional instrument to measure servant leadership. Design/Methodology/Approach Based on an extensive literature review and expert judgment, 99 items were formulated. In three steps, using eight samples totaling 1571 persons from The Netherlands and the UK with a diverse occupational background, a combined exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis approach was used. This was followed by an analysis of the criterion-related validity. Findings The final result is an eight-dimensional measure of 30 items: the eight dimensions being: standing back, forgiveness, courage, empowerment, accountability, authenticity, humility, and stewardship. The internal consistency of the subscales is good. The results show that the Servant Leadership Survey (SLS) has convergent validity with other leadership measures, and also adds unique elements to the leadership field. Evidence for criterion-related validity came from studies relating the eight dimensions to well-being and performance. Implications With this survey, a valid and reliable instrument to measure the essential elements of servant leadership has been introduced. Originality/Value The SLS is the first measure where the underlying factor structure was developed and confirmed across several field studies in two countries. It can be used in future studies to test the underlying premises of servant leadership theory. The SLS provides a clear picture of the key servant leadership qualities and shows where improvements can be made on the individual and organizational level; as such, it may also offer a valuable starting point for training and leadership development.
This article proposes a framework for bridging servant leadership with the positive psychology fi... more This article proposes a framework for bridging servant leadership with the positive psychology field. In the framework, servant leadership facilitates both micro-and macro-positive behaviors in individuals, groups/teams, and organizations. Hope and organizational virtuousness are used as examples of micro-and macro-positive behaviors that may be optimized by servant leadership. This article describes the framework and its constructs, develops testable propositions, and provides opportunities for research applications.
International Journal of Value-based Management, 1993
How have the servant-leader writings of Robert Greenleaf impacted upon society during the past tw... more How have the servant-leader writings of Robert Greenleaf impacted upon society during the past twenty years? What influence has Greenleaf had upon trustees and others? And, what are people sayingtoday about servant-leadership? While this paper seeks to provide a partial answer to these questions, its intent is to serve as an informative report on the ever-widening influence of the servant-as-leader idea—and as a resource guide for others who may wish to delve more deeply into the notion of trustees as servant-leaders. In 1974, Robert Greenleaf publishedTrustees as Servants, in which he expressed his own thoughts concerning the special role which trustees can and should play within an institution—but usually don't. His delineation of some of the barriers and solutions to effective trusteeship has since been read by over 400,000 people and has come to represent a core element of what is now generally called “trustee education.” The central definition of servant-leadership, as defined by Greenleaf inThe Servant as Leader, is as follows: It begins with the natural feeling that one wants to serve, to serve first. Then conscious choice brings one to aspire to lead. The difference manifests itself in the care taken by the servant—first to make sure that other people's highest priority needs are being served. The best test, and difficult to administer, is: do those served grow as persons; do they while being served, become healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous, more likely themselves to become servants? And, what is the effect on the least privileged in society; will they benefit, or at least, not be further deprived? The past two decades have witnessed the publication of a growing number of books and articles concerning servant-leadership and its applications in a number of key areas. This now includes its uses as: a working philosophy and model in both for-profit and not-for-profit institutions; the bringing together of servant-leadership and experiential education in the related area of “service-learning”; the use of servant-leadership within community leadership programs; its use in both formal management/leadership courses and by independent consultants working directly with institutions; as a core idea for several diverse areas of personal growth and personal transformation; and as the values base for trustee education. The attached bibliographies-in-progress are intended to provide suggested readings for those who are interested in finding out more about the role of trustees as servant-leaders.
This study examines the effects of customer orientation and servant leadership on frontline emplo... more This study examines the effects of customer orientation and servant leadership on frontline employees' burnout and, subsequently, on their turnover intentions. Also investigated in the study is the intervening role of person-job fit in the process. Data collected from 530 frontline bank employees in New Zealand serve as the study setting. Results show that both customer orientation and servant leadership significantly reduce burnout and ultimately turnover intentions. Results also show that person-job fit mediates the influences of customer orientation and servant leadership on burnout and turnover intentions. Implications of the results are discussed and future research avenues are offered.
