Part of a building (Building 900) was uncovered along the Tyropoeon Valley. Three phases of use w... more Part of a building (Building 900) was uncovered along the Tyropoeon Valley. Three phases of use were identified: the first two dating to the Byzantine period, and the last phase, to the Abbasid period. The plan of the building, along with the quality of construction and some of the small finds, indicate the affluent status of the building's residents in both periods. The finds from this excavation, together with those of previous excavations in the area, shed light on the residential neighborhood that development on the lower half of the slope of the City of David in the Tyropoeon Valley, beginning from the sixth-seventh centuries CE. The presence of pig remains in the Abbasid-period building may attest that its inhabitants were Christian, or that the prohibition on pork consumption was not yet enforced in this early phase of the Early Islamic period. See: http://www.atiqot.org.il/
This paper presents a cache of 31 astragali from the site of Tel Nagila, dating to the Middle Bro... more This paper presents a cache of 31 astragali from the site of Tel Nagila, dating to the Middle Bronze Age. This is the earliest known cache of astragali from the Southern Levant outside tombs, and may be the forebearer of the later caches found in cultic contexts in the Late Bronze and Iron Ages. This paper presents the context in which the cache was found, adjacent to a tower that functioned as part of the site's fortifications; the social mechanisms behind the use of astragali; their deposition in a cache; and how the cache may have related to the function of the context in which it was found.
The relations between Israel and Judah are often described in contemporary research as extremely ... more The relations between Israel and Judah are often described in contemporary research as extremely unbalanced, with the latter being portrayed as thriving in the shadow of its stronger and more influential northern neighbor, most likely as its vassal. In this study, we examine this common hypothesis from an archaeological perspective, assuming that close relations between the two kingdoms would have stimulated the flow of objects and ideas across the highlands and thus be reflected in the material culture. We suggest that the archaeological record of Jerusalem, the Benjamin Plateau and southern Samaria reflects a low level of connectivity across the highlands in the ninth to eighth centuries BCE prior to the downfall of the Northern Kingdom, thus challenging the conventional understanding of the power relations in this region. In our view, Judah was an independent socio-political entity for most of its existence with Jerusalem as its capital.
Send me an email/message if you wish to receive a PDF of this article.
Bronze Age trade in the Eastern Mediterranean is well attested in south Levantine archaeological ... more Bronze Age trade in the Eastern Mediterranean is well attested in south Levantine archaeological research, with imported vessels generally playing a significant role in the ceramic assemblage. While the majority of these vessels are found repeatedly at many different sites, there are cases where a rare find sheds new light on the way in which trade patterns are perceived. Such is the case with two fully restored pithoi found in a Late Bronze IIB building at Tel Burna. This paper presents the context in which the pithoi were uncovered, followed by a study of the vessels themselves, including their typology, provenance, volume and contents, as well as the nature of Late Bronze Age trade in the Eastern Mediterranean.
The excavations of R. Amiran and A. Eitan at the site of Tel Nagila are best known for the Middle... more The excavations of R. Amiran and A. Eitan at the site of Tel Nagila are best known for the Middle Bronze Age remains exposed at the site. Yet Early Bronze remains were sporadically excavated in restricted locations where the excavators deepened their investigations below Middle Bronze strata. As such, a study of the albeit limited EB remains furnishes us with an opportunity to provide a more complete settlement history of the site, as well as a limited view of ceramic tradition that was common at the site. The following paper will present the stratigraphic and ceramic information available, and suggests a rather early date within Early Bronze III of the remains, as well as evidence for Early Bronze Age I occupation of the site.
Recent studies on pork consumption during the Iron Age demonstrated its avoidance in Judah. Recen... more Recent studies on pork consumption during the Iron Age demonstrated its avoidance in Judah. Recently, in excavations along the eastern slopes of the City of David, remains of an articulated pig skeleton were discovered in an Iron Age IIB-C building. The skeleton was found in a room where several smashed vessels were uncovered, suggesting a possible violent destruction event. The analysis shows that the pig was very young, and was probably not consumed. Further studying the entire faunal assemblage attests to activities of local preparation for consumption carried out in the same room. The context of the pig’s interment in the specific building and its meaning are discussed, and the context of the pig in Iron Age Jerusalem and its neighboring sites. We suggest that although pork consumption was clearly not preferred, it was consumed in small amounts, and, occasionally, raised for this purpose in the capital of Judah.