During the past decade much research has been conducted in order to determine whether men and wom... more During the past decade much research has been conducted in order to determine whether men and women manage and lead in different ways within organisations. Very often such research has been conducted in Western business organisations, but an increasing amount is now ...
Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 2009
Purpose – This paper seeks to apply discriminate analysis to determine principal's leader... more Purpose – This paper seeks to apply discriminate analysis to determine principal's leadership styles differences between genders in USA Midwest public schools. A distinction is to be made between “servant” (seen as aligned with emotional intelligence) and “traditional” (or top-down) leadership. The debate between the traditional (or, top-down) leadership approach, versus the servant (which is seen as aligned with emotional
This study tests the influence of servant leadership on 2 group climates, employee attitudes, and... more This study tests the influence of servant leadership on 2 group climates, employee attitudes, and organizational citizenship behavior. Results from a sample of 815 employees and 123 immediate supervisors revealed that commitment to the supervisor, self-efficacy, procedural justice climate, and service climate partially mediated the relationship between servant leadership and organizational citizenship behavior. Cross-level interaction results revealed that procedural justice climate and positive service climate amplified the influence of commitment to the supervisor on organizational citizenship behavior. Implications of these results for theory and practice and directions for future research are discussed.
Page 1. Servant Leadership and the Effectiveness of Teams Submitted to Regent University School o... more Page 1. Servant Leadership and the Effectiveness of Teams Submitted to Regent University School of Leadership Studies ... Page 2. ii Page 3. iii Abstract The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between servant leadership and the effectiveness of teams. ...
International Journal of Human Resource Management, 2010
This study extends the GLOBE study of 62 societies by investigating an emerging model of servant ... more This study extends the GLOBE study of 62 societies by investigating an emerging model of servant leadership (SL) across cultures. SL is a holistic and altruistic approach of leadership that focuses on the commitment to serve other people. Adopting Implicit Leadership Theory's (ILT) premise that people hold cognitive categories to distinguish between prototypical leaders from non-leaders, we predicted that SL would exist in Australia and Indonesia, but its practice would be moderated by culture. Our predictions were supported, SL was perceived to be culturally universal in Australia and Indonesia. However, the different attributes perceived to make up SL were not all rated as equally important. We argued that individual self-construal, socialization and national context would explain how and why culture-specific perceptions of SL exist. The implications of our study on international management practice are discussed in the concluding section.
Leadership theories have evolved from a focus on traits, to behaviors, to contingency theories, t... more Leadership theories have evolved from a focus on traits, to behaviors, to contingency theories, to more contemporary approaches including servant leadership theory. This paper provides an overview of the principles of servant leadership and identifies characteristics displayed by servant leaders in the workplace, with special emphasis on the importance of empowerment in defining a servant-leader. It also addresses the application of servant leadership in a cross-cultural context utilizing Hofstede's five cultural dimensions as a framework. This paper concludes that servant leadership is best applied in a culture with low power distance, low to moderate individualism, low to moderate masculinity, low uncertainty avoidance and a moderate to high long-term orientation.
The paper describes an opponent-process model, which helps explain the beliefbehaviour gap of Chr... more The paper describes an opponent-process model, which helps explain the beliefbehaviour gap of Christian leaders, who claim to be servant leaders, but practice autocratic leadership. The paper also presents a typology of four leadership styles: autocratic, paternalistic, Laissez-faire, and servant leadership. Of these four leadership styles, only servant leadership commands the necessary flexibility and the range of skills to be effective in different situations. Finally, the paper discusses the practical and research implications of the opponent-process model and the typology of leadership styles.
This article introduces a new scale to measure executive servant leadership, situating the need f... more This article introduces a new scale to measure executive servant leadership, situating the need for this scale within the context of ethical leadership and its impacts on followers, organizations and the greater society. The literature on servant leadership is reviewed and servant leadership is compared to other concepts that share dimensions of ethical leadership (e.g., transformational, authentic, and spiritual leadership). Next, the Executive Servant Leadership Scale (ESLS) is introduced, and its contributions and limitations discussed. We conclude with an agenda for future research, describing ways the measure can be used to test hypotheses about organizational moral climate, ethical organizational culture, corporate responsibility, and institutional theory.