The article presents results of residue analysis, based on Gas Chromatograph Mass Spectrometer (G... more The article presents results of residue analysis, based on Gas Chromatograph Mass Spectrometer (GC-MS) measurements, conducted on 13 ceramic storage jars unearthed in the Babylonian destruction layer (586 BCE) in Jerusalem. Five of the jars bear rosette stamp impressions on their handles, indicating that their content was related to the kingdom of Judah’s royal economy. The identification of the original contents remains is significant for the understanding of many aspects related to the nutrition, economy and international trade in the ancient Levant. The study shed light on the contents of the jars and the destruction process of the buildings in which they were found. The jars were used alternatively for storing wine and olive oil. The wine was flavored with vanilla. These results attest to the wine consumption habits of the Judahite elite and echo Jerusalem’s involvement in the trans-regional South Arabian trade of spices and other lucrative commodities on the eve of its destruct...
Following the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE, the Roman
presence brought with it new ceramic b... more Following the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE, the Roman presence brought with it new ceramic building materials, including bricks, roof tiles, pipes, and tubuli, usually in relation to public buildings, particularly bathhouses. Among the most well-known are the tiles bearing stamps of the Tenth Roman Legion. In the Byzantine Period, such materials were stamped with private Greek names. A group of tiles uncovered in the Wilson’s Arch excavations fill the chronological gap between the legionary production and the Byzantine period and display the name of Colonia Aelia Capitolina. These were made from a different ceramic ‘recipe’ than the legionary tiles, indicating they were produced in a separate workshop and implying a shift in the third century CE from military production (and ownership) of public buildings to municipalinitiated construction projects. These tiles support the theory that the original civic centre of Aelia Capitolina was located directly west of the Temple Mount.
The following paper presents the results of radiocarbon (14C) dating of Middle Bronze Age (MB) co... more The following paper presents the results of radiocarbon (14C) dating of Middle Bronze Age (MB) contexts in Jerusalem. The dates, sampled with microarchaeology methods from three different locations along the eastern slopes of the city’s ancient core, reveal that Jerusalem was initially settled in the early phases of the period, with public architecture first appearing in the beginning of the 19th century BC and continued to develop until the 17th century BC. At that time, a curious gap in settlement is noted until the 16th century BC, when the site is resettled. The construction of this phase continued into the early 15th century BC. The dates presented are discussed in both the site-level, as well as their far-reaching implications regarding MB regional chronology. It is suggested here that the high chronology, dating the Middle Bronze Age between 2000 and 1600 BC is difficult to reconcile with dates from many sites. In contrast, a more localized chronology should be adopted, with ...
Along the lower eastern slope of the City of David, Jerusalem, a thick layer of late Iron Age deb... more Along the lower eastern slope of the City of David, Jerusalem, a thick layer of late Iron Age debris, likely dating from the destruction of the city in 586 BCE, has been extensively excavated, overlying and burying the earlier fortifications surrounding the Gihon Spring. This layer, labelled Str. 7, yielded many seventh-century BCE finds, including lamps, figurines, pottery and a sherd of a bowl inscribed with a personal name. This paper deals with the inscription and the possibilities of its reading.
The Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages of Southern Canaan, 2019
Over twenty years ago, N. Na'aman (1996) presented a seminal study in which he paralleled... more Over twenty years ago, N. Na'aman (1996) presented a seminal study in which he paralleled 10th Century BCE Jerusalem to that of Jerusalem of the el-Amarna period. In both periods, the archaeological remains discovered in over 150 years of excavations have been quite meager, yet the historical and/or biblical accounts indicate Jerusalem's stature as the center of some sort of political entity. In the Late Bronze Age (=LB), the el-Amarna archives present us with evidence of 'Abdi-Heba's Jerusalem, the center of a hill country polity, which interacted with other such entities (e.g., Gezer, Gath). 1 The biblical account describes Jerusalem of the 10th Century BCE as the capital of the United Monarchy that of David and Solomon. The latter period has been discussed extensively, as scholars have grappled about the authenticity of these accounts, particularly in light of the meager archaeological evidence (e.g., Finkelstein et al. 2007). On the other hand, 14th Century BCE Jerusalem (and as a result-LB Jerusalem as a whole) has been accepted as a fact in most reconstructions of the southern Levant in the LB (e.g., Pfoh 2016: 95-96). This of course is a reflection of the objective nature of Jerusalem's mention in the Amarna correspondence, as opposed to the difficulties of interpreting biblical historiography. Yet many scholars including Na'aman (1996) have noted the discrepancy between the textual evidence of the el Amarna period and the archaeological remains uncovered at the site. The basis of understanding LB Jerusalem is not whether the site existed or notbut rather the nature of the evidence, or more precisely the lack of evidence. Na'aman's stance (and therefore then implied to Jerusalem of the 10th Century BCE) stems from the principle of negative evidence and its limitations. Othersincluding Finkelstein, Koch, and Lipschits (2011) and Reich (2011)use the negative evidence as factual, indicating a need to search for a new locale for LB Jerusalem. In the following paper, the LB finds from Jerusalemincluding some old materials and some new ones as wellwill be presented and
Part of a building (Building 900) was uncovered along the Tyropoeon Valley. Three phases of use w... more Part of a building (Building 900) was uncovered along the Tyropoeon Valley. Three phases of use were identified: the first two dating to the Byzantine period, and the last phase, to the Abbasid period. The plan of the building, along with the quality of construction and some of the small finds, indicate the affluent status of the building's residents in both periods. The finds from this excavation, together with those of previous excavations in the area, shed light on the residential neighborhood that development on the lower half of the slope of the City of David in the Tyropoeon Valley, beginning from the sixth-seventh centuries CE. The presence of pig remains in the Abbasid-period building may attest that its inhabitants were Christian, or that the prohibition on pork consumption was not yet enforced in this early phase of the Early Islamic period. See: http://www.atiqot.org.il/
This paper presents a cache of 31 astragali from the site of Tel Nagila, dating to the Middle Bro... more This paper presents a cache of 31 astragali from the site of Tel Nagila, dating to the Middle Bronze Age. This is the earliest known cache of astragali from the Southern Levant outside tombs, and may be the forebearer of the later caches found in cultic contexts in the Late Bronze and Iron Ages. This paper presents the context in which the cache was found, adjacent to a tower that functioned as part of the site's fortifications; the social mechanisms behind the use of astragali; their deposition in a cache; and how the cache may have related to the function of the context in which it was found.
The relations between Israel and Judah are often described in contemporary research as extremely ... more The relations between Israel and Judah are often described in contemporary research as extremely unbalanced, with the latter being portrayed as thriving in the shadow of its stronger and more influential northern neighbor, most likely as its vassal. In this study, we examine this common hypothesis from an archaeological perspective, assuming that close relations between the two kingdoms would have stimulated the flow of objects and ideas across the highlands and thus be reflected in the material culture. We suggest that the archaeological record of Jerusalem, the Benjamin Plateau and southern Samaria reflects a low level of connectivity across the highlands in the ninth to eighth centuries BCE prior to the downfall of the Northern Kingdom, thus challenging the conventional understanding of the power relations in this region. In our view, Judah was an independent socio-political entity for most of its existence with Jerusalem as its capital.
Send me an email/message if you wish to receive a PDF of this article.
Bronze Age trade in the Eastern Mediterranean is well attested in south Levantine archaeological ... more Bronze Age trade in the Eastern Mediterranean is well attested in south Levantine archaeological research, with imported vessels generally playing a significant role in the ceramic assemblage. While the majority of these vessels are found repeatedly at many different sites, there are cases where a rare find sheds new light on the way in which trade patterns are perceived. Such is the case with two fully restored pithoi found in a Late Bronze IIB building at Tel Burna. This paper presents the context in which the pithoi were uncovered, followed by a study of the vessels themselves, including their typology, provenance, volume and contents, as well as the nature of Late Bronze Age trade in the Eastern Mediterranean.