European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 2011
Servant leadership is widely believed to be a multidimensional construct. However, existing measu... more Servant leadership is widely believed to be a multidimensional construct. However, existing measures of servant leadership typically suffer from highly correlated dimensions, raising concerns over discriminant validity. We set out in this study to examine the dimensionality of the hypothesized six-factor Servant Leadership Behaviour Scale (SLBS) and validate a hierarchical model of servant leadership. Using structural equation modelling, convergent and
Journal of Personal Selling and Sales Management, 2009
Management views sales force retention as a critical organi-zational objective (Deeter-Schmelz, G... more Management views sales force retention as a critical organi-zational objective (Deeter-Schmelz, Goebel, and Kennedy 2008). Voluntary turnover is one aspect of retention that has a pervasive effect on the organization because it disrupts the ability to sustain ...
International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching, 2008
... Micah Rieke, Jon Hammermeister and Matthew Chase Eastern Washington University, Department of... more ... Micah Rieke, Jon Hammermeister and Matthew Chase Eastern Washington University, Department of PEHR, PEB 200, Eastern Washington University, Cheney, WA ... The perceived coaching profile segment consists of 22 items measured on a 7-point-Likert scale ranging from ...
Leadership makes a difference and Arizona's construction executives are practicing servant leader... more Leadership makes a difference and Arizona's construction executives are practicing servant leadership as defined by Robert Greenleaf and measured by the researchers' servant leader index (SLI). The researchers hypothesized that servant leadership could be measured and the feeling and intuition preferences would help define servant leaders. The researchers' SNTFeeling Assessment represented an abridged Myers-Briggs Indicator concentrating heavily on the thinking/feeling and sensing/intuition preferences. Eighteen construction executives participated. The feeling preference was closely correlated with the executives' servant leader index scores, but the intuition preference while positive was not strongly related to the SLI. The Leadership Practices Inventory was also used to determine servant leader relationships. Sensing-thinking (ST) personalities viewed as detailed oriented are common among contractors, but the researchers contend servant leaders and intuitive-feelers (NF) enjoyed greater profitability by utilizing their complementary abilities to be champions of change. Servant leaders displaying the out-of-thenorm Myers-Briggs types also enjoyed greater profitability on average.
... Authentic Leadership: Origins, Development and Effects. Monographs in Leadership and manageme... more ... Authentic Leadership: Origins, Development and Effects. Monographs in Leadership and management. ... 247260. Michie, S. & Gooty, J. (2005). Values, emotions, and authenticity: Will the real leader please stand up? The Leadership Quarterly, 16(3). ...
Purpose The purpose of this paper is to describe the development and validation of a multi-dimens... more Purpose The purpose of this paper is to describe the development and validation of a multi-dimensional instrument to measure servant leadership. Design/Methodology/Approach Based on an extensive literature review and expert judgment, 99 items were formulated. In three steps, using eight samples totaling 1571 persons from The Netherlands and the UK with a diverse occupational background, a combined exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis approach was used. This was followed by an analysis of the criterion-related validity. Findings The final result is an eight-dimensional measure of 30 items: the eight dimensions being: standing back, forgiveness, courage, empowerment, accountability, authenticity, humility, and stewardship. The internal consistency of the subscales is good. The results show that the Servant Leadership Survey (SLS) has convergent validity with other leadership measures, and also adds unique elements to the leadership field. Evidence for criterion-related validity came from studies relating the eight dimensions to well-being and performance. Implications With this survey, a valid and reliable instrument to measure the essential elements of servant leadership has been introduced. Originality/Value The SLS is the first measure where the underlying factor structure was developed and confirmed across several field studies in two countries. It can be used in future studies to test the underlying premises of servant leadership theory. The SLS provides a clear picture of the key servant leadership qualities and shows where improvements can be made on the individual and organizational level; as such, it may also offer a valuable starting point for training and leadership development.
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