The excavations of R. Amiran and A. Eitan at the site of Tel Nagila are best known for the Middle... more The excavations of R. Amiran and A. Eitan at the site of Tel Nagila are best known for the Middle Bronze Age remains exposed at the site. Yet Early Bronze remains were sporadically excavated in restricted locations where the excavators deepened their investigations below Middle Bronze strata. As such, a study of the albeit limited EB remains furnishes us with an opportunity to provide a more complete settlement history of the site, as well as a limited view of ceramic tradition that was common at the site. The following paper will present the stratigraphic and ceramic information available, and suggests a rather early date within Early Bronze III of the remains, as well as evidence for Early Bronze Age I occupation of the site.
Recent studies on pork consumption during the Iron Age demonstrated its avoidance in Judah. Recen... more Recent studies on pork consumption during the Iron Age demonstrated its avoidance in Judah. Recently, in excavations along the eastern slopes of the City of David, remains of an articulated pig skeleton were discovered in an Iron Age IIB-C building. The skeleton was found in a room where several smashed vessels were uncovered, suggesting a possible violent destruction event. The analysis shows that the pig was very young, and was probably not consumed. Further studying the entire faunal assemblage attests to activities of local preparation for consumption carried out in the same room. The context of the pig’s interment in the specific building and its meaning are discussed, and the context of the pig in Iron Age Jerusalem and its neighboring sites. We suggest that although pork consumption was clearly not preferred, it was consumed in small amounts, and, occasionally, raised for this purpose in the capital of Judah.
The article presents results of residue analysis, based on Gas Chromatograph Mass Spectrometer (G... more The article presents results of residue analysis, based on Gas Chromatograph Mass Spectrometer (GC-MS) measurements, conducted on 13 ceramic storage jars unearthed in the Babylonian destruction layer (586 BCE) in Jerusalem. Five of the jars bear rosette stamp impressions on their handles, indicating that their content was related to the kingdom of Judah’s royal economy. The identification of the original contents remains is significant for the understanding of many aspects related to the nutrition, economy and international trade in the ancient Levant. The study shed light on the contents of the jars and the destruction process of the buildings in which they were found. The jars were used alternatively for storing wine and olive oil. The wine was flavored with vanilla. These results attest to the wine consumption habits of the Judahite elite and echo Jerusalem’s involvement in the trans-regional South Arabian trade of spices and other lucrative commodities on the eve of its destruct...
Following the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE, the Roman
presence brought with it new ceramic b... more Following the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE, the Roman presence brought with it new ceramic building materials, including bricks, roof tiles, pipes, and tubuli, usually in relation to public buildings, particularly bathhouses. Among the most well-known are the tiles bearing stamps of the Tenth Roman Legion. In the Byzantine Period, such materials were stamped with private Greek names. A group of tiles uncovered in the Wilson’s Arch excavations fill the chronological gap between the legionary production and the Byzantine period and display the name of Colonia Aelia Capitolina. These were made from a different ceramic ‘recipe’ than the legionary tiles, indicating they were produced in a separate workshop and implying a shift in the third century CE from military production (and ownership) of public buildings to municipalinitiated construction projects. These tiles support the theory that the original civic centre of Aelia Capitolina was located directly west of the Temple Mount.
The following paper presents the results of radiocarbon (14C) dating of Middle Bronze Age (MB) co... more The following paper presents the results of radiocarbon (14C) dating of Middle Bronze Age (MB) contexts in Jerusalem. The dates, sampled with microarchaeology methods from three different locations along the eastern slopes of the city’s ancient core, reveal that Jerusalem was initially settled in the early phases of the period, with public architecture first appearing in the beginning of the 19th century BC and continued to develop until the 17th century BC. At that time, a curious gap in settlement is noted until the 16th century BC, when the site is resettled. The construction of this phase continued into the early 15th century BC. The dates presented are discussed in both the site-level, as well as their far-reaching implications regarding MB regional chronology. It is suggested here that the high chronology, dating the Middle Bronze Age between 2000 and 1600 BC is difficult to reconcile with dates from many sites. In contrast, a more localized chronology should be adopted, with ...
Along the lower eastern slope of the City of David, Jerusalem, a thick layer of late Iron Age deb... more Along the lower eastern slope of the City of David, Jerusalem, a thick layer of late Iron Age debris, likely dating from the destruction of the city in 586 BCE, has been extensively excavated, overlying and burying the earlier fortifications surrounding the Gihon Spring. This layer, labelled Str. 7, yielded many seventh-century BCE finds, including lamps, figurines, pottery and a sherd of a bowl inscribed with a personal name. This paper deals with the inscription and the possibilities of its reading.
The Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages of Southern Canaan, 2019
Over twenty years ago, N. Na'aman (1996) presented a seminal study in which he paralleled... more Over twenty years ago, N. Na'aman (1996) presented a seminal study in which he paralleled 10th Century BCE Jerusalem to that of Jerusalem of the el-Amarna period. In both periods, the archaeological remains discovered in over 150 years of excavations have been quite meager, yet the historical and/or biblical accounts indicate Jerusalem's stature as the center of some sort of political entity. In the Late Bronze Age (=LB), the el-Amarna archives present us with evidence of 'Abdi-Heba's Jerusalem, the center of a hill country polity, which interacted with other such entities (e.g., Gezer, Gath). 1 The biblical account describes Jerusalem of the 10th Century BCE as the capital of the United Monarchy that of David and Solomon. The latter period has been discussed extensively, as scholars have grappled about the authenticity of these accounts, particularly in light of the meager archaeological evidence (e.g., Finkelstein et al. 2007). On the other hand, 14th Century BCE Jerusalem (and as a result-LB Jerusalem as a whole) has been accepted as a fact in most reconstructions of the southern Levant in the LB (e.g., Pfoh 2016: 95-96). This of course is a reflection of the objective nature of Jerusalem's mention in the Amarna correspondence, as opposed to the difficulties of interpreting biblical historiography. Yet many scholars including Na'aman (1996) have noted the discrepancy between the textual evidence of the el Amarna period and the archaeological remains uncovered at the site. The basis of understanding LB Jerusalem is not whether the site existed or notbut rather the nature of the evidence, or more precisely the lack of evidence. Na'aman's stance (and therefore then implied to Jerusalem of the 10th Century BCE) stems from the principle of negative evidence and its limitations. Othersincluding Finkelstein, Koch, and Lipschits (2011) and Reich (2011)use the negative evidence as factual, indicating a need to search for a new locale for LB Jerusalem. In the following paper, the LB finds from Jerusalemincluding some old materials and some new ones as wellwill be presented and
Program for the upcoming conference "New Studies in the Archaeology of Jerusalem and its Region 1... more Program for the upcoming conference "New Studies in the Archaeology of Jerusalem and its Region 14" - October 6, 7, 2021. https://israntique-org-il.zoom.us/j/87471691481
The New Studies in the Archaeology of Jerusalem conference will be taking place in Jerusalem, on ... more The New Studies in the Archaeology of Jerusalem conference will be taking place in Jerusalem, on October 10-11.
Since the beginning of archaeological research in the Levant, Late Bronze Age cultic practice has... more Since the beginning of archaeological research in the Levant, Late Bronze Age cultic practice has been the focus of many investigations stemming from various avenues of research. With a few exceptions, the core archaeological data has come from cultic complexes that were excavated in the early 20th century (e.g. Lachish). This study will present finds that were discovered recently at Tel Burna, a site that is clearly one of the key Late Bronze sites in the Shephelah, as it commands the surrounding landscape and trade routes. In Area B, a massive 13th century BCE complex was exposed with unique finds related to religious practices at the site. The finds include a row of pithoi (some imported) set into pockets in the bedrock; two mask fragments; burnt bones; and unique Cypriot imported pottery, such as a vessel with three cups joined together, which is likely of cultic orientation. Moreover, the building technique of the complex also suggests that this area should be interpreted as a cultic structure. In turn, we will discuss the building plan and the distribution of artifacts in order to gain a better understanding of the people who used it and the deity or deities that were worshiped inside of it. Through these finds we will reflect on our understanding of Late Bronze Age cult, by comparing our excavation data to both the existing archaeological record and recent scientific studies on Late Bronze Age cultic activity.
The article reviews the chrono-stratigraphy of the City of David ridge—the
site traditionally con... more The article reviews the chrono-stratigraphy of the City of David ridge—the site traditionally considered as the location of Bronze and Iron Age Jerusalem. Several scholars have recently challenged this conventional view, arguing that the southeastern hill became part of the city only in the 8th century BCE. Five stratigraphic anchors are discussed in detail, including the finds from Kenyon’s Section A, remains surrounding the Gihon Spring and the stratigraphic sequence in Area E. These, as well as remains excavated in Area G and the ‘Ophel’, show that at least three Iron II construction phases need to be taken into account, the earliest probably dating to before the middle of the 8th century BCE.
The article presents results of residue analysis, based on Gas Chromatograph Mass Spectrometer (GC-MS) measurements, conducted on 13 ceramic storage jars unearthed in the Babylonian destruction layer (586 BCE) in Jerusalem. Five of the jars bear rosette stamp impressions on their handles, indicating that their content was related to the kingdom of Judah’s royal economy. The identification of the original contents remains is significant for the understanding of many aspects related to the nutrition, economy and international trade in the ancient Levant. The study shed light on the contents of the jars and the destruction process of the buildings in which they were found. The jars were used alternatively for storing wine and olive oil. The wine was flavored with vanilla. These results attest to the wine consumption habits of the Judahite elite and echo Jerusalem’s involvement in the trans-regional South Arabian trade of spices and other lucrative commodities on the eve of its destruction by Nebuchadnezzar.
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Papers by Joe Uziel
See:
http://www.atiqot.org.il/
Send me an email/message if you wish to receive a PDF of this article.
link: https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/714074
or email [email protected]
presence brought with it new ceramic building materials, including bricks,
roof tiles, pipes, and tubuli, usually in relation to public buildings, particularly
bathhouses. Among the most well-known are the tiles bearing stamps of the
Tenth Roman Legion. In the Byzantine Period, such materials were stamped
with private Greek names. A group of tiles uncovered in the Wilson’s Arch
excavations fill the chronological gap between the legionary production and the
Byzantine period and display the name of Colonia Aelia Capitolina. These were
made from a different ceramic ‘recipe’ than the legionary tiles, indicating they
were produced in a separate workshop and implying a shift in the third century
CE from military production (and ownership) of public buildings to municipalinitiated
construction projects. These tiles support the theory that the original
civic centre of Aelia Capitolina was located directly west of the Temple Mount.
See:
http://www.atiqot.org.il/
Send me an email/message if you wish to receive a PDF of this article.
link: https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/714074
or email [email protected]
presence brought with it new ceramic building materials, including bricks,
roof tiles, pipes, and tubuli, usually in relation to public buildings, particularly
bathhouses. Among the most well-known are the tiles bearing stamps of the
Tenth Roman Legion. In the Byzantine Period, such materials were stamped
with private Greek names. A group of tiles uncovered in the Wilson’s Arch
excavations fill the chronological gap between the legionary production and the
Byzantine period and display the name of Colonia Aelia Capitolina. These were
made from a different ceramic ‘recipe’ than the legionary tiles, indicating they
were produced in a separate workshop and implying a shift in the third century
CE from military production (and ownership) of public buildings to municipalinitiated
construction projects. These tiles support the theory that the original
civic centre of Aelia Capitolina was located directly west of the Temple Mount.
site traditionally considered as the location of Bronze and Iron Age Jerusalem.
Several scholars have recently challenged this conventional view, arguing that the southeastern hill became part of the city only in the 8th century
BCE. Five stratigraphic anchors are discussed in detail, including the finds from Kenyon’s Section A, remains surrounding the Gihon Spring and the stratigraphic sequence in Area E. These, as well as remains excavated in Area G and the ‘Ophel’, show that at least three Iron II construction phases need to be taken into account, the earliest probably dating to before the middle of the 8th century BCE.
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0266085
The article presents results of residue analysis, based on Gas Chromatograph Mass Spectrometer (GC-MS) measurements, conducted on 13 ceramic storage jars unearthed in the Babylonian destruction layer (586 BCE) in Jerusalem. Five of the jars bear rosette stamp impressions on their handles, indicating that their content was related to the kingdom of Judah’s royal economy. The identification of the original contents remains is significant for the understanding of many aspects related to the nutrition, economy and international trade in the ancient Levant. The study shed light on the contents of the jars and the destruction process of the buildings in which they were found. The jars were used alternatively for storing wine and olive oil. The wine was flavored with vanilla. These results attest to the wine consumption habits of the Judahite elite and echo Jerusalem’s involvement in the trans-regional South Arabian trade of spices and other lucrative commodities on the eve of its destruction by Nebuchadnezzar.